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Air Pollution in Kolkata
Air Pollution in Kolkata
Kolkata Metropolitan District map shows the location of the three GEMS/Air monitoring sites operated by the National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI). Monitoring of suspended particulate matter (SPM) dates back to 1972 at the Dalhousie (Commercial) and Cossipore (Industrial) stations and to 1973 at the Bhowanipore (Residential) site. Monitoring of gaseous pollutants sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) began in 1978 at all three sites. Monitoring was discontinued at the NEERI sites in 1988. Monitoring has since been carried out by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) - West Bengal. However, the results are not comparable with the NEERI data and no indication of methodology, site location or sampling frequency has been provided and therefore these data are not presented here. NEERI recommenced monitoring at the three GEMS sites in April 1990 and these data have been included.
The increase in Transport SO2 emissions is attributed to the increase in diesel-driven vehicles. The bus and truck population of Calcutta and Howrah grew by 78 percent between 1980 and 1989.
Ambient Concentrations:
Figure 3 shows annual mean SO2 concentrations at the three GEMS/NEERI monitoring sites. The graph shows that concentrations approximately doubled at all sites between 1980 and 1981; a maximum annual mean concentration of 104 micro g m-3 was observed at the Dalhousie commercial station. It is important to note that this apparent doubling is partly due to missing data for the monsoon months (when concentrations are at a minimum); therefore, the annual values for 1981 cannot be considered representative. However, it is also interesting to note that concentrations in the following year, 1982, were of a similar order when sampling remained consistent throughout the year. Annual 98 percentile concentrations were higher in 1982 than in 1981. Following 1981 and 1982, annual levels fell steadily and by 1985 annual average concentrations at all sites were within or below the WHO guideline range. Concentrations at the Bhowanipore residential station never exceeded the upper limit of the WHO annual guideline range -3 (60 micro g m ) between 1978 and 1987. Monitoring recommenced at the GEMS/NEERI sites in April 1990. The annual arithmetic mean concentrations in 1990 (April to December) were still within the WHO guideline range (NEERI, 1991b). Ambient SO2 concentrations peak during the winter (November to February inclusive) with the monthly maximum occurring in November (Figure 4). Climatic factors, such as the high percentage of calms and ground-based temperature inversions, are of great importance during the winter. In winter diurnal concentrations are generally higher at night between 2000 hours and 0400 hours due to temperature inversions. Minimum SO2 concentrations occur in May before the onset of the monsoon season (June to October inclusive). Levels remain relatively low throughout the monsoon.
by the chemical industries which emitted a further 15 percent. The coal burned in the industrial boilers has relatively low sulphur content (0.3 percent) but is high in ash content (24-36 percent). In 1989-90, 1,451 out of 2,218 registered factories burnt approximately one million tones of coal. The influence of the natural dust component of the particulate fraction is not clear as no analysis has been presented.
Ambient Concentrations:
Historical emissions estimates indicate a 66 percent increase in SPM emissions between 1970 and 1980. However, monitoring data do not support these estimates, as can be seen in Figure 5. Regression of the annual mean SPM concentration between 1972 and 1980 shows no significant overall trend during the 1970s. In fact, a negative trend is observed at the industrial monitoring site at Cossipore for the period 1972-1980. Between 1972 and 1987 all sites exhibited a positive annual mean trend (although not statistically significant). It is possible that SPM from construction activities and the entertainment of street dust has declined whereas industrial emissions have increased (Aggarwal, 1991). Annual mean and 98 percentile concentrations (Figure 5 and 6) at all stations greatly exceed both WHO guidelines and Indian Air Quality Standards. The overall average concentration in 1987 was 557 micro g m-3, over six times the maximum WHO annual guideline (60-90 micro g m-3). The annual 98 percentile concentration of the Cossipore industrial monitoring site reached 1,680 micro g m-3 in 1987, 14 times the WHO daily guideline and the second highest ever in Calcutta, indicating that episodes of short duration also constitute a problem. There is no significant difference in concentrations between the various sites indicating that high concentrations occur throughout the city. Annual arithmetic mean concentrations in 1990 (April to December) were lower than in 1987 at all three sites (268-453 micro g m-3), but were still well above the WHO annual guidelines. Annual 98 percentile concentrations are also extremely high (1,014-1,145 micro g m-3) The contribution of natural dust to overall SPM concentrations is not obvious. However, it is likely to be lower than for other 'drier' Indian cities such as Delhi. As Figure 4 shows, the monsoon (June to October inclusive) has a pronounced washout effect; concentrations during this period are half those of the winter. Concentrations
reach a peak in December and are likely to be influenced by temperature inversions and low wind speeds.
