Quad-Rotor Unmanned Aerial Vehicle

Helicopter Modelling & Control

Regular Paper



Yogianandh Naidoo
1,*
, Riaan Stopforth
2
and Glen Bright
3

1 School of Mechanical Engineering, University of KwaZulu Natal

2 Mechatronics and Robotics Research Group (MR2G) Search and Rescue Division, University of KwaZulu-Natal
3 Mechatronics and Robotics Research Group (MR2G), University of KwaZulu-Natal

*CorrespondingAuthorEmail:205506529@ukzn.ac.za

Received 11 February 2011; Accepted 25 Aug 2011

Abstract This paper presents the investigation of the

modelling and control of a quadrotor helicopter and
forms part of research involving the development of an
unmannedaerialvehicle(UAV)tobe usedinsearchand
rescue applications. Quadrotor helicopters consist of
twopairsofcounterrotatingrotorssituatedattheendsof
a cross, symmetric about the centre of gravity, which
coincides with the origin of the reference system used.
These rotors provide the predominant aerodynamic
forceswhichactontherotorcraft,andaremodelledusing
momentumtheoryaswellasbladeelementtheory.From
this, one can determine the expected payload capacity
andliftperformanceoftherotorcraft.TheEulerLagrange
methodhasbeenusedtoderivethedefiningequationsof
motion of the six degreeoffreedom system. The
Lagrangian was obtained by modelling the kinetic and
potential energy of the system and the external forces
obtained from the aerodynamic analysis. Based on this
model, a control strategy was developed using linear PD
controllers. A numerical simulation was then conducted
using MATLAB Simulink. First, the derived model
was simulated to investigate the behaviour of the
rotorcraft,andthenasecondinvestigationwasconducted
todeterminetheeffectivenessoftheimplementedcontrol
system. The results and findings of these investigations
arethenpresentedanddiscussed.
KeywordsQuadrotor,unmannedvehicle,aerialvehicle

1.Introduction

1.1Background

The following dynamics model pertains to a quadrotor

unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) helicopter which is
intended to be used as a search and rescue field robot.
The use of a rotorcraft allows for high degrees of
manoeuvrability, including the ability to hover. The
ultimate aim is to develop a selfstabilizing and self
navigatingUAVcapableofperformingautonomoustake
offs and landings similar to the unmanned aerial system
(UAS) developed at Stellenbosch University (IKPeddle,
2009). This way, the UAV is able to transmit data to
operatorssituatedatasafevantagepointatthesceneofa
disaster. In most cases, the state of such disaster sites is
toodangerousforhumanexpedition.Byusingrobots,the
sitecanbeproperlyanalysedandbetterdecisionscanbe
madewithregardstotheexecutionofarescueoperation
(D Greer, 2002). The use of a hovering robot as a search
and rescue robot means that rescue team response times
can be kept to a minimum. This is important as it is
crucial to seek victims as soon as possible to ensure the
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Int J Adv Robotic Sy, 2011, Vol. 8, No. 4, 139-149

best possible survival rate. One of the most successful

multirotor platforms is the Draganflyer XPro (Sikiric,
2008).Thiswasusedasaplatformforresearchconducted
at the Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm,
Sweden. The reason for pursuing a multirotor rotorcraft
isduetothesmallrotorspansallowable,thusminimising
the damage in the event of a collision. The large rotor
spans of conventional helicopters are too dangerous to
manoeuvre in confined spaces as well as near injured
victims.

It must be noted that this is not the only method for

derivingamathematicalmodelforasystemsuchasthis,
but is the preferred method for the author. Research
conducted at the University of South Florida (N
Aldawoodi, 2004) presented a heuristic technique that
applies simulated annealing search to derive
mathematicalequations.

1.2QuadrotorHelicopterStructure

The structure of a quadrotor helicopter is a simple one,

basicallycomprisingoffourrotorsattachedattheendsof
a symmetric cross. A proposed structure is presented in
figure1.

