GraSMech course 2010-2011

Computer-aided analysis of rigid and flexible multibody systems (Part II) Simulation of road vehicles Prof. O. Verlinden (UMONS)

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Simulation of vehicles as MBS

The tyre is the typical element of a road vehicle

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References
1) Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics, T.D. Gillespie, SAE publications, 1992 2) The Multibody Systems Approach to Vehicle Dynamics, Mike Blundell and Damian Harty, Elsevier, 2004 3) Road Vehicle Dynamics, Rao Dukkipati et al, SAE publications, 2008 4) Vehicle Handling Dynamics, J.R. Ellis, Mechanical Engineering Publications, 1994 5) Tyre and Vehicle Dynamics, H.B. Pacejka, ButerworthHeinemann, 2002 6) Tires, Suspensions and Handling, J.C. Dixon, SAE Publications, 1996 7) Race car vehicle dynamics, W.F. Milliken and D.L. Milliken, SAE Publications, 1995
!! UK: tyre USA:tire !! GraSMech Multibody 3

Simulation softwares
The most widespread MBS simulation codes have features to simulate road vehicles ADAMS (ADAMS/car) Simpack LMS Virtual motion (former DADS) ... Independent simulation tools exist CarSim/TruckSim (University of Michigan, UMTRI) ASM/Vehicle Dynamics Simulation Package (dSpace, Matlab toolbox) ..

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Components of a road vehicle

Natural multibody systems !
Steering mechanism

Chassis/carbody (often rigid body)

Rear suspension

Front suspension

Tyres (force element) GraSMech Multibody 5

Tyres
Invented by Dunlop about 1877 for the bicycle of his father (veterinary) Two major types of construction: bias-ply and radial

Bias-ply tyre Several plies oriented 35 to 40 deg wrt to tyre plane

Figure from Theory of Ground Vehicles, Wong, 1978 GraSMech Multibody 6

Radial tyre
Invented by Michelin in 1947 Carcass: radial parallel plies Circumferential belt: steel or fabric wires

Most common tyre in Europe

Figure from Theory of Ground Vehicles, Wong, 1978 GraSMech Multibody 7

The tyre as a force element

Input data: motion of the tyre with respect to the ground (position, orientation, translational and rotational velocties) Output data: ground forces Physical phenomena friction/sliding in the contact area deformation of the tyre

Relative motion

Forces

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SAE tyre axis system

Z: perpendicular to the ground (downwards) X: intersection between tyre plane and ground plane camber angle : angle between wheel plane and vertical plane slip angle : angle between wheel plane and direction of travel

Figure from [2] GraSMech Multibody 9

ISO tyre axis system

Same as SAE but Y and Z in opposite direction

Figure from [2] GraSMech Multibody 10

Tire efforts
Forces Tractive (X) Lateral (Y) Normal (Z) Moments Overturning (X) Rolling resistance (Y) Self-aligning (Z) Figure from [2] GraSMech Multibody 11

Normal (vertical) force

The normal force is derived by considering the tyre as a springdamper system

k: radial stiffness c: radial damping sometimes determined from

with : the damping ratio m: mass of tyre Figure from [2] GraSMech Multibody 12

Rolling resistance
The rolling resistance force FR (opposite to velocity) is defined from

with R the rolling resistance coefficient and FV the vertical force. A rolling resistance moment (opposite to spin velocity) can be defined equivalently Typical values of
R

(from [1])
medium hard sand

concrete

Passenger car
Heavy trucks Tractors

0.015
0.012 0.02

0.08
0.06 0.04

0.3
0.25 0.20

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Rolling resistance
The rolling resistance coefficient increases with speed

Figure from Automotive handbook, Bosch

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Simple regime conditions

Pure cornering: no acceleration/braking, no camber Slip angle => lateral force, aligning torque

Pure longitudinal: no slip angle, no camber Longitudinal slip => longitudinal force
Pure camber: no acceleration/braking, no slip angle Camber angle => lateral force, aligning torque

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Pure cornering

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Lateral force vs slip angle

Typical curve lateral force slip angle

Figure from [1] GraSMech Multibody 17

Adhesion and slip areas in the contact

There is always a part of the tyre which is sliding !

