Eavesdropping: Given only the transmitted signal (Fig.

Ib) and a good idea that this is a signal hidden in chaos, the first requirement is to ascertain the fractal dimension of the system used for masking. This is a well known problem and the algorithm of Grassberger and Procaccia [3] can he used because the small modulation will have no impact on the dimension. Here the calculation is not presented because it is standard and has no hearing on the masking technique. The sequence may be written x + ~= (k+s.)g(x.), where s represents the hidden signal and A x . ) an . unknown function of x.. Because the signal is multiplied by the chaotic function, shadowing techniques [4] will not extract it but a fit using radial basis functions [SI may be used as described below. x.,,, ..., xN] a fit Given a vector of outputs I = [ x . + ~ ,
M-l
f(.n)

quality signal given that the eavesdropper can obtain it only from reception of the coded message and knowledge of the general coding methodology.
Conclusions: From the above it can he seen that there are considerable weaknesses in the method proposed in [2] despite it being highly novel and ingenious. Precise knowledge of the chaotic model and the parameters used are not necessary to recover masked signals provided the eavesdropper assumes that modulation of a chaotic map is being used. A sophisticated d e cracker could employ a range of functions $(rJ to fmd which one gives the best results. In multiuser communications the task becomes trivial because a user knows the form of the chaotic function and then merely has to perform a fit to discover the parameters used. In higher dimensions the fitting clearly becomes more difficult but all chaotic coding schemes will ultimately suffer from the same weakness in that they rely on a deterministic function which is prey to fitting procedures.

=
%=I

L~(T%)

(1)

where r, is the Euclidean distance between the points x. and x , , $(r,) is a nonlinear function of rE, M-l is the number of data points used as centres and h , are parameters, is used giving a linear matrix equation (eqn. 2), which may be solved by any standard inversion technique. 8A=z (2) If M = N then the fit will be exact, however if M < N then the fit takes on properties which may be akin to least squares or cubic splines [SI. In this case the best fit is given by A=8+z (3) Ifs, where @+ is the generalised inverse of a,@+ = (ar@)-Wr. has zero mean (which is always true because any DC component may be absorbed into the parameters of g(xJ) and provided that k > asS.7 (where 41 is the expectation operator) then the best fit . will be = kg(x.), that is the chaotic map without the signal. . Recovery of s is then achieved from
Xn+ -=-l - & + l

28 September 1994 Electronics Letters Online No: 19941370 M. S. Leeson (Centre for Communications Networks Research, Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The Manchester Metropolitan University, Chester St, Manchester MI 5GD. United Kingdom)
0 IEE 1994

Refereom Overview of chaos and communications research, Proc. spri?, 1993,1038, pp. 2-25 ELMIRGHANI, J.M.H., and CRYAN, R.A.: New chaotic based communication technique with multiuser provision, Electron. 0 Lett.. 1994, 3 ,(15), pp. 12W1207 3 GRASSBERGER, P., and PROCACCIA, I : Measuring the strangeness of strange attractors, Physica D, 1983, 9, pp. 189-208 4 FARMER, I.D., and SIDOROWICH, 1.1.: optid Shadowing and noise reduction, Physica D, 1991, 47, pp. 373-392 5 CASDAGLI, M.: Nonlinear prediction of chaotic time series, Physic0 D, 1989,35, pp. 335-356
1
PECORA, L.M.:

sn

k To extract the signal used in [2] the first 10 points of the received sequence may be used as centres and A found using the fust 60
&+I

(4)

points. The use of this procedure with $(rJ = r,* gives results as shown in Fig. I C ; the signal can easily be recovered, as would be expected since k = 3.85 and @sn7= 0.025.
0 -25

Use of a guard interval in OFDM on multipath channels

A. Vahlin and N. Holte
Zndexing terms: Frequency division rnultiplexmg,Mobile radw
sysrem

01
ct 0

20

L O

60

80

1 0 ;

120

1LO 160 180 200

002,

The use of a guard interval in OFDM is analysed for a two path channel with white Gaussian noise. A system with zero forcing when equaliser and no guard interval i s used as a refassessing the performance. The results show that a system without a guard interval has a significantly lower bit error rate and requires less bandwidth.
Introduction: Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM)

-002
b

I61

81

101

121

161

161

1192121

181

Fig. 2 Multiuser communication

a x,

b Extracted s.

Multiuser communication: In [2] a scheme for multiuser communication is proposed where the pth user has a parameter U ( p ) and uses the map xn+,(p) y,,(p)x,,(n)(l U p ) x , , ( p ) ) . terms of unauthor= In ised interception this is only a change of the function g(x.) used previously and exactly the same method may be use to extract the signal. Using U p ) = 4.0 a transmitted signal ranging from 0 to 0.25 is produced by the pth user (Fig. 2a); the fitting procedure extracts the signal as shown in Fig. 26. This is an extremely high

is a modulation method which is currently receiving much attention. Several papers have proposed the use of a guard interval (also denoted cyclic extension) [I, 21 in channels with multipath fading. The use of a guard interval eliminates intersymbol and interchannel interference (IS1 and ICI). The priOe paid is an increase in the required bandwidth to maintain the data rate and itr an increase in the bit error rate due to unmatched f l e s in the receiver. These drawbacks have previously becn pointed out but, to the authors knowledge, no quantitative comparison has appeared in the literature. This Letter presents a comparison of systems with and without a guard interval. The system without a guard interval uses a zero forcing equaliser, i.e. a filter in which the transfer function i the s inverse of the channel transfer function. This can he implemented in different ways (e.g. as separate fdters in each channel operating at low sampling rate) but is more complex than the technique with a guard interval. It is however, conceptually simple and well suited

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for a reference system when evaluating the loss in performance for the technique which uses a guard interval.
Channel: Throughout this comparison, a two path channel was

Results: The total BER is the average of the BER in each channel.

