6 Series

We call a normed space (X, ||) a Banach space provided that every Cauchy
sequence (x
n
) in X converges. For example, R with the norm || = [[ is an
example of Banach space. Now let (x
n
) be a sequence in X. Dene a new
sequence (s
n
) in X by
s
n
=
n

k=1
x
k
, n N.
The sequence (s
n
) is called a series in X and is written as

x
k
or

k
x
k
.
The n-th term s
n
of the sequence (s
n)
is called the nth partial sum and x
k
is called the kth summand of the series

k
x
k
.
Denition 6.1. The series

k
x
k
converges or is convergent if the sequence
(s
n
) of partial sums converges. The limit lim
n
s
n
is called the value of
the series

k
x
k
and is written as

k=1
x
k
Finally,

k
x
k
diverges or is
divergent if the sequence (s
n
) diverges in X.
Proposition 6.2 (Necessary condition for convergence). If the series

x
k
converges, then x
n
0.
Proof. Denoting by s
n
the nth partial sum of the series

x
k
, we have
s
n
x for some x. Since
x
n
= s
n+1
s
n
x x = 0,
the result follows.
Example 6.3. The series

(1/k!) converges in R. Its value is

k=0
1/k! =
e.
Example 6.4. The series

1/k
2
converges in R. Indeed, if s
n
=

n
k=1
1/k
2
,
then
s
n
=
n

k=1
1/k
2
1 +
n

k=2
1
k(k 1)
= 1 +
n

k=2
_
1
k 1

1
k
_
= 1 + 1
1
n
< 2.
So, the sequence (s
n
) of partial sums is bounded in R and since it is also
increasing, it converges.
Example 6.5. The harmonic series

1/k diverges. Indeed, if s

n
=

n
k=1
1/k,
then
[s
2n
s
n
[ =
1
n + 1
+. . . +
1
2n

n
2n
=
1
2
showing that (s
n
) is not a Cauchy sequence and this implies that

k
1/k is
dirvergent.
30
Example 6.6. The geometric series

a
k
, where a R satises [a[ < 1,
converges. Indeed,
s
n
=
n

k=0
a
k
=
a
k+1
1
a 1
and since [a[ < 1, we have a
k+1
0 showing that
lim
n
s
n
=

k=0
a
k
=
1
1 a
.
If [a[ 1, then

k
a
k
diverges.
Proposition 6.7. Let

a
k
and

b
k
be convergent series in a Banach
space X and let R. Then
The series

(a
k
+ b
k
) converges and

k=1
(a
k
+ b
k
) =

k=1
a
k
+

k=1
b
k
.
The series

k=1
(a
k
) converges and

k=1
(a
k
) =

k=1
a
k
.
Theorem 6.8 (Cauchy criterion). For a series

x
k
in a Banach space
(X, ||) the following conditions are equaivalent.
(a) The series

x
k
converges.
(b) For every > 0 there is N N such that
_
_
_
_
_
m

k=n+1
x
k
_
_
_
_
_
<
for all m > n N.
Proof. Let s
n
=

n
k=1
x
k
be the nth partial sum. Then s
m
s
n
=

m
k=n+1
x
k
if m > n.Thus (s
n
) is Cauchy in X if and only if the condition (b) holds
true. By assumption, (X, ||) is a Banach space and the result follows.
Theorem 6.9. If

a
k
is a series in R and a
k
0 for all k N, then

a
k
converges if and only if the sequence (s
n
) of partial sums is bounded. In this
case, the series has the value equal to sup
nN
s
n
.
Proof. Since a
k
0 for all k N, the sequence (s
n
) of partial sums is
increasing. Hence (s
n
) converges if and only if (s
n
) is bounded.
31
6.1 Alternating series
Denition 6.10. A series

a
k
in R is called alternating if a
k
and a
k+1
have opposite signs. Any such series can be written as

(1)
k
a
k
with
a
k
0 for all k N.
Theorem 6.11 (Leibniz criterion). Let (a
k
) be a decreasing null sequence
such that a
k
0 for all k N. Then the alternating series