Ambient Concentrations:
It is not possible to comment on the reliability of emissions estimates as there is no monitoring of ambient CO in the city. It has also not been possible to locate any recent studies referring to CO in Calcutta. It is understood that a detailed CO modeling study is under way in Calcutta (Aggarwal, 1991). Emissions estimates are on a par with those of Bombay, which experiences similar meteorology. However, the contributions of the various sources are very different (industrial and domestic sources are much more important in Calcutta) and it is likely that street-level exposure is low in Calcutta due to lower motor vehicle numbers and emissions and to a relatively 'open' urban topography.
approximately 10 percent of Calcutta's motor vehicle population, it is estimated that they are responsible for approximately 90 percent of motor vehicle NOX emissions.
Ambient Concentrations:
Monitoring of NO2 at the three GEMS/NEERI sites since 1978 has revealed a significant positive trend in annual mean concentrations. Figure 7 shows that ambient annual 98 percentile concentrations at all three sites peaked in 1985. In 1986 and 1987 ambient levels decreased significantly, but generally were still above accepted guidelines. Data from 1990 (April to December) suggest that concentrations have fallen further and are now well below accepted guidelines (NEERI, 1991b). No explanation can be given for the decrease in urban concentrations; emissions are believed to be increasing because of increasing traffic. It is possible that meteorological factors such as isolation, the frequency of calms and the frequency of ground-based temperature inversions have influenced annual statistics throughout the 1980s. It is also possible that improved traffic circulation in recent years has helped to reduce NO2 concentrations in the short term. Maximum concentrations are generally recorded at the Dalhousie commercial site, probably owing to the high traffic densities and congestion in this area. Figure 4 indicates that there is no clear seasonal influence upon monthly NO2 concentrations. The monthly peak in December is influenced by high isolation and ground-based temperature inversions.
34 11 11
44 15 9
Rubber 14 Glass and ceramic 9 Textile 7 Jute 7 Paper 2 Miscellaneous 18 Total 25,915
80 36 57 10 11 135 608
3 3 3 3 3 29
7 5 4 4 1 11
Air pollution survey of last twelve months from the West Bengal Pollution Control Board
Average value of Air quality during 24 hrs. Ending at 6 a.m. on 1-08-2004 SPM g/m3 142 154 113 133 136 RPM g/m3 59 62 47 57 56 SO2 g/m3 3 3 2 5 3 NOX g/m3 28 37 20 34 30
Station Name Behala Chowrasta Moulali Salt Lake Topsia Kolkata Average
Residential Standard
200
100
80
80
Average value of Air quality during 24 hrs. Ending at 6 a.m. on 1-09-2004 SPM g/m3 Baishnabghata 86 Beliaghata 99 Minto Park 109 Shyambazar 128 Ultadanga 106 Gariahat 111 Mominpore 126 Kolkata 109 Average Station Name RPM g/m3 41 49 52 61 55 54 59 53 SO2 g/m3 3 3 3 4 4 5 4 4 NOX g/m3 23 22 30 37 41 40 43 34
Residential Standard
200
100
80
80
Average value of Air quality during 24 hrs. Ending at 6 a.m. on 1-10-2004 SPM g/m3 145 127 135 114 142 136 132 133 RPM g/m3 56 52 66 47 64 62 51 57 SO2 g/m3 6 3 5 3 5 4 4 4 NOX g/m3 38 26 46 29 36 37 49 37
Station Name Behala Chowrasta Beliaghata Moulali Salt Lake Shyambazar Topsia Gariahat Kolkata Average
Residential Standard
200
100
80
80
Average value of Air quality during 24 hrs. Ending at 6 a.m. on 1-11-2004 SPM g/m3 169 176 141 168 164 RPM g/m3 73 78 59 86 74 SO2 g/m3 4 6 5 10 6 NOX g/m3 52 62 44 55 53
Station Name Behala Chowrasta Moulali Salt Lake Topsia Kolkata Average
Residential Standard
200
100
80
80
Average value of Air quality during 24 hrs. Ending at 6 a.m. on 1-12-2004 SPM g/m3 344 287 299 293 306 RPM g/m3 198 166 178 175 179 SO2 g/m3 25 18 14 15 18 NOX g/m3 112 87 93 84 94
Station Name Dunlop bridge Picnic Garden Tollygunge Hyde Road Kolkata Average
Residential Standard
200
100
80
80
