Oscilloscope Series

G THE OSCILLOSCOPE PART 1 - BASIC PRINCIPLES
Oscilloscope
Gordon King G4VFV explains the basic principles of the oscilloscope, a piece of test equipment that he says should be every Radio Amateurs bench companion.
of the scope are those of a high-resistance voltmeter and a frequency indicator. However, before we get too carried away lets first have a look at how the scope works and its principles of operation. The heart of the analogue scope, the type of instrument that we shall be investigating in this series, is the cathode-ray tube (c.r.t.). The scope c.r.t. includes many of the basic principles of the television picture tube; but there are differences. For Radio Amateur use we would not normally expect our scope to provide colour displays; and a screen the size of that in television receivers would be going a bit over the top too! There are other technical differences, including magnetic deflection, but we shall pick these up as we go along.
remember writing in one of my early books entitled Servicing with the Oscilloscope, first published in 1969 by NewnesButterworth, that the oscilloscope is a measuring and diagnostic instrument of prodigious versatility. Some 35 years later I still regard the instrument in exactly the same light. The oscilloscope has been my bench companion since as far back as I can remember. I think my very first feel of the oscilloscopes potential was after I had improvised a very basic hook-up for examining the mains supply waveform and its harmonics. That must have been just before the start of The Second World War, before I had emerged from my apprenticeship (as a typewriter mechanic!).
Cathode Ray Tube

A good idea now would be to look again at the skeleton presentation of a scopes c.r.t. that appeared in RB in the June 2004 issue of PW (Fig. 1). Right at the narrow end of the tubes glass envelope you will see the electrode conglomeration from which the electron beam is fired at high velocity. This is known as the electron gun for obvious reasons. The beam from the gun then passes through the space between two pairs of plates, known as the X and Y deflection plates, before arriving at the screen at the front of the tube where it impinges at a remarkable velocity upon the luminescent screen
No Financial Excuse!
As Rob G3XFD, the Editor, has taken pains to emphasise in the May to September issues of PW in his excellent on-running Radio Basics (RB) series, the oscilloscope (or scope for short) is most definitely the primary of all instruments that should always be at hand to the enthusiastic experimenter and Radio Amateur in his or her workshop or shack. Theres not really any financial excuse nowadays for not being equipped bearing in mind the incredibly low price for which scopes of earlier specifications can now be acquired from rallies and car boot sales, etc. Once you are conversant with any reasonable scope, regardless of its age, then if nothing else, it can be put into immediate use for gauging the magnitude of a voltage and the repetition frequency of a waveform. In other words, a couple of the basic applications
Did You Know?

The afterglow effect on a scope screen is caused by the time taken for the light to decay after the electron beam has moved away?
phosphors with which the inside of the screen surface is coated. The glass tube in which all these things are contained is airtight and a virtual vacuum. The cathode in the gun assembly produces the electrons, which eventually form the electron beam. This is brought up to temperature by the heater, which is the same sort of thing as used in a thermionic valve, and the electrons thus emitted pass through the gun electrodes that effectively concentrate them into a forward flowing beam. Almost completely surrounding the
Part 1 Basic Principles

Practical Wireless, January 2005
The
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Horizontal (X) deflection plates
NEW SERIES!
Vertical (Y) deflection plates Glass envelope
Electr on electr beam gu n ic foc ussin and g unit

X2 X1 Annular (beam forming) anode Y2
Y1
G Fig. 1: Simplified outline diagram of the type of cathode-ray tube used in an oscilloscope. The electron gun fires electrons in the form of a focused beam to the phosphor-coated fluorescent screen. Horizontal and vertical deflection respectively results from voltages applied to the X and Y deflection plates, as explained in the text. (Note: this diagram was first published in Radio Basics on page 27 of the June 2004 issue of PW).
Focused stream of electrons
n, cree de) s (insi glows ed coat oltage, on beam phor tr hv Phos t an hig the elec eld a truck by h ns whe
Y1 Electron beam from 'gun' X1

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Y1 (+)
Y1 (-)
X1
X2
X1
X2
Y2 (-)
Y2
(b)
Y2 (+)
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Y1
Y1
X2
Electron beam to screen
X1 (+)
X2 (-) (c)
X1 (-)
X2 (+)
(a)
Y2
Y2
G Fig. 2: Showing above the vertical Y and the horizontal X deflection plates through which the electron beam passes from the electron gun to the fluorescent screen, and (right) the directions of beam deflection resulting from the indicated polarity of the potentials applied to the deflection plates.
cathode is the grid that contains a small aperture at its far end from which the electrons emerge. An anode positioned after the grid prevents undue divergence of the beam, while a second anode serves as a sort of converging lens that allows the beam focus to be optimised at its impinging point on the screen. Operating controls on the front panel of the scope work in relation to the electrodes to provide adjustment of brightness and focus - there are many other controls, of course, as we shall later discover!
Post Deflection Acceleration

