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RoadVehicles2011 2spp
RoadVehicles2011 2spp
Computer-aided analysis of rigid and flexible multibody systems (Part II) Simulation of road vehicles Prof. O. Verlinden (UMONS)
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References
1) Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics, T.D. Gillespie, SAE publications, 1992 2) The Multibody Systems Approach to Vehicle Dynamics, Mike Blundell and Damian Harty, Elsevier, 2004 3) Road Vehicle Dynamics, Rao Dukkipati et al, SAE publications, 2008 4) Vehicle Handling Dynamics, J.R. Ellis, Mechanical Engineering Publications, 1994 5) Tyre and Vehicle Dynamics, H.B. Pacejka, ButerworthHeinemann, 2002 6) Tires, Suspensions and Handling, J.C. Dixon, SAE Publications, 1996 7) Race car vehicle dynamics, W.F. Milliken and D.L. Milliken, SAE Publications, 1995
!! UK: tyre USA:tire !! GraSMech Multibody 3
Simulation softwares
The most widespread MBS simulation codes have features to simulate road vehicles ADAMS (ADAMS/car) Simpack LMS Virtual motion (former DADS) ... Independent simulation tools exist CarSim/TruckSim (University of Michigan, UMTRI) ASM/Vehicle Dynamics Simulation Package (dSpace, Matlab toolbox) ..
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Rear suspension
Front suspension
Tyres
Invented by Dunlop about 1877 for the bicycle of his father (veterinary) Two major types of construction: bias-ply and radial
Radial tyre
Invented by Michelin in 1947 Carcass: radial parallel plies Circumferential belt: steel or fabric wires
Relative motion
Forces
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Tire efforts
Forces Tractive (X) Lateral (Y) Normal (Z) Moments Overturning (X) Rolling resistance (Y) Self-aligning (Z) Figure from [2] GraSMech Multibody 11
with : the damping ratio m: mass of tyre Figure from [2] GraSMech Multibody 12
Rolling resistance
The rolling resistance force FR (opposite to velocity) is defined from
with R the rolling resistance coefficient and FV the vertical force. A rolling resistance moment (opposite to spin velocity) can be defined equivalently Typical values of
R
(from [1])
medium hard sand
concrete
Passenger car
Heavy trucks Tractors
0.015
0.012 0.02
0.08
0.06 0.04
0.3
0.25 0.20
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Rolling resistance
The rolling resistance coefficient increases with speed
Pure longitudinal: no slip angle, no camber Longitudinal slip => longitudinal force
Pure camber: no acceleration/braking, no slip angle Camber angle => lateral force, aligning torque
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Pure cornering
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Fromm model
Main hypotheses Parabolic distribution of the pressure along the longitudinal axis (uniform laterally)
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Transition point
The lateral force exerted by the ground to the piece of rubber is limited by the friction limit ( f = friction coefficient)
Transition point
sliding area
adhesion area
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adhesion area
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Transition point
The transition point is the point where the adhesion and sliding elementary forces are equal
If the slip angle is over the limit, the sliding area covers the whole contact patch -> the tyre skids
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Total force
The total force exerted by the ground on the tyre is given by
or
Total moment
The total torque is obtained by
which leads to
The moment is positive => self-aligning torque (aligns the wheel to the direction of travel) GraSMech Multibody 26
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Friction coefficient
Characteristic values of the friction coefficient
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Cornering stiffness
Typical ratio between cornering stiffness and normal load (/deg) => For a radial tyre, Cs (N/rad)=8.5 vertical load (about 20000 N/rad for a classical passenger car of 1000 kg)
C /Fz (N/deg/N)
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Dominant motion
F1
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In matrix form
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with
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Stability Poles
The poles are the roots of the characteristic polynomial
Two cases If bCr>aCf unconditional stability wrt to V (understeer) => 2 real poles at low speed => 2 complex conjugate poles at high speed if bCr<aCf stability if V < Vlim (oversteer)
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Very small poles => the vehicle reacts very slowly ! GraSMech Multibody 39
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Longitudinal force
The longitudinal force is mainly related to the longitudinal slip defined as
Longitudinal stiffness CS: slope at the origin Figure from [1] GraSMech Multibody 41
In practice
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Pure camber
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Camber thrust
Camber generates a lateral force (thrust) (important for motorbikes) Camber stiffness C =slope at the origin of the curve
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Overturning moment
Mainly due to the lateral deflection of the tyre
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Comprehensive models
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Comprehensive models
Comprehensive models generate the forces and moments when different slips are combined Example: lateral and longitudinal slips Notion of friction circle The total contact force is limited by friction
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Comprehensive models
Data transfer of a comprehensive model
Input data radial deflection longitudinal slip speed of revolution Output data normal load longitudinal force rolling resistance moment
slip angle
vertical spin camber angle
lateral force
self-aligning torque overturning moment
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Useful when too few data are available (truck or bus tyres, ...)
Reference: Vehicle Dynamic Simulation with a Comprehensive Model for Pneumatic Tires, G. Gim, Phd, University of Arizona, 1988 GraSMech Multibody 50
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Semi-empirical models
Based on the magic formula (Pacejka, Bakker, Nyborg)
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Moment fitting
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Semi-empirical model
Actual implementation Each effort is expressed by a magic formula whose coefficients are themselves expressed by a magic formula (dependance on normal force, combined slips,...) More than 100 coefficients determined from measurements on a specific tyre The data are valid for only one tyre !