Average value of Air quality during 24 hrs. Ending at 6 a.m. on 1-01-2005 SPM g/m3 Beliaghata 365 Shyambazar 441 Gariahat 385 Kolkata 397 Average Station Name RPM g/m3 214 289 242 248 SO2 g/m3 29 32 17 26 NOX g/m3 105 116 125 115
Residential Standard
200
100
80
80
Average value of Air quality during 24 hrs. Ending at 6 a.m. on 1-02-2005 SPM g/m3 Beliaghata 336 Shyambazar 393 Gariahat 361 Kolkata 363 Average Station Name RPM g/m3 210 238 215 221 SO2 g/m3 24 19 12 18 NOX g/m3 88 95 100 94
Residential Standard
200
100
80
80
Average value of Air quality during 24 hrs. Ending at 6 a.m. on 1-03-2005 SPM g/m3 387 407 354 419 392 RPM g/m3 232 263 225 256 244 SO2 g/m3 11 15 7 17 13 NOX g/m3 88 103 76 100 92
Station Name Behala Chowrasta Moulali Salt Lake Topsia Kolkata Average
Residential Standard
200
100
80
80
Average value of Air quality during 24 hrs. Ending at 6 a.m. on 1-04-2005 SPM g/m3 Baishnabghata 179 Beliaghata 234 Minto Park 239 Shyambazar 248 Ultadanga 254 Gariahat 215 Mominpore 219 Kolkata 227 Average Station Name RPM g/m3 60 89 102 110 116 78 85 91 SO2 g/m3 3 4 3 6 4 5 4 4 NOX g/m3 32 29 40 39 37 43 36 37
Residential Standard
200
100
80
80
Average value of Air quality during 24 hrs. Ending at 6 a.m. on 1-05-2005 SPM g/m3 Beliaghata 142 Shyambazar 206 Gariahat 192 Kolkata 180 Average Station Name RPM g/m3 56 75 71 67 SO2 g/m3 5 6 3 5 NOX g/m3 32 37 46 38
Residential Standard
200
100
80
80
Average value of Air quality during 24 hrs. Ending at 6 a.m. on 1-06-2005 SPM g/m3 Baishnabghata 129 Beliaghata 171 Minto Park 186 Shyambazar 211 Ultadanga 218 Gariahat 193 Mominpore 210 Kolkata 188 Average Station Name RPM g/m3 42 57 53 78 68 66 61 61 SO2 g/m3 2 6 3 5 5 3 3 4 NOX g/m3 26 30 28 40 33 39 34 33
Residential Standard
200
100
80
80
Average value of Air quality during 24 hrs. Ending at 6 a.m. on 1-07-2005 SPM g/m3 147 185 164 193 172 RPM g/m3 71 79 63 88 75 SO2 g/m3 4 6 3 7 5 NOX g/m3 44 55 40 48 47
Station Name Behala Chowrasta Moulali Salt Lake Topsia Kolkata Average
Residential Standard
200
100
80
80
Average value of Air quality during 24 hrs. Ending at 6 a.m. on 1-08-2005 SPM g/m3 Beliaghata 116 Shyambazar 135 Gariahat 129 Kolkata 127 Average Station Name RPM g/m3 38 54 45 46 SO2 g/m3 4 4 3 4 NOX g/m3 28 31 34 31
Residential Standard
200
100
80
80
Conclusions
It is estimated by NEERI that 60 percent of Kolkata residents suffer from some kind of respiratory disease due to air pollution. The burning of coal as an industrial and domestic fuel accounts for a significant proportion of pollutant emissions, especially SPM. Suspended particulate matter from coal combustion is clearly a major problem throughout Calcutta and should be the main focus of immediate control efforts.
Surprisingly, SO2, concentrations are relatively low (within WHO guidelines) which is due to the low sulphur content (0.3 percent) of the local coal. It would appear from the data that industrial emissions have, to a large extent, stabilized and in some cases declined. It is not clear what the reasons for these changes are, but it is likely that planning measures restricting industrial development have played an important role. Changes in domestic and commercial fuel use, principally a reduction in coal use, and improvements in burning efficiency will have also helped to reduce emissions. Carbon monoxide and NOX, emissions from motor vehicles are of increasing concern and probably present the greatest long-term threat to Kolkata air quality. Kolkata motor vehicle population doubles every six years, a trend which is likely to continue at least up to 2000. With this rate of growth it is unlikely that even the introduction of the most stringent control measures would reduce overall emissions and ambient concentrations from this source. The data presented here give only a very limited picture of the air quality situation in Calcutta. A survey of air pollution levels and emissions throughout the Calcutta metropolitan district is required for proper air quality management.