The velocity at which the electrons are initially fired towards the screen, and hence
the pre-deflection stiffness of the beam, is related to the voltage applied to the third anode of the electron gun. The higher the voltage here the greater the velocity and therefore the stiffer the beam. Now, because the sensitivity of the beam deflection plates (see later) decreases as the beam becomes stiffer and the display brighter, further beam acceleration might well be provided after the deflection has taken place. This is known as post deflection acceleration (p.d.a.) and neatly bestows the c.r.t. with a higher display brightness without compromising deflection sensitivity. Its achieved by an effective forth anode that consists of a conductive coating in the form of a helix inside the
flare of the tube, between the deflection plates and the screen. One end is held at the voltage of anode three and the other end at an even higher voltage, the
Did You Know?

A photograph taken of an oscilloscope screen is called an oscillogram?
high voltages should not be regarded lightly! High voltages could cause more than a nasty jolt if touched by the human body, so be warned when fiddling about inside any scope. Make sure its switched off, any high voltage capacitors discharged (including the feed from the high voltage supply) and the mains supply disconnected.
ratio between the two being known as the p.d.a. ratio.
Screen Phosphors
Now, because electrons have a definite mass, even though remarkably diminutive, the high velocity at which they are accelerated results in them acquiring kinetic energy (energy possessed by a body in virtue of its motion) on their travel from the electron gun to the
Beware High Voltages!

To provide the required beam velocity and display brightness the potentials on anodes three and four, relative to the tubes cathode, might well be in the order of thousands of volts. Such
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G THE OSCILLOSCOPE PART 1 - BASIC PRINCIPLES

to be sharply focused at the point of impact with the fluorescent screen. However, lets assume for now that this has actually been achieved and that the beam is striking the centre of the screen. This would be indicated by the presence of a small, G Fig. 3. One of the authors early scopes set up for round bright spot at action in his Brixham laboratory/shack. the centre of the fluorescent screen. This energy is display area. We certainly released in the form of light shouldnt let this remain for any radiation immediately the length of time, at high electrons hit the screen. The brightness, anyway, because all colour temperature of the the energy of the beam would be radiation and hence the actual concentrated in that little (very) colour of the display, is governed bright spot and the lightby the chemical characteristics of producing properties of the the phosphors. phosphors around that area For optimum effect, different might then suffer as a result, and applications may require eventually appear on a fullphosphors of different colour screen display as a patch of temperatures. While the reduced brightness. phosphors of a television screen To prevent the screen from are required separately to retaining secondary electrons as produce the three primary it is struck by the beam electrons, colours of red, green and blue the phosphors are nowadays backed by a thin layer of aluminium connected to the Did You Know? conductive layer inside the flare The white light for the of the tube. The aluminium layer television screen is known as also helps to prevent the illuminant D, and that its phosphors from being unduly colour temperature is damaged by the electron beam, equivalent to the light while also reflecting phosphor radiated from a solid when illumination (active as a metal raised to a temperature of mirror) forward to the front of 6,500K? the screen, thereby enhancing display brightness. The light produced by the light, the aim being to achieve phosphors doesnt immediately white light with the right mix of vanish when the electron beam is the three colours, the phosphor suddenly extinguished, or quickly characteristics chosen for the shifted from the centre to some screen of the type of oscilloscope other area of the screen. An c.r.t. we are considering would important characteristic of the normally be for a single colour fluorescent screen is the time only, such as green or blue/green taken for the light to decay after for a general-purpose the beam has moved away. This is instrument. of the persistence phosphor, Its worth noting that the sometimes called afterglow. white light for the television For general applications a screen is known as illuminant D, medium-persistence phosphor is and that its colour temperature is generally adopted, but when its equivalent to the light radiated required to investigate displays of from a solid when raised to a relatively short duration a temperature of 6,500 Kelvin. phosphor of longer persistence Phosphors of silver-activated zinc would be more suitable. Blur or sulphide radiate blue light and of smear is reduced when very high silver-activated zinc-cadmium speed displays are investigated by sulphite produce yellow light, the a screen composed of shortproportions being chosen for the persistence phosphors. Phosphors required colour-temperature. are classified in terms of We shall see later that for persistence (in the range from maximum definition of the less than a microsecond to display the electron beam needs greater than a second), fluorescent colour and designation.
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Oscillograms & Photography

Over the years I have taken many off-screen photographs to illustrate my books and magazine articles, and although it has been said that a short-persistence
Did You Know?