The key features that should be taken into account in

such a structure are symmetry and rigidity. To avoid
unstable flight, the structure should be as rigid as
possible, while maintaining the lightest possible weight.
Thebestwaytoachievethisisthroughlightweightalloys
or composites. Symmetry is also of great importance for
stability. The centre of gravity (COG) should be kept as
close to the middle of the rotorcraft as possible, as
depictedinfigure3.

Figure1.Proposedquadrotorhelicopterstructure

1.3SystemIntegration

Theelectronicsystemintegrationispresentedinfigure2.
The key components are a microcontroller, electronic
speed controllers (ESCs), an attitude and heading
reference system (AHRS), a communication interface
between the UAV and the user, a vision system and
suitablepowerdistribution.

The microcontroller receives data from the AHRS, vision

system and communication interface, which is then
processed so that orders can be executed to the ESCs to
controlthemotor.

TheAHRSmeasurestheinertialmovementsoftheUAV.
Itcomprisesofaninertialmeasurementunit(IMU)anda
globalpositioningsystem(GPS).TheIMUcontains3axis
accelerometers and gyroscopes to measure translational
and rotational body motion respectively. It also consists
of a magnetometer, which acts as a digital compass and
determines the heading of the UAV. The GPS is used to
determine the location of the rotorcraft. Another
component which could be added to the AHRS is a
pressure sensor to measure altitude. However, these
sensors are only suitable for high altitude applications
and therefore, it would be more appropriate to use
rangefinder to determine the altitude of the UAV. These
rangefinders could be either sonar or laser and form as
part of the vision system. The vision system is used to
detect possible obstacles in the path of the rotorcraft, as
well as transfer visual data to the user via the
communicationinterface.

Lithium Polymer (LiPo) batteries are the most suitable

power source in such applications due to their
lightweight properties. Power is distributed to all the
electronics in the system via a power distribution board
(PDB).

1.4FlightDynamics

Like a conventional helicopter, a quadrotor helicopter is

asixdegreeoffreedom,highlynonlinear,multivariable,
strongly coupled, and underactuated system. The main
forcesandmomentsactingonaquadrotorhelicopterare
produced by its rotors (WDaobo, 2008). It is arguably a
simpler setup from its dual rotor counterpart, as quad
rotor helicopters can be controlled exclusively by
variation in motor speed. Two pairs of rotors rotate in
opposite directions to balance the total torque of the
system. Figure3 (WDaobo, 2008), shows a free body
diagram of a typical quadrotor type helicopter. As
shown, only two reference frames are used (the earth
fixed frame, E, and the body frame, B), unlike that of a
conventional helicopter which has three. The reason for
thisisthattherotorsofaquadrotorhelicopterarefixed;
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whereas the main rotor of a conventional helicopter has

actuators to control the roll and pitch angles, which
movesindependentofthefuselage.

SONAR
RANGEFINDERS
CAMERA
MODULE
VISION
SYSTEM
XBEE WIRELESS
RADIO
CONTROLLER
COMMUNICATION
SYSTEM
MICROCONTROLLER
GPS
AHRS
MAGNETOMETER
3 AXIS
GYROSCOPE
3 AXIS
ACCELEROMETER
IMU
ESC 1 ESC 2 ESC 3 ESC 4
POWER
DISTRIBUTION
LIPO
BATTERIES
PDB
MOTOR
1
MOTOR
1
MOTOR
1
MOTOR
1

Figure2.Electronicsystemintegration

Figure3.Freebodydiagramofaquadrotorhelicopter
A quadrotor setup is controlled by manipulating thrust
forces from individual rotors as well as balancing drag
torque. For hovering, all rotors apply a constant thrust
forceasillustratedinfigure4(c),thuskeepingtheaircraft
balanced.Tocontrolverticalmovement,themotorspeed
is simultaneously increased or decreased, thus having a
lowerorhighertotalthrustbutstillmaintainingbalance.
Forattitudecontrol,theyawangle()maybecontrolled
bymanipulatingthetorquebalance,dependingonwhich
direction the aircraft should rotate. The total thrust force
still remains balanced, and therefore no altitude change
occurs. This can be shown in figures 4(a) and 4(b). In a
similarway,therollangle( )andpitchangle()canbe
manipulated applying differential thrust forces on
opposite rotors, as illustrated in figure 4(d) (Stepaniak,
2008;JKim,2010).