Neglecting Q"(.) terms, the BER for CPSK modulation can be

expressed as

assumed. If the transmitted signal is x(t), the received signal can be written as y ( t ) = z ( t ) a e J ' z ( t - 7) n(t) (1) where a,0 and 'c are attenuation, phase shift and delay of the second path, respectively. n(t) is a white Gaussian noise process. The transfer function of the channel is then

where Eb is the transmitted energy per bit.

C(f) = 1 + ae"e-J2"fr (2) In this Letter, the channel parameters are assumed to be known
in the receiver.
System without guard interval: The transmitted signal in a K-channe1 OFDM system without guard interval can he written as [2]
m K-1

z(t) =
n=O k=O

Cm,keJFkth(t -nT)

(3)

where h(t) is a unit energy rectangular pulse of length T and T is the symbol interval. are the transmitted complex symbols. After passing through the channel, the received signal y(t) is demodulated, filtered by matched filters and sampled to obtain estimates of the symbols. The estimate of the symbol at time nT in channel k is
&,k = [ y ( t ) e - j F k t * h ( t ) ] t = n T (4) where * denotes convolution. With the zero forcing equaliser, the symbols are perfectly recovered in the absence of noise. The variance of the noise at decision in channel k is

-25

-20

-15 -10 level of second path, dB

-5
E E

F .1 Bit s

error rate agarnst level of second path for system wrth and without guard interval

- - _ _ with guard interval without guard interval

~

where N 0 / 2 is the power spectral density of the noise n(t) and HV) is the Fourier transform of h(t).
System with guard interval: For a system employing the technique with a guard interval, the transmitted signal can be written [2]
m K-1

z ( t )=
n=O k=O

~,,,kc?@~'ht(t

- n(To +A))

(6)

where h,(t) is the normalised transmitted pulse defined as (7) otherwise The symbol interval is now T = 'To + A. To maintain the same data rate when a guard interval A is used, the channel spacing must he increased. The required bandwidth is therefore a factor 1 + (UTo)larger than the system without a guard interval. In the receiver, estimates of the symbols are calculated from the received signal At) as = [Y(t)e-3gk' * h T ( t ) ] t = n ( ~ o + ~ ) where h,(t) is the receiver filter defined as
&,k

Fig. 1 shows the result of evaluating eqn. 12 for a system with and a system without a guard interval as a function of the level of the second path (ain dB). The signal to noise ratio is E6/No= 9dB and the number of channels K = 16. The channel has dT = 0.125 and 0 = %. For the system with a guard interval, A/T = 0.2. For small a,the channel is close to Gaussian and it is obvious that the system with a guard interval has higher BER due to an unmatched filter. For large a,both systems will have BER close to 50%. For intermediate levels of a,it is apparent from Fig. 1 that the system without a guard interval performs better. The parameters 'c and 0 affect the BER in each channel but simulations have shown that the average BER is approximately independent of these parameters (for 'c < A). ,
Conclusion: Taking multipath fading and white Gaussian noise into account, the technique with a guard interval in OFDM does not perform as well as a system with zero forcing equaliser and no guard interval. The system with a guard interval has significantly higher bit error rate at the same SNR and it uses more bandwidth for the same data rate. I9 August 1994 Electronics Letters Online No: 19941374 A. Vahlin and N. Hoke (Department of Telecommunications, The Norwegian Institute of Technology. N-7034 Trondheim, Norway)
0 IEE 1994

ht(t)=

-%<t<%+A

(8)

<t+A < (9) otherwise Note that the receiver filter h,(t) is not matched to the transmitted pulse h,(t). The variance of the noise at sampling is therefore 1 + (NTJ times larger than in the matched fdter case. If the delay of the second path is less than the guard interval (r < A), there is neither IS1 nor IC1 with this technique. However, the symbols are distorted. The estimated symbols in the absence of noise can be written as
h,(t) =
t n , k = c,,k(l+ a e J ( ' - W ) ) (10) The transmitted symbols are perfectly recovered by dividing the estimates by 1 + ae~(e-(2n'To)*x). The variance of the noise at decision in channel k is then

(y -9

ReferI PELED,A., and RUlZ A.: 'Frequency domain data transmission using reduced computational complexity algorithms'. Proc. ICASSP, 1980, (Denver, CO), pp. 964967 2 RUIZ,A., CIOFFI,I.M., and K A S T U R I ~ S . : 'Discrete multiple tone modulation with coset coding for the spectrally shaped channel', IEEE Trans., 1992, COM-40, pp. 1012-1019

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