The heart of the analogue oscilloscope is the cathoderay tube?
phosphor of bluish hue is the best bet, most of my photographs (called oscillograms) have been taken from scopes with screens of green, medium-persistent phosphor. A camera that Ive used very successfully for such shots is the Polaroid CR-9 Land Camera For Oscilloscope Trace Recording. However, with the advent of digital photography, Polaroid films for this camera are now extinct, which is a shame! Lets start to round off this opening instalment with a look at how the electron beam is actually deflected. In Fig. 2 are illustrations of (a) the two Y deflection plates (Y1 and Y2) and the two X deflection plates (X1 and X2) through which the electron beam passes from the gun to the screen. The reason for the plates being curved outwards at their ends is to avoid the beam from striking them when it is fully deflected. At this point it is important to note that in conformity with conventional graphs the Y plates are responsible for the vertical deflection of the beam and the X plates for the horizontal deflection. The diagrams at (b) show the path taken by the beam through the two pairs of plates, and the positive and negative potentials required for the indicated directions of deflection.
As with television, it is our persistence of vision that makes it possible for us to discern an oscilloscope display. In one of his RB articles about the scope, Rob illustrates persistence of vision as the subjective disappearance of the spokes in a bicycle wheel when the wheel is rotated fast . Another analogy would be the reflection of sunlight through a small mirror onto a wall. The resulting patch of bright light would be seen to move up and down the wall as the mirror is twisted slowly in the hand. By increasing the twisting rate the eye would perceive the moving bright patch of light as a continuous bright line. Exactly the same effect results from the fast moving bright dot on the c.r.t. screen. This is because of the relatively slow decay time (about 80 milliseconds) of the eye/brain response when the light stimulus is removed or moved from one point to another.
Dual Display Oscilloscopes

Finally, for this month it should be mentioned that pretty well all but the most basic of scopes nowadays have provision for at least two simultaneous displays on the one c.r.t. screen. This can be extremely useful, for example, to display the primary waveform on one trace and the harmonic content of that very same signal on the other trace. I shall be having more to say about dual display scopes as this series progresses, but for now its worth noting that scopes with dual display facilities can be provided either by a c.r.t. with two beams, or by a single beam tube and electronic beam switching. Such scopes are known respectively as dual beam and dual trace. Well, that about ties things up for this time. Cheerio for now and Im looking forward to catching up with you again next month. PW
High Voltages!
When fiddling inside an Oscilioscope beware of high voltages, make sure: G The scope is switched off G Any high voltage capacitors are discharged (including the feed from the high voltage supply) G The mains supply is disconnected You have been warned!
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G GETTING TO KNOW THE BASIC APPLICATIONS OF YOUR SCOPE
Oscilloscope
In the second part of his series, Gordon King G4VFV introduces the basic applications of the scope on your workbench. Youre about to discover its hidden talents!
Basic Points
Before venturing into real practical applications of the scope there are still a number of basic points that we need to become acquainted with. First, lets suppose that a spot of suitable brightness is focused in the centre of the c.r.t. screen and then a sinewave signal is applied to the Y input. Assuming that the oscilloscopes Y input sensitivity (this will be dealt with later) suits the amplitude of the sinewave, the spot will be deflected vertically from screen centre in one direction and then the other on the positive and negative swings of the waveform, resulting in a vertical trace. The repetition rate of the deflection, of course, will be the same as the frequency of the sinewave. The display will become flicker-free at frequencies greater than about 10Hz, while the overall length of the vertical line will correspond to the peak-topeak amplitude of the sinewave, as shown in Fig. 1(a). At very low frequencies, and hence relatively low deflection rates, the actual movement of the scanning spot will be discernible as it slowly moves across the scope screen. Although such a basic display would provide a measure of the peak-to-peak amplitude of a sinewave, from which the peak and the root mean square values could then be calculated (such measurements will be shown later), it would not be of much more use. However, when the scanning spot is deflected linearly across the screen at the same time as its being deflected vertically, a completely new world of application opens up! This is where the instruments second heart, its timebase, comes in.
n the previous instalment, dealing with the basic principles of the scope, we saw that the stream of electrons yielded by the gun system arrive at the fluorescent screen at high velocity. Also, that the electrons are formed into a focused beam by the voltages (positive with respect to the cathode) applied to the anodes, and then further accelerated, after having passed the deflection plates, by a positive potential applied to a helical conductive coating inside the flare of the tube. Since the beam is composed of negatively charged electrons, its attracted towards a positive-going deflection plate and repelled by a negatively going one (remember that like repel and unlike attract), which, of course, is the underlying principle of the electrostatic beam deflection system. I also mentioned last month that in some tubes a thin layer of aluminium is deposited over the screen. This is then held at a high positive potential to counteract the adverse effects of secondary electrons, which if retained by the screen could impair the brightness of the display. We saw that the aluminium backing also improves the brightness by reflecting phosphor illumination forward. There are numerous other technical details of the oscilloscope c.r.t., but I think we have considered enough to keep us going for the time being!
Timebase Circuit
All practical scopes embody a timebase circuit, which is a basically a sawtooth (or ramp) generator. The circuit is called a timebase because it provides a time scale along the X-axis. As the ramp signal rises linearly in amplitude, so it takes the scanning spot with it from the left to the right-hand side of the screen. At the end of this forward stroke the waveform drops rapidly to its base level (giving the waveform its sawtooth characteristic), which results in the spot swiftly returning to the left-hand side of the
The
Part 2 Basic Applications