(1)
k
a
k
converges in R.
Proof. Since
s
2n+2
s
2n
= a
2n+1
+a
2n+2
0,
the sequence (s
2n
) is decreasing. Similarly,
s
2n+3
s
2n+1
= a
2n+2
a
2n+3
0,
implying that (s
2n+1
) is increasing. Moreover, s
2n+1
s
2n
so that s
2n+1

s
2
and s
2n
0 for all n 1. Hence, there are s and t such that s
2n
s
and s
2n+1
t. Also
t s = lim
n
(s
2n+1
s
2n
) = lim
n
a
2n+1
= 0
implying that t = s. Take > 0. Then there are N
1
, N
2
N such that
[s
2n
s[ < , 2n N
1
and [s
2n+1
s[ < , 2n + 1 N
2
.
Thus, [s
n
s[ < for all n > 2 maxN
1
, N
2
.
Example 6.12. The assumption that (a
n
) is decreasing is necessary. For
example, set
a
2n
=
1
2n
and a
2n1
=
1
(2n 1)
2
.
Then a
2n1
=
1
(2n1)
2

1
2n1
so that 0 a
n

1
n
showing that a
n
0.
Since a
2n1
< a
2n
for n 2, the sequence (a
n
) is not decreasing. However,
the series

(1)
n
a
n
diverges. Arguing by contradiction we assume that the
sequence (s
n
) of partial sums converges. We have
s
2n
=
2n

k=1
(1)
k
a
k
=
n

k=1
(1)a
2k1
+
n

k=1
a
2k
=
n

k=1
1
(2k 1)
2
+
n

k=1
1
2k
= A
n
+B
n
,
32
where A
n
=

n
k=1
1
(2k1)
2
and B
n
=

n
k=1
1
2k
=
1
2

n
k=1
1
k
. Since the
series

k1
1
(2k1)
2
converges, the sequence (A
n
) converges. Consequently,
the sequence B
n
= s
n
+A
n
converges. But this contradicts the fact that the
series

k1
1
k
diverges.
6.2 Absolute convergence
Denition 6.13. The series

x
k
in a Banach space (X, ||) converges
absolutely or is absolutely convergent if the series

|x
k
| is convergent in R.
The series

x
k
is conditionally convergent if

x
k
converges but

|x
k
|
diverges.
Example 6.14. The alternating harmonic series

(1)
k
/k converges in
view of Leibniz criterion, however, the series of absolute values

1/k di-
verges. Hence the series

(1)
k
/k converges conditionally.
Proposition 6.15. Every absolutely convergent series converges.
Proof. The proposition is a consequence of Cauchy criterion and the triangle
inequality. Indeed,
_
_
_
_
_
m

k=n+1
x
k
_
_
_
_
_

m

k=n+1
|x
k
| .

6.3 Comparison, Root, and Ratio Tests

From now on we only consider real sequences, however, you are invited to
gure out which of the results can be stated in the full generality of Banach
spaces.
Proposition 6.16 (Comparison test). Let

a
k
and

b
n
be two se-
quences of nonnegative terms and assume that
a
n
b
n
for all n.
Then the following holds true,
(a) If

b
k
converges, then so is

a
k
.
(b) If

a
k
diverges, then so is

b
k
.
33
Example 6.17. Let m 2. Then the series

1/k
m
converges absolutely.
Recall from Example 6.4 that the series

1
k
2
converges. Since for m 2,
we have
1
k
m

1
k
2
for all k,
it follows from Proposition 6.16 that the series

1/k
m
is indeed convergent.
Proposition 6.18 (Limit comparison test). Let

a
k
and

b
n
be two
sequences of positive terms and assume that
a
n
b
n
L
(Clearly, L [0, ) or L = ). Then the following holds true,
(a) If L (0, ), then the convergence of

b
k
implies the convergence of

a
k
and the divergence of

a
k
implies the divergence of

b
k
.
(b) Assume that L = 0. Then

a
k
converges if

b
k
converges.
(c) Assume that L = . Then

a
k
diverges, if

b
k
diverges.
Proof. We only prove (a). If L (0, ), then there is N so that L/2 =
LL/2 < a
n
/b
n
< L+L/2 = 3L/2 for n N. So, (L/2)b
n
< a
n
< (3L/2)b
n
for n N and the result follows from Proposition 6.16.
Theorem 6.19 (Root test). Let

a
k
be a series of nonnegative real num-
bers and let
= limsup
n
_
[a
n
[.
Then

a
k
converges absolutely if < 1.