Figure from [1] GraSMech Multibody 18

Fromm model
Main hypotheses Parabolic distribution of the pressure along the longitudinal axis (uniform laterally)

Lateral distributed elasticity of the rubber tread

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Fromm model: kinematics

Successive positions of the tyre

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Kinematics for the adhesion area

Motion of the center of the wheel from t to t: CC Motion of the rubber piece with respect to the wheel: BA Longitudinal component of BA = rotation of the wheel Lateral component of BA= deformation of the tyre The force necessary to impose the deflection on a piece of rubber of width x is worth

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Transition point
The lateral force exerted by the ground to the piece of rubber is limited by the friction limit ( f = friction coefficient)

Transition point

sliding area

adhesion area

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Principle to calculate the force

Transition point sliding area

adhesion area

The total force is given by

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Transition point
The transition point is the point where the adhesion and sliding elementary forces are equal

The solution is meaningful (x *<a) only if

If the slip angle is over the limit, the sliding area covers the whole contact patch -> the tyre skids

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Total force
The total force exerted by the ground on the tyre is given by

or

with C the cornering stiffness (slope at the origin)

Does NOT depend on friction but on stiffness GraSMech Multibody 25

Total moment
The total torque is obtained by

which leads to

The moment is positive => self-aligning torque (aligns the wheel to the direction of travel) GraSMech Multibody 26

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Evolution of the self-aligning torque

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Friction coefficient
Characteristic values of the friction coefficient

Figure from [1] GraSMech Multibody 28

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Cornering stiffness
Typical ratio between cornering stiffness and normal load (/deg) => For a radial tyre, Cs (N/rad)=8.5 vertical load (about 20000 N/rad for a classical passenger car of 1000 kg)

C /Fz (N/deg/N)

Figure from [1] GraSMech Multibody 29

Cornering stiffness and normal force

The cornering stiffness is not constant and depends namely on normal force

Figure from [1] GraSMech Multibody 30

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Fromm refinements: Sakai model

Friction coefficient f s in adhesion area and f d in the sliding area

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Fromm refinements: UA model

University of Arizona: evolution of friction coeff. with slip

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Application: soap box vehicle

(Very) Simplified vehicle Major assumptions: v Gx=V >> v Gy, << (small perturbations wrt dominant motion)

Dominant motion

3 configuration parameters: x=xG, y=yG and GraSMech Multibody 33

Slip angles and lateral force

The slip angle is derived from the velocity For wheel 1

F1

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Linearized equations of motion

Lateral equilibrium

Rotational equilibrium (about G)

In matrix form

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Linearized equations of motion

Mass, tangent damping and tangent stiffness matrices are given by

with

K is neither symmetric nor positive definite C decreases with V !

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Stability Poles
The poles are the roots of the characteristic polynomial

Two cases If bCr>aCf unconditional stability wrt to V (understeer) => 2 real poles at low speed => 2 complex conjugate poles at high speed if bCr<aCf stability if V < Vlim (oversteer)

=> always two real poles (exponential behaviour)

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Root locus Unconditionally stable case

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Root locus Conditionally stable case

Very small poles => the vehicle reacts very slowly ! GraSMech Multibody 39

Pure longitudinal slip

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Longitudinal force
The longitudinal force is mainly related to the longitudinal slip defined as

Longitudinal stiffness CS: slope at the origin Figure from [1] GraSMech Multibody 41

Effective rolling radius

The effective rolling radius Re (or rolling radius) is defined by

In practice

with Rf the radius of the undeformed tyre

Figure from [5] GraSMech Multibody 42

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Pure camber

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Camber thrust
Camber generates a lateral force (thrust) (important for motorbikes) Camber stiffness C =slope at the origin of the curve

Figures from [2] GraSMech Multibody 44

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Camber stiffness order of magnitude

Classical value (radial-passenger car): 1500 N/rad (about 0.6 times the normal load)

Figure from [1] GraSMech Multibody 45

Overturning moment
Mainly due to the lateral deflection of the tyre

Figure from [2] GraSMech Multibody 46

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Comprehensive models

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Comprehensive models
Comprehensive models generate the forces and moments when different slips are combined Example: lateral and longitudinal slips Notion of friction circle The total contact force is limited by friction