Practical Wireless, February 2005
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G Fig. 1: Showing at (a) how a vertical trace results from a signal waveform applied to the Y input, and at (b) how the ramp waveform from the timebase generator causes linear deflection of the spot from left to right across the screen (see text).
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Retrace
Did You Know?

Since the beam is composed of negatively charged electrons, its attracted towards a positive-going deflection plate and repelled by a negatively going one.
Timebase
Vertical trace on c.r.t. Horizontal trace on c.r.t.
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screen (called the return trace or flyback) ready to start another scan. The idea is shown in Fig.1(b). There are many applications of the scope that require the electron beam to be deflected horizontally across the screen while the waveform under examination is causing the beam to be deflected vertically. For example, Fig. 2 reveals how a sinewave signal is traced out on the screen. Here the sinewave signal applied to the Y input for display is shown at the bottom of the diagram, above this the timebase waveform with its rising ramp voltage as applied to the X input, and at the top of the diagram the display as it would be traced on the instruments screen. The vertical dotted lines make it easier to follow how the sinewave is progressively traced on the screen as the ramp signal from the timebase rises and deflects the scanning spot from the left across the screen. Note: Although the retrace is shown on the display diagram, this is usually blanked out by the oscilloscopes circuitry. An interesting aspect here is that the time taken by the ramp voltage to rise from its base level to maximum
corresponds to the time taken by one complete cycle of sinewave. If this werent the case, the screen would not display just one complete cycle of the sinewave input.
G Fig. 2: This diagram reveals how a sinewave Y input is scanned across the
Screen display
screen by the timebase ramp waveform at the X input to appear on the screen as a replica of the of the Y input signal. Note: The retrace shown on the screen display is generally blanked out (see text).
Time & Frequency

Now, weve arrived at an interesting but important point of application - namely time and frequency. When were dealing with screen displays we should always remember that frequency is being related to time. Actually, of course, they are one of the same thing! Lets just consider one cycle of a sinewave for the moment. If this has the frequency of the 50Hz mains supply, then from the start to the finish of the waveform the time taken will be 1/50th of a second (0.02 second). Referring back to Fig. 2 again, its clear, then, that if the frequency of the sinewave at the Y input is 50Hz, the timebase ramp voltage will need to rise from its base level to its maximum value in 0.02 second in order for a full cycle of signal to be traced on the screen. With the timebase running at, say, half that rate mentioned, so that a full sweep takes 0.04 seconds,
Amplitudes Y Timebase X input
Did You Know?