a
k
diverges if > 1.
If = 1, then both convergence and divergence of

a
k
are possible.
Theorem 6.20 (Ratio test). Let

a
k
be a series of real numbers such
that a
k
,= 0 for all k N. Then
If
lim
k

a
k+1
a
k

< 1,
then

a
k
converges absolutely.
34
If
lim
k

a
k+1
a
k

> 1,
then

a
k
diverges.
If lim
k

a
k+1
a
k

= 1, then both convergence and divergence of

a
k
are
possible.
Proposition 6.21 (Cauchys condensation test). Let (a
k
) be a sequence
of nonnegative and decreasing terms. Then

a
k
converges if and only if
the series

2
k
a
2
k converges.
Proof. Denote by s
n
=

n
k=1
and t
n
=

n
k=1
2
k
a
2
k. Then, if n < 2
m
, we
have
s
n
a
1
+ (a
2
+a
3
) +. . . + (a
2
m +. . . +a
2
m+1
1
)
a
1
+ 2a
2
+. . . + 2
m
a
2
m = t
m
.
If

2
k
a
2
k converges, then the sequence (t
m
) is bounded and above estimate
shows that (s
n
) is bounded. Hence

a
k
converges. For the converse, note
that if n > 2
m
, then
s
n
a
1
+a
2
+ (a
3
+a
4
) +. . . + (a
2
m1
+1
+. . . +a
2
m)

1
2
a
1
+a
2
+ 2a
4
+. . . + 2
m1
a
2
m =
1
2
t
m
.
This shows that if

a
k
converges, then the sequence (t
m
) is bounded so
that

2
k
a
2
k converges.
Example 6.22. Consider the series

1
n
p
with p > 0. Then the conden-
sation test implies that

1
n
p
converges if and only if

2
n
2
np
=
_
1
2
p1
_
n
converges. We already know that the geometric series
_
1
2
p1
_
n
converges
if and only if
1
2
p1
< 1, i.e., p > 1.
The next theorem is a generalization of the condensation test.
Theorem 6.23 (Schl omlich theorem). Let (g
k
) be a strictly increasing
sequence of positive integers such that g
k+1
g
k
C(g
k
g
k1
) for some
C > 0 and all k N. If (a
k
) is a decreasing sequence of nonnegative
numbers, then

a
k
converges if and only if

(g
k+1
g
k
)a
g
k
converges.
35
Proof. The proof is similar to the proof of the condensation test. Let (S
n
)
be the sequence of the partial sums of the series

a
k
and (T
n
) the sequence
of the partial sums of the series

(g
k+1
g
k
)a
g
k
. Now, if n < g
k
, then
S
n
S
g
k
(a
1
+. . . +a
g
1
1
) + (a
g
1
+. . . +a
g
2
1
) +. . . + (a
g
k
+. . . +a
g
k+1
1
)
(a
1
+. . . +a
g
1
1
) + (g
2
g
1
)a
g
1
+. . . + (g
k+1
g
k
)a
g
k
(a
1
+. . . +a
g
1
1
) +T
k
.
Consequently, if the sequence (T
k
) converges and hence is bounded, then
the sequence (S
n
) is bounded so that

a
k
converges. Conversely, assume
that

a
k
converges. If n > g
k
, then
CS
n
CS
g
k
C(a
g
1
+1
+. . . +a
g
2
) +. . . +C(a
g
k1
+1
+. . . +a
g
k
C(g
2
g
1
)a
g
2
+. . . +C(g
k
g
k1
)a
g
k
(g
3
g
2
)a
g
2
+. . . + (g
k+1
g
k
)a
g
k
= T
k
(g
2
g
1
)a
g
1
.
Consequently, the sequence (T
k
) is bounded and the series

(g
k+1
g
k
)a
g
k
converges.
Example 6.24. Take g
k
= 3
k
. Then the sequence (g
k
) satises the as-
sumptions of the above theorem and g
k+1
g
k
= 3
k+1
3
k
= 2 3
k
. So, the
following holds true. Assume that (a
k
) is a decreasing sequence of nonneg-
ative numbers, then

a
k
converges if and only if

3
k
a
3
k converges.
Now consider the series

1
3
ln n
. Since the sequence (
1
3
ln n
) is decreasing
and converges to 0,

1
3
ln n
converges if and only if

3
n
3
ln 3
n =

3
n
3
nln 3
=
_
1
3
ln 31
_
n
converges. Since ln 3 > 1, it follows that 3
ln 31
> 1 and
1
3
ln 31
< 1 so that the series
_
1
3
ln 31
_
n
converges. Hence