Although this may seem simple in theory, practically,

there will be many factors which need to be taken into
account.Oneofthegreatestchallengeswillbetoachieve
stabilityinanoutdoorenvironment.Especiallyadisaster
area where there will be many obstacles and possibly
harshwinds.

1.5RotorAerodynamics

As with conventional helicopters, most of the

aerodynamic significance of quadrotor helicopters lies
within their rotors. The propellers, motors and batteries
determinethepayloadandflighttimeperformanceofthe
aircraft. The rotors, especially, influence the natural
dynamics and power efficiency. Research at the
Australian National University (PPounds, 2004) has
shown that an approximate understanding of helicopter
rotor performance can be obtained from the momentum
theoryofrotors.Thisperformanceisveryimportant.Asa

Figure 4. Quadrotor dynamics, (a) and (b) difference in torque

to manipulate the yaw angle (); (c) hovering motion and
verticalpropulsionduetobalancedtorques;and(d)differencein
thrusttomanipulatethepitchangle()therollangle( ).
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Yogianandh Naidoo, Riaan Stopforth and Glen Bright:
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searchandrescuerobot,therotorcraftwillbeexposedto
harsh environments where it should be able to produce
enough thrust force to counter any bursts of external
forces applied to it in order for it to stabilise itself.
Further, it should be able to carry the payload of
equipmentsuchascameras,sensors,etc.

2.RotorAerodynamics:Momentum
TheoryandBladeElementTheory

Momentum theory can be used to provide relationships

between thrust, induced velocity and power in the rotor.
Using energy conservation (PPounds, 2004), it can be
shownthatinhover,

2
2
i
Av T
(1)

WhereTisthethrust,isthedensityofair,Aisthearea
oftherotor,andvi istheinducedairvelocityattherotor.
Blade element theory (PPounds, 2004; JFDouglas, 2005)
is particularly useful for airfoil and rotor performance.
Theforcesandmomentdevelopedonauniformwingare
modelledby,

c v C L
L
2
2
1

(2)

c v C D
D
2
2
1

(3)

2 2
2
1
c v C M
M

(4)

Where, for unit span, L is the lift produced, D is the

profile drag and M is the pitching moment. v is the
velocity of the wing through the air and c is the chord
length.CL,CD andCM aredimensionlesscoefficientsoflift,
drag and moment, respectively. They are dependent
upon the wings Reynolds Number (RE), Mach number
and angle of attack (). For a rotor with angular velocity
, the linear velocity at each point along the rotor is
proportionaltotheradialdistancefromtherotorshaft,

R v (5)

Byintegratingliftanddragalongthelengthoftheblade,
equivalent rules may be produced for the entire rotor
(PPounds,2004).
2
i i
b F
(6)

2
i i
d (7)

Wherebanddarethethrustanddragmomentconstants
respectively.
2
AR C b
T
(8)

3
AR C d
Q

(9)
Fi isthethrustproducedbyrotori,i isthedragmoment
and R is the rotor radius. CT and CQ are dimensionless
thrust and drag moment coefficients. It is also evident
from equation (6) and equation (7) that the thrust force
and rotor torque is directly proportional to the angular
velocity of the rotor. This is a useful relationship, as the
rotor angular velocity can be controlled by the motor,
thus, the thrust force and drag moment can also be
controlled by the motor. Smaller rotors require higher
speeds and more power than larger rotors for the same
thrust (PPounds, 2004). The respective total thrust force
androtortorqueofthesystemis,

4
1 i
i
F f
(10)

Besides the thrust force and the drag moment, which are
the predominant aerodynamic forces and moments
created by a rotor, there exist three other external
aerodynamicinfluences(RSiegwart,2007)whichactona
propeller.Thesemaybeillustratedinfigure5.Thefirstis
called ground effect. This refers to the variation of the
thrust coefficient when the rotor is in close proximity to
the ground. The ground effect thrust force may be
describedas,

2
R A C F
i
IGE
T IGE


(11)

Where, CT
IGE
is the thrust coefficient near ground level.
Another influential aerodynamic force occurs as a result
of horizontal forces acting on all the blade elements,
knownasthehubforce,

2
) ( R A C H
i H

(12)

CHisthehubforcecoefficient.