Sine wave Y input
Time X
All practical scopes embody a timebase circuit, which is a basically a sawtooth (or ramp) generator.
there would be two full traces per cycle of signal. The screen will then display two full signal cycles instead of one. Conversely, at twice the timebase rate, only half a cycle would be traced. This, then, brings us neatly to the way in which the scope timebase is calibrated.
Timebase Calibration
With an analogue test meter the pointer deflection is calibrated against a scale (volts, amperes, etc.); with a scope the spot deflection is calibrated against a graticule at the front of the c.r.t. Such a graticule is shown in Fig. 3. On the
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The Graticule
Lets return once again to the graticule in Fig. 3. The sinewave displayed on this almost fills the entire deflection area. We shall see later that the Y input attenuator control is also calibrated, but in this case in terms of volts/div. But for now, lets say that the control is set to 1 volt/div. and the timebase control to 10 microseconds/div. So, if thats the case - what would be the frequency and the amplitude of the sinewave? Okay, then, to find the answer lets take frequency first. We see that the full waveform occupies all 10 of the horizontal divisions of the graticule, and since each division is equal to 10 microseconds, the total time taken by the waveform is 100 microseconds, or 1x10-4 second. To find the frequency we merely find the reciprocal of the time in seconds (e.g., 1/(1x10-4), which works out to 10,000. The frequency of the sinewave is thus 10,000Hz (10kHz). So its really simple isnt it!
Did You Know?

When amplitude is measured between the positive and negative peaks its known as the peak-to-peak amplitude.
G Fig. 3: With the timebase set to 10 microseconds/div. And the Y attenuator to 1V/div., this sinewave would have a frequency of 10kHz and a peak amplitude of 3V.
would this be? Well, to answer, the basic a.c. voltmeter provides its reading in the root mean square (r.m.s.) value of the waveform, while the scope displays the peak values. However, the r.m.s. value can easily be found simply by multiplying the peak value by 0.707. This means that the r.m.s. value of the example 3V peak waveform would be in the order of 2.1V, which is the value that would be indicated on an a.c. voltmeter. I shall be having more to say about the parameters of voltage later, but to round off this months instalment I thought it would be a good idea to look at a real sinewave display. The oscillogram, Fig. 4, was taken sometime ago from the screen of the scope that has long become part of my shacks furniture!
Timebase & Sensitivity