Figure from [2] GraSMech Multibody 48

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Comprehensive models
Data transfer of a comprehensive model
Input data radial deflection longitudinal slip speed of revolution Output data normal load longitudinal force rolling resistance moment

slip angle
vertical spin camber angle

lateral force
self-aligning torque overturning moment

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University of Arizona model

Analytical model derived from the Fromm-Fiala model Simple: needs only 10 parameters geometry of the tyre (R1,R2) coefficients C , CS, C rolling resistance coefficient f R tyre radial stifness and damping kz, cz friction coefficients f s, f d

Figure from [2]

Useful when too few data are available (truck or bus tyres, ...)
Reference: Vehicle Dynamic Simulation with a Comprehensive Model for Pneumatic Tires, G. Gim, Phd, University of Arizona, 1988 GraSMech Multibody 50

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Model of the ground

The ground is generally modelled as a set of triangles

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Semi-empirical models
Based on the magic formula (Pacejka, Bakker, Nyborg)

Figure from [2]

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Lateral longitudinal force fitting

Figure from [5] GraSMech Multibody 53

Moment fitting

Figure from [5] GraSMech Multibody 54

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Semi-empirical model
Actual implementation Each effort is expressed by a magic formula whose coefficients are themselves expressed by a magic formula (dependance on normal force, combined slips,...) More than 100 coefficients determined from measurements on a specific tyre The data are valid for only one tyre !

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Advanced tyre models

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Dynamic models
Models only represent the steady-state behaviour. In some cases, the dynamics of the tyre itself must be taken into account. Relaxation length: first-order filter in inputs or outputs String type tyre models The deflection of the tyre is introduced through one or several strings

Figure from [5] GraSMech Multibody 57

Relaxation length
A first-order filter is introduced in the data flow

with s the running distance and L the relaxation length, or

with V the forward velocity Depending on authors, the filter is applied either on the slips, or on the tyre forces

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Relaxation length
The effect of the relaxation length L can be well represented by introducing some compliance between the rim and the rolling tread. For the lateral force, choose the stiffness For the longitudinal force, choose a rotational stiffness as

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Other advanced models

String-based tyre models models the deflection of the tyre through one or more strings (automatically accounts for the tyre dynamics) Advanced modelling of geometry (durability analysis)

Figure from [5] Finite element models

Figure from [2] GraSMech Multibody 60

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Vehicle dynamics

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Axes of a vehicle
SAE vehicle axis system

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Suspensions
Initial role of the suspension Reduction of vertical wheel load variations Isolation of road inputs from the body linked to the spring-damper system of the suspension But also Load transfer control in cornering or acceleration/braking Handling (behaviour and feel) control by adjusting kinematics of the wheel during suspension travel Types of suspensions Solid-axle suspensions (trucks) Independent suspensions (cars) GraSMech Multibody 63

Solid axle suspensions

Hotchkiss de Dion

Four link rear suspension

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Independent suspensions
Mac Pherson strut (front or rear) Short long arm Double wishbone (front or rear)

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Independent suspensions
Multilink (front or rear) Semi-trailing arm (rear)

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Semi-independent
Torsion beam rear suspension (Fiat Punto, golf,...)

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Kinematic analysis
The multibody approach naturally allows the kinematic study of the suspension => evolution during the bump motion of the camber angle the toe angle (steer) the roll center: center of rotation of vehicle wrt ground the equivalent stiffness (damping) ... cf. SAE J670e Vehicle dynamics terminology for complete rigourous definition of terms The joints of the suspension can be introduced as kinematic joints, linear bushings or non linear bushings GraSMech Multibody 68

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Roll center
Roll center: instantaneous point about which the vehicle rolls
Construction of the roll center R must be on the symmetry axis application of Kennedys theorem: on the same line as F (wheel/ground) and E (wheel/vehicle)