The third influence, referred to as rolling moment Rm, is

the combined moment due to the lift at each point along
theradiusoftherotor,

R R A C R
i R m
m
2

(13)

Where,
m
R
C istherollingmomentcoefficient.

Figure5.Aerodynamicforcesandmomentsonarotor
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3.CoordinateReferenceFramesandtheRotationMatrix

There are two coordinate reference frames when

analysingquadrotorhelicopterdynamics.Thefirstisthe
earth fixed frame, labelled E in figure 3. The other is the
body reference frame, labelled B, which is a rotating co
ordinate frame with the origin, situated at the centre of
gravity of the rotorcraft. All rotation occurs about the
origin, and can be described by specifying an axis of
rotation as well as an angle by which the frame is being
rotated. This type of rotation is described in Eulers
Theorem (ATewari, 2007), which states that the relative
orientation of any pair of coordinate frames is uniquely
determinedbyarotationbyangle,, aboutafixedaxis
through the common origin, called the Euler axis. This
uniquerotationistermedtheprincipalangle.Agraphical
representationcanbeshowninfigure6,wherethevector
eistheEuleraxisandtherotationangle representsthe
principalangle.

Sincethebodymotionsensorswillbeattacheddirectlyto
the reference frame, the readings will be with relation to
the rotated frame. Therefore, it is important to obtain
these coordinates in order to successfully model the
system.Thisisdonethrougharotationmatrix(ATewari,
2007;PCastilloR.a.,2005).Ifunitvectors,i;jandk,inthe
directionofthex;yandzaxesrespectively,arerotatedto
theorientationofx;yandz,withunitvectorsi,jandk
respectively, then these new unit vectors can be
represented in terms of the original orientation with the
useofarotationmatrix(ATewari,2007),

(
(
(

=
(
(
(

'
'
'
k
j
i
R
k
j
i
(14)
Where,
(
(
(

' ' '

' ' '
' ' '
=
k k j k i k
k j j j i j
k i j i i i
R
(15)

Figure6.Euleraxisandprincipalangleonarotatingcoordinateframe
The rotation matrix R is orthogonal, which implies that
the matrix transposed would be equivalent its inverse
form
.
Foreveryrotation,arotationmatrixexists.Iftheco
ordinate frame had to go through a second rotation, R,
then the resultant rotation from its original orientation
wouldbeR,where,

R R R ' = ' '

(16)

Thisisanextremelyusefulcharacteristic,asafullrotation
ofasystemcanbedescribedasaproductoftherotations
aboutitsx,yandzaxes,
z y x
R R R R =
(17)

Where for a roll angle | about the xaxis, pitch angle

about the yaxis and yaw angle about the zaxis
(ATewari,2007),

(
(
(

=
| |
| |
cos sin 0
sin cos 0
0 0 1
x
R
(18)

(
(
(

=
u u
u u
cos 0 sin
0 1 0
sin 0 cos
y
R
(19)

(
(
(

=
1 0 0
0 cos sin
0 sin cos


z
R
(20)

ResultinginarotationmatrixR,wherecrepresentscos
andsrepresentssin,

(
(
(

+
+

=
u | | u | | u |
u | | u | | u |
u u u
c c c s s s c s s c s c
c s c c s s s s c c s s
s s c c c
R

(21)

4.QuadRotorDynamicsModelling

The EulerLagrange method (PCastillo R. a., 2005;

PCastilloA.a.,2004)isusedtomodeltheflightdynamics
of the rotorcraft. The model stands under the
assumptions that the motor dynamics are relatively fast
andmaythereforebeneglected.Also,therotorbladesare
assumed to be perfectly rigid and no blade flapping
occurs. Although this does occur in reality, the effects of
this phenomenon are minuscule and will be considered
later in the research. External wind forces are also not
considered at this stage. The equations of motion are
developed in terms of the translational and rotational
parameters of the sixdegreeoffreedom system, using
generalisedcoordinatesinavectorq,
Yogianandh Naidoo, Riaan Stopforth and Glen Bright:
Quad-Rotor Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Helicopter Modelling & Control
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| |
T
z y x q u | =
(22)