1
3
ln n
con-
verges.
Consider g
k
= k
2
, then the sequence (g
k
) satises the assumptions of the
theorem. Then the following is true. If (a
k
) is a decreasing sequence of
nonnegative numbers, then

a
k
converges if and only if

ka
k
2 converges.
Indeed, since (k +1)
2
k
2
) = 2k +1, it follows from Theorem ?? that

a
k
converges if and only if

(2k +1)a
k
2 converges. Since ka
k
2 (2k +1)a
k
2
36
3ka
k
2, the comparison test shows that

(2k +1)a
k
2 converges if and only if

ka
k
2 converges. showing our claim. Now consider the series

1
2

n
. Since
the sequence 1/2

n
) is decreasing and converges to 0, the series

1
2

n
converges if and only if the series

n
2

n
2
=

n
2
n
converges. Using the
ratio test, we see that

n
2
n
converges and so

1
2

n
converges.
6.4 The Dirichlet and Abel Test
We start with the following lemma.
Lemma 6.25 (Abels lemma). Let (x
n
) and (y
n
) be two sequences of real
numbers. Let (s
n
) be a sequence of partial sums of (y
n
) and s
0
= 0. Then
m

k=n+1
x
k
y
k
= (x
m
s
m
x
n+1
s
n
) +
m1

k=n+1
(x
k
x
k+1
)s
k
.
Proof. Note that y
k
= s
k
s
k1
. So,
m

k=n+1
x
k
y
k
=
m

k=n+1
x
k
(s
k
s
k1
)
= x
n+1
(s
n+1
s
n
) +x
n+2
(s
n+2
s
n+1
) +. . . +x
m
(s
m
s
m1
)
= x
m
(x
m
x
n+1
s
n
) +s
n+1
(x
n+1
x
n+2
) +. . . +s
m1
(x
m1
x
m
)
= x
m
(x
m
x
n+1
s
n
) +
m1

k=n+1
x
k
(s
k
s
k1
)

We use this lemma to obtain a test for convergence of the series

x
k
y
k
.
Theorem 6.26 (Dirichlets test). Suppose that (x
n
) is a decreasing se-
quence such that x
n
0 and the sequence (s
n
) of the partial sums of (y
n
)
is bounded. Then the series

x
k
y
k
converges.
Proof. Since (s
n
) is bounded, [s
n
[ C for all n 1. Since (x
k
) is decreasing,
x
k
x
k+1
0. Thus, by the above lemma,

k=n+1
x
k
y
k

[x
m
s
m
[ +[x
n+1
s
n
[ +
m1

k=n+1
(x
k
x
k+1
) [s
k
[
((x
n+1
+x
m
) + (x
n+1
x
m
))C = 2x
n+1
C.

37
Example 6.27. Consider

(1)
n
x
n
where x
n
is a decreasing sequence of
nonnegative numbers converging to 0. Then the series converges in view
of alternating series test. However, this also follows from Dirichlets test.
Indeed, let y
n
= (1)
n
. Then s
n
=

n
k=1
b
k
=

n
k=1
(1)
k
is equal to 1 if
n is odd and is equal to 0 if n is even. Hence the sequence (s
n
) is bounded,
and Dirichlets test implies that the series

(1)
n
a
n
converges.
Example 6.28. One can show, using for example the principle of mathe-
matical induction, that
sin

2
(cos + cos 2 +. . . + cos n) = cos
(n + 1)
2
sin
n
2
.
Hence if ,= 2k for all k Z, then
[cos + cos 2 +. . . + cos n[ =

cos
(n+1)
2
sin
n
2

sin

2

sin

2

.
Similarly,
sin

2
(sin + sin 2 +. . . + sin n) = sin
(n + 1)
2
sin
n
2
which implies that
[sin + sin2 +. . . + sin n[
1

sin

2

if ,= 2k for all k Z. Hence, in view of Dirichlets test, one has the

following result.
Corollary 6.29. If (x
n
) is a decreasing sequence converging to 0 and ,=
2k for all k Z, then the series

x
n
cos n and

x
n
sinn converge.
Theorem 6.30 (Abels test). If (x
n
) is a monotone convergent sequence
and the series