Figure from [6] GraSMech Multibody 69

Roll center

Figure from [6] The roll center is also the location where the lateral forces developed by the wheels are transmitted to the sprung mass A lateral force applied at the height of the roll center doesnt induce any roll of the vehicle The roll center affects the distribution of normal forces of the tyres (load transfer) GraSMech Multibody 70

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Roll axis
The roll centers of the front and rear suspensions define the roll axis: instantaneous axis about which the vehicle rolls

Figure from [6]

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Anti-dive / Anti-squat
Anti-dive (front) and anti-rise (rear) control pitch during braking Anti-lift (front) and anti-squat (rear) control pitch during traction

Figure from [6]

Figure from [1] GraSMech Multibody 72

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Springs and dampers

Springs and dampers are naturally involved in multibody systems, even if nonlinear Spring is defined by its stiffness k and rest length l0 or a force-length curve Damper is defined by its damping coefficient c or a forcevelocity curve (at least two coefficients as a vehicle damper is always more resistant in extension (rebound) than in compression (bounce)

A damper involves fluid flow so that the nonlinear force-velocity curve is often necessary

Figure from [1] GraSMech Multibody 73

Aerodynamic forces
Aerodynamic forces come from wind and the motion of the vehicle, and generate principally a drag force, determined by

with the air density, V the vehicle speed, A the frontal area of the vehicle and CD the drag coefficient (about 0.3 for cars) but also forces and moments in all directions (side force, lift force, pitching moment, yawing moment, rolling moment) References: Gillespie, Milliken The aerodynamic forces are generally ignored except for winged or very rapid vehicles (formula 1), or for trucks ! GraSMech Multibody 74

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Typical analyses
Geometric analysis of suspensions Linear analysis (root locus vs velocity) Ride: transmission of road vibrations (linear or nonlinear) Typical maneuvers (same as tests that vehicle engineers carry out with prototype vehicles) ISO 3888-1:1999: Passenger cars Test track for a severe lane-change maneuver Part 1: double lane change ISO 3888-2:2002: Passenger cars Test track for a severe lane-change maneuver Part 2: Obstacle avoidance ISO 4138:1996: Passenger cars Steady state circular driving behaviour Open loop test procedure ISO 7975:1996: Passenger cars Braking in a turn Open loop test procedure ... GraSMech Multibody 75

Typical vehicle modes

Lateral Bounce Roll

Pitch

Hop

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Cornering behaviour Understeer/oversteer

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Ackermann construction
The steering mechanism should respect the Ackermann rule

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Steering mechanism

Figures from [1] GraSMech Multibody 79

Some typical angles

The steering axis is not vertical the inclination gives an aligning torque wih gravity the caster angle reinforces the aligning torque of the tyre

Figure from [6] GraSMech Multibody 80

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Understeer/oversteer coefficient
During cornering, steering angle depends not only on the radius of turn but also on speed (lateral acceleration)

with K the kinematic (Ackermann) steering angle and KU the understeer coefficient (or gradient)
KU>0: understeer vehicle (the steering angle increases with lateral acceleration/speed) KU<0: oversteer vehicle (the steering angle decreases with lateral acceleration/speed) KU=0: neutral vehicle

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Linear model
For small angles, we have

Figure from [1]

Soap box: unconditionnal stable if Cr c-Cf b >0 (understeer) GraSMech Multibody 82

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Danger of an oversteer vehicle

An oversteer vehicle can become unstable

Figures from [1] The behaviour is not natural

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Factors influencing the under/oversteer

Distribution of masses Tire properties Dependance cornering stiffness/normal force Camber change due to suspension Steer change due to suspension (including compliance) Effect of self-aligning torque Effect of tractive forces (2WD/4WD, differential) ...

=> With a simulation tool, the best is to measure the understeer coefficient from virtual tests on the model

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Constant radius test

On a circular trajectory, the steer angle is measured for different velocities

the understeer coefficient is given by the slope (depends on speed !)