The oscilloscopes timebase was set to 1ms/div. and the X sensitivity to 0.5V/div. These settings mean that the display has a frequency around 227Hz and a peak amplitude close to 1.25V corresponding to 0.88V r.m.s. Although weve seen that a scope is able to measure frequency and amplitude, the readout accuracy is obviously below that achievable with modern digital frequency and voltage measuring instruments. Despite this, you should be able to achieve an accuracy around 5%, even from some of the early instruments - so its well worth keeping an eye open for that rally bargain scope! PW
G Fig. 4: This oscillogram has an amplitude of about 0.88V r.m.s. and a frequency around 227Hz, as explained in the text.
Looking At Amplitude
set the timebase control to 0.1 ms/div, the ten adding up to the required 1m total time. By setting the timebase control to 1 ms/div. we would have a complete 1kHz sine wave appearing in each of the ten horizontal divisions. Most scopes, even those of early specifications (such as might well be on sale at radio rallies), have quite a wide range timebase control. Incidentally, the scope running in my den while Im actually writing this instalment, ranges from 0.5 microseconds to 0.2 seconds per division, with the final position on the switch marked external. This switch position allows the internal timebase to be disconnected so that an external X input signal can be connected in its place. (There are many applications where an external X input would be required - more on this later). Now lets now take a look at the amplitude. When this is measured between the positive and negative peaks its known as the peak-to-peak amplitude, which in the example occupies six of the vertical divisions of the graticule. Since each division corresponds to 1V, the peak-topeak value must be 6V and the peak value is 3V. Using a basic a.c. voltmeter to measure the same waveform, assuming that the voltmeter is accurately responsive up to 10kHz, a reading of 3V would not be obtained. It would be something less than this. Why
graticule shown there are ten equal divisions horizontally and eight vertically, providing 80 equal-sized squares in all. In practice all scopes are equipped with a control calibrated in terms of time per division (time/div.). Its the job of this control simply to set the timebase ramp generator to deflect the spot across one horizontal division of the graticule in the time indicated. Say, for example, we wish to examine a 1,000Hz (1kHz) sinewave over the whole width of the graticule. Well, the speed taken by a 1kHz signal is equal to 1/1,000 second, which works out to 1 millisecond (mS). You just enter 1,000 in your calculator and then press the 1/x (the reciprocal key) to get the answer! But dont forget that there are ten horizontal divisions on the graticule, so we need to
High Voltages!
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G Gordon G4VFV helps you control your scope and synchronise!
Oscilloscope
In part three of his major new series on the oscilloscope, Gordon King G4VFV looks at the controls, synchronisation and triggering. Gordon say theres no need to be intimidated by the controls on your scope because youre in charge!
mentioned in the last instalment how the scope can easily be arranged to provide a measurement of frequency and amplitude. While becoming conversant with the operation of the scope though, youll soon discover that a sine wave, albeit, significantly lacking in purity, can be resolved on the screen simply by holding a finger on the Y input and suitably adjusting the volt/div and the time/div controls. The display results from the human body acting as an antenna picking up the 50Hz radiation from the mains supply wiring and passing it on to the scope. Dont worry, its at a low level, and high impedance, so theres no problem! In my radio shack environment I can get a display of good amplitude with the Y input set to 1V/div. With a graticule of 10 horizontal divisions, the timebase will need to be set to 2mS/div, giving a full-screen sweep time of 20 milliseconds, which is the time taken by one complete 50Hz cycle (e.g., 1/50=0.02S=20mS). Incidentally, the calibration of the Y and X deflection on some scopes might be given in terms centimetres instead of graticule divisions, such as volt/cm and time (S, mS etc.)/cm. This, then, neatly brings us to Fig. 1, which depicts the amplitude and time aspects of a sinewave that were introduced in the previous instalment. In the case of a sine wave the r.m.s. value works out to 70.7% of the peak amplitude,
and since the time period of the complete waveform from start to finish is shown as 0.02second, we now know that its frequency is equal to the reciprocal of 0.02, or 50Hz. Integral calculus is required to derive the r.m.s. value of a waveform, but in the case of a sine wave it simply resolves to the peak value divided by the square-root of two (2 = 1.414), which you will find is the same as the 70.7% of the peak value in the diagram. Most a.c. voltmeters are scaled in r.m.s. values based on a sine wave, although the movement responds to the average value of the waveform, which in the case of a sine wave is 63.7% of its peak value. The electric power supply is also r.m.s. rated, meaning that our 240V a.c. mains supply has a peak value of just under 340V and a peak-to-peak value of twice that value! Looked at another way, the r.m.s. value is equivalent to the d.c. value that would dissipate the same power and hence provide the same heating effect. With that little bit of maths, its time to get back to the scope on your workbench.
Main Controls
Seeing a scope on offer for a very reasonable price at a rally (and we must keep in mind that it is the aim of this series of articles to consider scopes of that category, as distinct from up-market latter-day digital instruments!), you might veer away from the purchase of a good and useful bargain because of the multitude of front (and, perhaps, rear) controls. However, my job with this series of articles is to make sure youre not intimidated. So, lets see now if we can get to grips with some of the main controls. The two controls associated with Y amplitude and X sweep time have already been investigated in some detail. In practice though, youll usually discover that each one works in conjunction with a continuously variable fine control, which may or may not be calibrated. In the latter case its then necessary to set the control to one end of its range for the calibrated positions on the main switched control to hold true.
Brilliance Control
The Brilliance is a primary display control which merely adjusts the intensity of the fluorescent spot
The
Part 3 -
Controls, synchronisation & triggering

Practical Wireless, March 2005
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NEW SERIES!
Total time = 20ms
(each mark = 1ms)
Fig. 2a: This example of astigmatism is caused by vertical elongation of the scanning spot, which is
100 70.7 Positive peak 0 Negative peak

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Root Mean Squared (r.m.s.) level