y
k
converges, then

x
k
y
k
converges.
Proof. Without loss of generality, we may assume that (x
n
) is decreasing.
If x = limx
n
, set u
n
= x
n
x is decreasing and converging to 0. Thus,
x
n
= x + u
n
and x
n
y
n
= xy
n
+ u
n
y
n
. Now note that the series

xy
k
converges since

y
k
converges and the series

u
n
y
n
converges in view of
the Dirichlets test. Hence, the series

x
n
y
n
converges.
38
6.5 Cauchy Product
Denition 6.31. The Cauchy product of two series

n0
a
n
and

n0
b
n
is the series

n0
c
n
where
c
n
=
n

k=0
a
k
b
nk
. n 0.
Example 6.32. Let

n0
c
n
be the Cauchy product of the alternating
series

(1)
n

n+1
with itself. That is,
c
n
=
n

k=0
(1)
k

k + 1

(1)
nk
_
(n k) + 1
= (1)
n
n

k=0
1
_
(k + 1)(n k)
.
Note that , in view of the alternating series test, the series

(1)
n

n+1
converges
conditionally. However, the Cauchy product diverges. To see this we show
that the sequence (c
n
) does not converge to 0. Indeed, we have
(n k + 1)(k + 1) =
_
n
2
+ 1
_
2

_
n
2
k
_
2
and hence
_
(n k + 1)(k + 1) =
_
(n/2 + 1)
2
(n/2 k)
2

_
n/2 + 1)
2
=
n
2
+ 1.
Using this we nd that
[c
n
[ =
n

k=0
1
_
(k + 1)(n k)

k=0
1
n/2 + 1
= (n + 1)
2
n + 2
1
showing that the sequence (c
n
) does not converge to 0.
Theorem 6.33 (Mertens theorem). Assume that

n0
converges abso-
lutely,

n=0
a
n
= A,

n=0
b
n
= B, and

n0
is the Cauchy product of

n0
a
n
and

n0
b
n
. Then

n0
c
n
converges and

n=0
c
n
= AB.
Proof. Dene
A
n
=
n

k=0
a
n
, B
n
=
n

k=0
b
n
, C
n
=
n

k=0
c
n
,
n
= B
n
B.
39
Then
C
n
= c
0
+c
1
+. . . +c
n
= a
0
b
0
+ (a
0
b
1
+a
1
b
0
) +. . . + (a
0
b
n
+a
1
b
n1
+. . . +a
n
b
0
)
= a
0
(b
0
+b
1
+. . . +b
n
) +a
1
(b
0
+b
1
+. . . +b
n1
) +. . . +a
n
b
0
= a
0
B
n
+a
1
B
n1
+. . . +a
n
B
0
= a
0
(
n
+B) +a
1
(
n1
+B) +. . . +a
n
(
0
+B)
= (a
0
+. . . +a
n
)B + (a
0

n
+a
1

n1
+. . . +a
n

n
)
= A
n
B +
n
where we have abbreviated

n
= a
0

n
+a
1

n1
+. . . +a
n

n
.
Since A
n
B AB, it suces to show that
n
0. In order to show that

n
0, pick > 0. Then, since
n
0, there is N such that
[
n
[ < for all n N.
Let

A =

n=0
[a
n
[ and [
n
[ M.
(The series

n0
[a
n
[ converges and (
n
) is bounded since it converges.)
Then
[
n
[ = [a
0

n
+a
1

n1
+. . . +a
n

0
[
[a
0

n
+a
1

n1
+. . . +a
nN

N
[
+[a
nN+1

N1
+a
nN+2

N2
+. . . +a
n

0
[


A+M ([a
nN+1
[ +[a
nN+2
[ +. . . +[a
n
[)
Keeping N xed and letting n , we get
limsup[
n
[