Figure from [1] GraSMech Multibody 85

Constant velocity test

The lateral acceleration is measured for different steering angles at a constant velocity

The understeer coefficient is the difference of slope between the measured case and the ideal case (Ackermann steering)
The Ackermann curve is obtained by a low speed test with eventuallly majored cornering stiffnesses

Figure from [1] GraSMech Multibody 86

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Example: the kart

Main elements of a competition kart 1. chassis made of steel tubes 2. rear axle 3. bearings of the rear axle 4. disc brake 5. engine (100 cm3 2 stroke) 6. steering mechanism

3 2 4 3

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Example: the kart

Constant velocity test

r=yaw rate (1/s)

Velocity (m/s) GraSMech Multibody 88

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Example: motorbike

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Model of the motorbike

8 bodies Main frame Front fork Front wheel trim Front tyre tread Swing arm Rear wheel trim Rear tyre tread pilot 14 dof Special elements lateral compliance of the tyre lateral flexibility of the fork GraSMech Multibody 90

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Principal vibration modes

Capsize (real pole) bounce (1.52 Hz, damping 25%) weave (3.02 Hz, damping 22%)

wobble (7.71 Hz, damping 86%)

front hop (11.4 Hz, damping 30%)

rear hop (13.1 Hz, damping 24%)

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Root locus
Evolution of poles with speed

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Example: the anaconda

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What is the Anaconda ?

The Anaconda project consists in designing an articulated, modular and in-line polycycle propelled by the man power and hopefully as long as possible.
Student design 2008 (Luc Dumont and Denis Varlet)

HM: Head Module = Bycycle

PM: Pedal Module

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Basic concepts
The equilibrium is decentralized => either head and pedal modules are equipped with a handlebar Pedal Module
( 90 al )

Head Module
( 90 a )

Mechanical brake

Spherical joint
Battery and power electronic devices Driving motor-wheel Pedal motor-wheel Pedal motor-wheel Battery and power electronic devices Driving motor-wheel

Braking and propulsion are centralized GraSMech Multibody 95

Anconda: an entertainment project

Contest of the longest Anaconda Contest of the fastest Anaconda Contest of the most handy Anaconda

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Approach for testing the vehicle

Pedal Module alone Head Module alone

Design of a controller

Design of a controller

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Model of the Anaconda with 2PM

22 mechanical degrees of freedom +3 differential equations for the controllers 14 bodies
7
z1 0 x1 0 y7 z9 z8 x8 y9 x9 y8

12 11 8
z1 1 x1 1 y1 0 y1 1 z1 z1 2 3 y1 x1 2 y13 x1 3 2

4 1 2
z1 x1 y3 z2 x2 y3 x3 y2 x0 y1 z0 z4 z5 x5 y5 z6

z7 x7

x6 y6

13

10 9

y0

6 0 5

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Step response of the Anaconda

Prescribed motion: lane change of 3 m (on 30 m) => very soft

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Step response: tracking

Nearly no overshoot on the HM, reasonable overshoot on the PM1 larger overshoot on PM2 (although no overshoot on the pedal module alone)

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Step response: Torque

The torque on the handlebars of the pedal modules becomes important !

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The Anaconda can be driven !

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Example: long bus

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Long bus
GLT: guided light transit vehicle Vehicle built by Bombardier (Nancy, Caen,...)

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Layout of the bus

Articulated bus with 3 carbodies 25 m long Powered by electric network (reserved track) or Diesel engine (normal traffic)

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Guiding mechanism
Each axle has its own steering mechanism On reserved track, each axle is independently guided by a central rail

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Steering without rail

The steering mechanism of the axles is driven by the articulations

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Footprint of the vehicle

Important issue: what is the footprint of the bus in free mode ?

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Evolution of the deviation with speed

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How to manage the simulation ?

1. Locate your vehicle in terms of horizontal motion (X and Y coordinates and yaw)
2. Let a static equilibrium adjust the vertical motion to get the proper suspension bounce and tyre deformation 3. Lauch the vehicle with a given speed, with estimated wheel rates and let the dynamic simulation go on during a few seconds to let the wheel rates adjust to the effective rolling radius 4. Once the vehicle is in stationary state, start the maneuver.

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Conclusions
Any multibody code equipped with tyre models can deal with road vehicles The specialized software tools help in defining the system (suspensions, steering system) finding coherent initial conditions defining typical simulations (including the driver) interpreting the results

Simulation has become an inescapable tool for the design of road vehicles

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