These coordinates can be separated into translational, ,

androtational,,coordinateswhere,

| |
T
z y x = and | |
T
u | q = (23)

Therefore,

| |
T
q q = (24)

ALagrangianisobtainedbymodellingtheenergyofthe
system, where the difference between kinetic and
potential energy is taken. Kinetic energy of the system is
modelled for both translational and rotational motion.
The potential energy of the system is related only to the
altitude of the rotorcraft. The Lagrangian, L, can be
expressedas,
U T L = (25)

Where, T is the kinetic energy and U is the potential

energy of the system. The total kinetic energy of the
system is the sum of the energy due to the translational
motion and rotational motion. Therefore, the final
expressionobtainedfortheLagrangianis,

mgz I m q q L
T T
+ = q q

2
1
2
1
) , (
(26)

Thiscanbereducedto,

( )
( ) mgz I I I
z y x m q q L
zz yy xx
+ + +
+ + =
2 2 2
2 2 2
2
1
2
1
) , (
u |


(27)

For this analysis, the EulerLagrange equation with an

externalgeneralisedforce(PCastilloR.a.,2005)isused.

F
q
L
q
L
dt
d
=
c
c

c
c

(28)

Where,theforceFrepresentsalltheexternalforcesacting
onthebodyoftherotorcraft.Again,thiscanbesplitinto
translational,

F
androtational,components.Where,

| |
T
z y x
F F F F =

(29)

And,

| |
T
u |
t t t t =
(30)

Therefore,

| |
T
F F t

=
(31)

ThePDEs
q
L
dt
d
c
c
and
q
L
c
c
canbeexpressedas,

(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

+
+
+
=
c
c

u u
| |

zz zz
yy yy
xx xx
I I
I I
I I
z m
y m
x m
q
L
dt
d
(32)

And,

| |
T
mg
q
L
0 0 0 0 0 =
c
c
(33)

The only forces acting on the body are those from the
rotor. The translational forces are the thrust forces
resulting from each rotor, and the rotational forces are
duetothedragmomentaswellasthemomentcausedby
thrust forces from opposite rotors about the centre of
gravity. It must be noted that hub force, ground effect
and gyro effects were not taken into account, as the
model was developed for the purpose of designing a
control system around it, and thus should be kept as
simpleaspossible,withonlythemaineffectsbeingtaken
intoaccount.Thereforethetranslationalforceis,

| |
T
rotor
f F 0 0 =
(34)

Where, f is the total thrust force. However, this force is

always in the zdirection of the body reference frame. In
order to obtain a force that will correlate with the global
coordinates and sensor readings, the rotation matrix
discussedinequation(21)isused.Thisallowstheauthor
tocomparesensorreadingswithcalculatedvaluestofind
a correlation between theoretical and measured
parameters.Therefore,

rotor
F R F . =

(35)

Itcanbeseenthat,

(
(
(

=
u |
u |
u

cos cos
cos sin
sin
f
f
f
F
(36)

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For the rotational componentt , moments are taken from

aboutthecentreofgravityintherollandpitchdirections.
Therefore,
l F F
M M
) (
1 3
=
|
t (37)

l F F
M M
) (
4 2
=
u
t 38)

Where,listhelineardistancefromthecentreoftherotor
to the centre of gravity. In the direction of yaw, the sum
ofallthedragmomentsproducedbytherotorsaretaken
intoaccount,
Mi
i
t t

4
1 =
=
(39)

Where,
Mi
t is the torque produced by rotor i. Therefore,
the total force function can be represented as the
followingvector,

( )
( )
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

=
=
Mi
i
M M
M M
l F F
l F F
f
f
f
F
t
u |
u |
u
4
1
4 2
1 3
cos cos
cos sin
sin
(40)