A
since a
n
0. Since > 0 was arbitrary, we conclude that
limsup [
n
[ = 0
which implies that lim
n
= 0 as claimed
Theorem 6.34 (Abels theorem). If

n=0
a
n
= A,

n=0
b
n
= B, and

n=0
c
n
= C, where c
n
=

n
k=0
a
k
b
nk
for all n 0, then C = AB.
40
6.6 Double Sums
Let (X, ||) be a normed space, let (a
ij
)
(i,j)NN
be a double sequence in X,
and the double series

a
ij
. We have a function a : NN N, (j, k) a
jk
.
Since N N is countable, there is a bijection : N N N. If is such
bijection, the series

n
a
(n)
is called an ordering of the double series

a
jk
.
If we x j N (or k N ), then the series

a
jk
is called the jth row series
(or the kth column series). If every row series (or column series) converges,
then we may consider the series of row sums

j
(

k=0
a
jk
) (or the series of
column sums

k
(

j=0
a
jk
)). Finally, the double series

a
jk
is summable
if
sup
n
n

j,k
[a
jk
[ < .
Theorem 6.35. Let

a
jk
be a summable double series. Then
(a) Every ordering

n
a
(n)
of

a
jk
is converges absolutely to a value
s X which is independent of .
(b) The series of row sums

j
(

k=0
a
jk
) and the series of column sums

k
(

j=0
a
jk
) converge absolutely and

j=0
(

k=0
a
jk
) =

k
(

j=0
a
jk
).
To prove (a) we will need the following result. Let

a
n
be a series and
let : N N be a bijection. Dene b
n
= a
(n)
. Then the series

b
n
is
called a rearrangement of of

a
n
.
Proposition 6.36. Assume that

a
n
converges absolutely. Then any re-
arrangement of

a
n
converges absolutely. (They all converge to the same
value).
Proof. Assume that

a
n
converges absolutely. Take a bijection : N N
and consider

b
n
with b
n
= a
(n)
. Denote by (A
n
) and (B
n
) the sequences
of partial sums of

a
n
and

b
n
, respectively. Since

a
n
converges abso-
lutely, given > 0, there is N such that
m

k=n
[a
k
[ < (1)
41
for all m > n N. Let K be such that 1, . . . , N (1), . . . , (K).
Take n > K and consider the dierence [A
n
B
n
[ Note that the terms
a
1
, . . . , a
N
appear in both partial sums A
n
and B
n
. So, by (1)
[A
n
B
n
[ < .
Hence limA
n
= limB
n
, proving that

b
n
converges to the same value as

a
n
. The same argument in which A
n
and B
n
are partial sums of

[a
n
[
and

[b
n
[, respectively, shows that

b
n
converges absolutely.
Proof of Theorem 6.35. (a) Abbreviate M =

n
j,k=0
[a
jk
[. Let :
N N N be a bijection and let N N. Then there is some K N such
that
(0), . . . , (N) (0, 0), (1, 0), . . . , (K, 0), . . . , (K, K). (2)
Together with the summability of

a
jk
this imples
N

n=0

a
(n)

j,k=0
[a
jk
[ M.
This implies that

n
a
(n)
converges absolutely. Let : N N N be
another bijection. Then =
1
: N N is a bijection. Set y
m
= x
(m)
.
Then
b
(n)
= a
((n))
= a
(n)
, n N.
Thus

n
a
(n)
is a rearrangement of

n
a
(n)
. Since

n
a
(n)
converges
absolutely, the series

n
a
(n)
also converges absolutely.
(b) The row series

k=0
a
jk
, j N, and the column series

j=0
a
jk
,
k N, converge absolutely. This follows from the summability of

a
jk
.
So, the series of row series

j
(

k=0
a
jk
) and the series of column series

k
(

j=0
a
jk
). To see that these series converge absolutely, consider the
following inequalities,
l

j=0

k=0
a
jk

j=0
m

k=0
[a
jk
[
m

j,k
[a
jk
[ M, l m.
Taking the limit m , we get

l
j=0
[

k=0
a
jk
[ M, l N. This
proves the absolute convergence of the series of row series

j
(

k=0
a
jk
).
A similar argument proves the absolute convergence of the series of column
series

k
(

j=0
a
jk
).
42
Now let : N N N be a bijection and let s =

n
a
(n)
. Then for
every > 0, there is N N such that

n=N+1

a
(n)

< . Also there is

some K N such that (2) is satised. Then

j=0
m

k=0
a
jk

N

n=0
a
(n)

n=N+1

a
(n)

< /2, l, m K.
Taking the limit m and l , we get

j=0

k=0
a
jk

N

n=0
a
(n)

n=N+1

a
(n)

/2.
Applying the triangle inequality to

s
N

n=0
a
(n)

n=N+1

a
(n)

< /2,
we get

j=0

k=0
a
jk
s

.
A similar argument shows that the value of

k
(

j=0
a
jk
) is also s.

43