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Dynamic models
Models only represent the steady-state behaviour. In some cases, the dynamics of the tyre itself must be taken into account. Relaxation length: first-order filter in inputs or outputs String type tyre models The deflection of the tyre is introduced through one or several strings
Relaxation length
A first-order filter is introduced in the data flow
with V the forward velocity Depending on authors, the filter is applied either on the slips, or on the tyre forces
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Relaxation length
The effect of the relaxation length L can be well represented by introducing some compliance between the rim and the rolling tread. For the lateral force, choose the stiffness For the longitudinal force, choose a rotational stiffness as
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Vehicle dynamics
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Axes of a vehicle
SAE vehicle axis system
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Suspensions
Initial role of the suspension Reduction of vertical wheel load variations Isolation of road inputs from the body linked to the spring-damper system of the suspension But also Load transfer control in cornering or acceleration/braking Handling (behaviour and feel) control by adjusting kinematics of the wheel during suspension travel Types of suspensions Solid-axle suspensions (trucks) Independent suspensions (cars) GraSMech Multibody 63
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Independent suspensions
Mac Pherson strut (front or rear) Short long arm Double wishbone (front or rear)
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Independent suspensions
Multilink (front or rear) Semi-trailing arm (rear)
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Semi-independent
Torsion beam rear suspension (Fiat Punto, golf,...)
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Kinematic analysis
The multibody approach naturally allows the kinematic study of the suspension => evolution during the bump motion of the camber angle the toe angle (steer) the roll center: center of rotation of vehicle wrt ground the equivalent stiffness (damping) ... cf. SAE J670e Vehicle dynamics terminology for complete rigourous definition of terms The joints of the suspension can be introduced as kinematic joints, linear bushings or non linear bushings GraSMech Multibody 68
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Roll center
Roll center: instantaneous point about which the vehicle rolls
Construction of the roll center R must be on the symmetry axis application of Kennedys theorem: on the same line as F (wheel/ground) and E (wheel/vehicle)
Roll center
Figure from [6] The roll center is also the location where the lateral forces developed by the wheels are transmitted to the sprung mass A lateral force applied at the height of the roll center doesnt induce any roll of the vehicle The roll center affects the distribution of normal forces of the tyres (load transfer) GraSMech Multibody 70
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Roll axis
The roll centers of the front and rear suspensions define the roll axis: instantaneous axis about which the vehicle rolls
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Anti-dive / Anti-squat
Anti-dive (front) and anti-rise (rear) control pitch during braking Anti-lift (front) and anti-squat (rear) control pitch during traction
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A damper involves fluid flow so that the nonlinear force-velocity curve is often necessary
Aerodynamic forces
Aerodynamic forces come from wind and the motion of the vehicle, and generate principally a drag force, determined by
with the air density, V the vehicle speed, A the frontal area of the vehicle and CD the drag coefficient (about 0.3 for cars) but also forces and moments in all directions (side force, lift force, pitching moment, yawing moment, rolling moment) References: Gillespie, Milliken The aerodynamic forces are generally ignored except for winged or very rapid vehicles (formula 1), or for trucks ! GraSMech Multibody 74
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Typical analyses
Geometric analysis of suspensions Linear analysis (root locus vs velocity) Ride: transmission of road vibrations (linear or nonlinear) Typical maneuvers (same as tests that vehicle engineers carry out with prototype vehicles) ISO 3888-1:1999: Passenger cars Test track for a severe lane-change maneuver Part 1: double lane change ISO 3888-2:2002: Passenger cars Test track for a severe lane-change maneuver Part 2: Obstacle avoidance ISO 4138:1996: Passenger cars Steady state circular driving behaviour Open loop test procedure ISO 7975:1996: Passenger cars Braking in a turn Open loop test procedure ... GraSMech Multibody 75
Pitch
Hop
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Ackermann construction
The steering mechanism should respect the Ackermann rule
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Steering mechanism
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Understeer/oversteer coefficient
During cornering, steering angle depends not only on the radius of turn but also on speed (lateral acceleration)
with K the kinematic (Ackermann) steering angle and KU the understeer coefficient (or gradient)
KU>0: understeer vehicle (the steering angle increases with lateral acceleration/speed) KU<0: oversteer vehicle (the steering angle decreases with lateral acceleration/speed) KU=0: neutral vehicle
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Linear model
For small angles, we have
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=> With a simulation tool, the best is to measure the understeer coefficient from virtual tests on the model
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The understeer coefficient is the difference of slope between the measured case and the ideal case (Ackermann steering)
The Ackermann curve is obtained by a low speed test with eventuallly majored cornering stiffnesses
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3 2 4 3
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Example: motorbike
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Root locus
Evolution of poles with speed
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Basic concepts
The equilibrium is decentralized => either head and pedal modules are equipped with a handlebar Pedal Module
( 90 al )
Head Module
( 90 a )
Mechanical brake
Spherical joint
Battery and power electronic devices Driving motor-wheel Pedal motor-wheel Pedal motor-wheel Battery and power electronic devices Driving motor-wheel
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Design of a controller
Design of a controller
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12 11 8
z1 1 x1 1 y1 0 y1 1 z1 z1 2 3 y1 x1 2 y13 x1 3 2
4 1 2
z1 x1 y3 z2 x2 y3 x3 y2 x0 y1 z0 z4 z5 x5 y5 z6
z7 x7
x6 y6
13
10 9
y0
6 0 5
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Long bus
GLT: guided light transit vehicle Vehicle built by Bombardier (Nancy, Caen,...)
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Guiding mechanism
Each axle has its own steering mechanism On reserved track, each axle is independently guided by a central rail
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Conclusions
Any multibody code equipped with tyre models can deal with road vehicles The specialized software tools help in defining the system (suspensions, steering system) finding coherent initial conditions defining typical simulations (including the driver) interpreting the results
Simulation has become an inescapable tool for the design of road vehicles
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