Peak to peak
largely correctable by the front astig control. The spot is shown statically on the screen. As can be seen the vertical size is larger than the horizontal width. This state would indicate some form of astigmatism control is required (see text).
Fig. 1: Sine wave showing the relationship between the peak and root-meansquare values. The average value of a sine wave is 63.7% of its peak value. With a time period of 0.02 second (20mS), the frequency of the wave is 50Hz (e.g. 1/0.02).
Level (%)
on the screen. Its equivalent to a television receivers brightness control. In practice the brilliance control works by way of a potentiometer arranged to provide an adjustment to the voltage applied to the grid electrode of the c.r.t. As the control is retarded (turned down), so the grid voltage becomes more negative with respect to the cathode and fewer electrons strike the screen, thereby causing the brightness of the display to diminish. Conversely, when the grid becomes less negative and the display brighter as the control is advanced (turned up). The number of electrons making up the beam is inversely proportional to the grid voltage, the beam being cut off completely when the grid is made strongly negative with respect to the cathode. So when first trying out a bargain scope that seemingly lacks a trace, make sure that the brilliance control is not inadvertently turned down too far. This has happened! The brilliance control provides a voltage swing from zero to about -50V relative to the cathode. The grid can also receives pulses of suitable polarity for retrace blanking and display bright-up.
Focus Control
Now its on to the focus control. And, as would be expected, the job of this control is to focus the c.r.t. beam so that it impinges upon the screen as a small round dot. Again, this function most scopes is handled by a potentiometer. But this time for adjusting the voltage applied to the tubes focus electrode.
Fig. 2b: With the spot problems exhibited in Fig. 2a, the horizontal areas of signals become difficult to see in detail due to blurring. Note the effect shown on the tops and bottoms of the square wave shown here.
Overcoming Astigmatism
Astigmatism is generally something we might hear about when having our eyes tested! But it can also impair the sharpness of the scope display owing to elongation of the spot. When the elongation lies in the vertical plane as shown at (a) in Fig. 2a, a square wave display would be affected after the style of Fig. 2b, where the horizontal parts of the waveform are seen to be thickened. Elongation, which could also be in the horizontal plane, results from a degree of electrostatic asymmetry (irregularity) while the beam is being accelerated through the gun. However, astigmatism can be counteracted by relative adjustment to the c.r.t. electrode potentials. This is achieved by a function provided by a control labelled astig, which is short for
astigmatism. In practice, the focus and astig controls are adjusted in turn until the beam achieves its maximum symmetry and the sharpest display is obtained. Quite a few of the scopes that come up for sale at rallies will incorporate a built-in generator providing two 1kHz square wave outputs, one of around 5V and the other of 50mV, so look out for these. Although handy for optimising the astig. setting, these outputs (often found conveniently sited on the front control panel of some scopes) have particular applications for checking the calibration of the volt/div and time/div controls.
Vertical & Horizontal Shift

Now well move on to the vertical and horizontal shift controls. These are required because its frequently necessary to move the display so it can be related to the graticule lines when making amplitude and frequency measurements (for example). All scopes are equipped with
front controls for shifting the display both vertically and horizontally. These also work from potentiometers that adjust the d.c. potentials across the Y and X deflection plates, so that the deflected electron beam, and hence the whole screen display, can be shifted up, down and sideways as required. Its possible to shift the spot or trace so much that it goes offscreen. This is an important point to remember if a display fails to appear on the screen, and it seems as though there may be a more serious fault in the instrument! Note: To overcome this problem (there surely cant be many scope users who havent been caught out in this way) some instruments are provided with a Beam Finding control. All the operator has to do (when the display seems to have disappeared) is to press the button. The missing spot will then reappear, no doubt to a sigh of relieved frustration! A number of additional controls will be found on most scopes, depending upon their ages and
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levels of sophistication. We shall be looking at these as we wend our way through some of the scopes innumerable applications.
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CRT AC Y input attenuator Y amplifier Y2
X1
X2
Y input
DC
Block Diagram
At this point I think it will be as well to take stock of what has so far been discussed, and then to give the timebase, sync and trigger functions a little more attention. With this in mind, Ive provided a block diagram, Fig. 3, of the basic features of a scope, showing just a single Y channel. Starting with the Y channel first, youll see that the test input can be applied to the Y attenuator either directly or through a capacitor. It then passes through the Y amplifier to the Y plates of the c.r.t. (Most scopes are equipped with an a.c./d.c. switch like this). In the d.c. position the scope will respond to inputs right down to d.c. However, d.c. isolation may be desirable when looking for a low level signal (a.c.) sitting on a higher level of d.c. voltage. In which case the input, which would then be of a.c. form, would be passed to the Y attenuator by way of the capacitor. The deflection sensitivity of a scope c.r.t. is pretty low and, as we have already seen, is dependent on the final anode potential. The higher the potential, the lower the sensitivity (this is because the electron beam will then have more energy and will require more energy - a bigger push if you like to deflect it). The X-amplification as shown is thus provided between the timebase sweep and the c.r.t. X plates. When the associated internal/external switch is set to the ext position (a position usually located on the time/div control) it then becomes possible to connect an external source in place of the built-in timebase to provide the horizontal deflection. The timebase is composed of the trigger and sweep circuits
Y1 Polarity Trigger select Trigger circuit External