Thus, the EulerLagrange equation, together with

equations(32),(33)and(40)yields,

( )
( )
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

=
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

+
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

+
+
+
=
Mi
i
M M
M M
zz zz
yy yy
xx xx
l F F
l F F
f
f
f
mg
I I
I I
I I
z m
y m
x m
t
u |
u |
u

u u
| |
4
1
4 2
1 3
cos cos
cos sin
sin
0
0
0
0
0

(41)

Therefore,

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

|
.
|

\
|

=
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

=
=
t
u
|
u |
u |
u

u
|

zz Mi
i
zz
yy M M
yy
xx M M
xx
I
I
I l F F
I
I l F F
I
g
m
f
m
f
m
f
z
y
x
q
4
1
4 2
1 3
1
1
1
cos cos
cos sin
sin

(42)

Near hover, the angular rates can be taken to be

negligible.

5.QuadRotorControl

Attitude (| , and ) and altitude (z) had to be taken

intoaccountinordertostabilisetherotorcraft.Position(x
and y) is dependent on the roll and pitch angle
orientation. Thus, the position can be controlled via
attitude control. Therefore, the system is an under
actuated one, having six degrees of freedom and only
four control inputs. Essentially, all manoeuvres that are
executed by the rotorcraft are resultant from the
manipulation of thrust and drag moment created by the
four rotors. These parameters are related using the
relationshipdescribedinequation(6)andequation(7).It
is evident from this that by controlling the rotational
speed of the motors, one can effectively control the
rotorcraft.Therefore,thefollowingarechosenforcontrol
inputs based on works conducted at Lausanne
(SBouabdallah,2007)andStanfordUniversity(HHuang,
2009),

( )
2
4
2
3
2
2
2
1 1
e e e e + + + = b u
(43)

( )l b u
2
1
2
3 2
e e =
(44)

( )l b u
2
4
2
2 3
e e =
(45)

( )
2
4
2
3
2
2
2
1 4
e e e e + = d u (46)

Where,u1,u2,u3andu4arecontrolinputsforaltitude,roll,
pitch and yaw respectively. From this, the simplified
modelderivedinequation(42)becomes,

(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

=
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

=
4
3
2
1
1
1
cos cos
cos sin
sin
u
I
u
I
u
I
g
m
f
m
f
m
f
z
y
x
q
zz
yy
xx
u |
u |
u

u
|








(47)

Itisevidentfromequation(47)thatthesimplifiedsystem
is linear and not coupled. Thus, a linear PD controller
designwaschosentobeused.

Thecontrolinputsdescribedinequation(43)toequation
(46)mayberepresentedinvectorform,

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(
(
(
(
(

(
(
(
(

=
(
(
(
(

2
4
2
3
2
2
2
1
4
3
2
1
0 0
0 0
e
e
e
e
d d d d
bL bL
bL bL
b b b b
u
u
u
u
(47)

Equation (47) can be rearranged to be found in terms of

therotationalspeedvector,

(
(
(
(

(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

=
(
(
(
(
(

4
3
2
1
2
4
2
3
2
2
2
1
4
1
2
1
0
4
1
4
1
0
2
1
4
1
4
1
2
1
0
4
1
4
1
0
2
1
4
1
u
u
u
u
d bL b
d bL b
d bL b
d bL b
e
e
e
e
(48)

From this, the desired motor speed may be computed so

that it can then be sent to the motor controllers. The
columnsofthematrixinequation(48)correspondtoeach
control input, and the rows correspond to the square of
the rotational speed of eachmotor. Thus, the square root
of each row must be computed before the values can be
sent to the controller. There are four feedback control
loops (figure 7) which are seperate from each other,
whichforaPDcontroller,takestheform,

U=kp(proportionalerror)+kd(derivativeerror)

The PD controllers for altitude, roll, pitch and yaw

respectivelyare,

( ) ( ) y y k y y k U
ref d ref p
ALT ALT
+ =
1
(49)

( ) ( ) | | | |

+ =
ref d ref p
ROLL ROLL
k k U
2
(50)

( ) ( ) u u u u

+ =
ref d ref p
PITCH PITCH
k k U
3
(51)

( ) ( ) + =
ref d ref p
YAW YAW
k k U
4
(52)

Thesefeedbackcontrolloopswillbeimplementedusinga
microcontrollerasexpalinedinfigure2.

Figure7.Feedbackcontrolloop

6.ModelSimulation

The mathematical model described by equation (42) was

simulated on MATLAB

Simulink

, with motor speed and

basicsystemparameters(listedinTable1)asinputswiththe
thrust,torque, q , q and q asoutputs.Thethrustforcesand
rotortorquesweremodelledaroundequations(6)and(7).

m kg 4
l m 0.3
R m 0.15

kg/m
3
1.204
CT 0.5
CQ 0.08
Table1.Constantmodelparameters

To investigate if the simulation describes the behaviour of

the rotorcraft, four simulations were conducted with the
motor inputs specified in Table 2. These simulations were
strategically chosen to investigate lift, yawing, pitching and
rollingmotionrespectively.First,theywereconductedwith
nocontrolsystemsimplemented,andthentheeffectsofthe
controlsystemwereinvestigated,usingthesameinputdata.

6.1DynamicModelWithoutControl

The first simulation investigated the upward lift

behaviour by applying equivalent speeds of 230rpm to
each motor to create a constant total lift of 41.63N. The
resultant upward acceleration and velocity are shown in
figure 8 and figure 9. This correlates to the expected
upward acceleration, however, depicts an ideal situation
withoutanyexternalwindforcesbeingcompensatedfor.

Simulation
Number
MotorSpeed(rad/s)
Motor1
(CW)
Motor2
(CCW)
Motor3
(CW)
Motor4
(CCW)
1 230 230 230 230
2 231 229 231 229
3 230 229 230 231
4 229 230 231 230
Table2.Simulationmotorspeedinputs

Figure8.GraphofAcceleration(verticalaxis)vsTime(horizontalaxis)
Figure9.GraphofSpeed(verticalaxis)vsTime(horizontalaxis)
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Figure10.GraphofYaw(verticalaxis)vsTime(horizontalaxis)

Figure11.GraphofYawRate(verticalaxis)vsTime(horizontalaxis)

Figure12.GraphofRoll(verticalaxis)vsTime(horizontalaxis)

Thesecondsimulationinvestigatedtheyawingmotionof
the rotorcraft. Here, both clockwise rotating rotors were
set to rotate faster than the counterclockwise rotating
rotors, resulting in a constant counterclockwise angular
acceleration of 0.1235rad/s
2
. This behaviour is described
infigure10andfigure11.

The third and fourth simulations investigate the stability

of the rotorcraft with regards to rotational motion in the
pitching and rolling directions. In each case, one rotor
waschosentorotatefasterthanmotorsadjacenttoit,and
themotoroppositetoitchosentorotateslower.

Asnotedinfigure12,therollangleincreasestoalmostan
entire revolution in the oneminute simulation time. This
behaviour is unstable, and control is therefore required.
The resultant translational motion is also unstable. An
imbalanceoftorquewasalsonoted.

6.2ModelSimulationWithControl

After recording the behaviour of the derived

mathematical model, simulations were conducted to
investigatetheeffectsofthecontroldesignonthesystem.
The simulation inputs were identical to those in section
6.1.

6.2.1Altitudecontrol

The first simulation concentrated on altitude. The

controller implemenred is the one described in equation
(49).Theaimofthesimulationwastogettherotorcraftto
hoverataconstantaltitudeof10m.Figure13,showsthe
natural response of the system without any control
implemented. Figure 14 shows the effects on the system
when the controller is implemented. It is clear from this
comparison that the control design is effective, where a
steadystateisachieved.

Figure13.GraphofAltitude(verticalaxis)vsTime(horizontalaxis)

Figure14.GraphofAltitude(verticalaxis)vsTime(horizontalaxis)

6.2.2.YawControl

Theyawcontrollerimplementedduringthissimulationis
basedonequation(52).Theaimofthissimulationwasto
obtain a desired yaw angle of zero. This was effectively
achievedwithminimalresponsetime,asshowninfigure
15 and figure 16. This is evident if one compares the
natural response, depicted in figure 10 and figure 11, to
thecontrolledresponse.

Figure15.GraphofYawvsTime

6.2.3Roll/PitchControl

The controllers implemented for pitch and roll control

can be described in equations (50) and (51) respectively.
Yogianandh Naidoo, Riaan Stopforth and Glen Bright:
Quad-Rotor Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Helicopter Modelling & Control
147
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These parameters are extremely important to both

stabilise the rotorcraft, as well as manipulate latitudinal
position.However,sincetheaimofthesimulationwasto
stabilise the rotorcraft while it is hovering, the desired
referencevaluesweresettozero.Thiswasachievedtoan
extent.Figure17,figure18andfigure19showtheresults
obtained for the controlled roll values and the
correspondingrate.Figure17maybecomparedtofigure
12 to observe the effectiveness of the control design.
Similar results were obtained for simulations regarding
pitchcontrol.

Figure16.GraphofYawRate(verticalaxis)vsTime(horizontalaxis)

Figure17.GraphofRoll(verticalaxis)vsTime(horizontalaxis)

Figure 18. Graph of angular speed (vertical axis) vs Time

(horizontalaxis)

Figure 19. Graph of angular acceleration (vertical axis) vs Time

(horizontalaxis)

7.Discussion

The linear PD controller design in section 5 of this paper

may be sufficient to stabilise the rotorcraft. The only
results achieved that were of concern, were those
regardingpitchandrollcontrol.Itisevidentinfigure17,
thatthereisarampingeffect,whenthesignalshouldbea
constant. This is as a result of integration errors caused
due to secondorder integration. The original values are
computed in the numerical model using equation (53),
thus,theanglesrequiredareachievedbyintegration.Itis
evidentinfigure19thatthesignalindeedsettles,butthe
mean error carried over in the first integration when
computing the rate (figure 18), is translated into a slope
when integrated again. This is evident in figure 17.
However, these results are acceptable, as they indicate
that the controller does effectively stabilise the signal
close to the desired reference value. Further, the values
thatwillbefedbacktothecontrollerinpractice,willnot
be computed but measured from sensors, thus
eliminatingthesetypesoferrors,butofcourse,incurring
othererrorsinvolvedwithsensors.However,suchissues
willonlybeabletobesolvedoncetheyareencountered.

8.Conclusion

The rotorcraft behaviour described by the simulated

model does correlate with what is expected in reality.
However, the physical parameters documented are not
completely accurate due to the restraining force exerted
by the air not being taken into account. In reality, the
velocity of the rotorcraft will reach a terminal velocity at
some point, and not continue to increase. This
phenomenon willbeinvestigatedinthenearfuture,asit
serves as a subject of importance to the research.
However,itextendsoutofthelimitsofthispaper.

The information obtained from the dynamics model was

used for the development of the control system. As
shown in section 6.1 of this paper, the rotorcraft will be
almostimpossibletooperatewithouttheimplementation
of a stabilizing control system. Even the slightest
variationofrotorspeedcanresultinapossiblecrashdue
totherotorcraftspinningoutofcontrol.

Speed controllers for the electric motors have to be as

accurateaspossible,withcontrolfeedbacktimeskepttoa
minimum.Thiswillbeachallengingtaskandwillrequire
very sensitive gyroscopes, accelerometers and
magnetometers to detect when the rotorcraft has strayed
offpathandrequirescorrection.

To successfully manoeuvre the rotorcraft in the

translational x and y directions, the control system must
alsobeusedtoensureatorquebalancesothatthecorrect
headingisobtained.TheassistanceofaGPSmodulewill
Int J Adv Robotic Sy, 2011, Vol. 8, No. 4, 139-149 148
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also enhancethe directionalcontrol of the rotorcraft. The

correct angle of attack as well as a preservation of the
total upward thrust must also be executed to ensure
stabilitywhilepreservingthedirectionofthecraft.

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Quad-Rotor Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Helicopter Modelling & Control
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