Fig. 3 Elementary block diagram of single Y-channel scope as explained in the text.
Level X amplifier X select
Internal
WT2676
Sweep circuit
External
shown in the diagram. The sweep (or timebase scan) can be triggered either internally from pulses synthesised from the test signal in the Y amplifier, or from an external source, as determined by the setting of the associated switch. Another switch allows the selection of either positive- or negativegoing trigger pulses.
horizontal shift control to align a single cycle for measurement against the graticule to the most linear part of the scan.
Steady Display
Clearly, with a free-running timebase it would be very difficult, if not impossible, to retain a steady display, even by carefully adjusting the timebase frequency. Some sort of relationship must exist between the timebase and the Y input signal. This was accomplished in early scopes by a sample of the Y signal being fed back to the timebase by way of a control marked sync (short for synchronisation). When the level was optimised by the sync control, the retrace would occur at the exactly the right time. The result was that successive cycles of Y signal were then traced from left to right across the screen, one upon the other, to provide a locked or synchronised display. In the trigger mode, which will be a feature of most rally purchased scopes, the timebase
Sweep Linearity Essential

From my earlier description of the formation of a scope display, youll realised that for the least display distortion a high degree of sweep linearity is essential. This is because when the display consists of several cycles of a sine wave (for example) a lack of linearity (e.g. curvature) of the rising ramp waveform will result in different time spans being shown for each of the separate complete waveforms displayed. This will in effect give a sort of compression over the full X scan. Some very early valved scopes tended to suffer from the compression problem; but scopes of more recent vintage using transistors suffer far less from this shortfall. However, if your bargain purchase is found to exhibit nonlinearity of this kind, theres no need to worry. Instead, time/frequency measurements can often be made with improved accuracy by resolving several complete cycles, and then using the
remains static until triggered. Here a pulse, tailored from the Y input and adjustable by a front control in terms of level and polarity, is then fed to the timebase in such a way that it initiates, or triggers, the start of a scan at the same point on the Y signal for every sweep. The speed at which the scan occurs is, of course, established by the time/div rotary control switch. A steady display, with more suitable for time measurements than was possible from the early sync-mode scopes, results from the use of the precise triggering action. Okay, then, that just about takes care of the scope for this month, theres more than enough for you to read, enjoy and digest! Next time well look together some more aspects of this versatile instrument, including things like sweep delay, bandwidth, rise time and so forth. Theres one thing for sure playing about with the scope is certainly a good way of getting to know more about the various kinds of signals that are involved in our hobby! Cheerio for now. PW
High Voltages!
26
G TAKING THE MYSTERY OUT OF DOUBLE BEAM AND DUAL TRACE INSTRUMENTS
feature
Oscilloscope
This month Gordon King G4VFV takes the mystery out of double beam scope and dual trace instruments as we learn more about these wonderfully versatile items of test equipment.
the application of a Y input signal, the screen remains blank, which has led inexperienced users incorrectly to suspect that the scope is at fault. This is a point worth having in mind when becoming acquainted with the operation of that rally acquisition! When the trigger switch is set to External, the trigger circuit is disconnected from the internal pulse-forming circuit. It then becomes possible for the timebase to be triggered from an external source, such as from a functions generator.
Second Timebase
Some scopes will be found equipped with a second timebase, with its own time/div control, and probably with an additional control labelled delay sweep. Oscilloscopes of this kind allow parts of the trace to be increased in brightness and positioned against the graticule for the most effective measurement. The main timebase is generally labelled A sweep, and the second timebase B sweep. Either one of the timebases, or the two in combination, can be selected. The sweep delay function, activated by a separate switch, works in conjunction with a multi-turn delay time control. Basically speaking, the B sweep is triggered from the A sweep at a precise point on the display (as established by the setting of the delay control), which then makes it possible to measure time intervals and pulses with enhanced accuracy. While this might be an important requirement for professional applications, its unlikely to be viewed in a similar light by the practical amateur.
ast time I concluded the March instalment with a peep back at the early way in which the timebase was synchronised to the signal under examination; where a sync control was used in conjunction with the timebase frequency control to achieve a stabilised display. However, nowadays, even rally-acquired second-hand scopes are unlikely to feature just such a basic sync control. Unless you come up against a pretty ancient member of the scope species, the instrument will be of the kind possessing a timebase that in one mode, anyway, remains quiescent until triggered by the Y signal. When the Y signal is recurring, then, of course, there will be successive sweeps, resulting in a steady screen display - much steadier than achieved with the early sync system.
Dual Channel Trigger Level

Its most likely that the front panel of your scope will feature a control for adjusting the trigger level and most likely a means of selecting positive or negative polarity. This will allow the timebase to be triggered from pulses derived either from positive or negative-going Y input signals. To ensure that the leading edge of a fast-occurring signal under examination is fully displayed, there will probably be a delay line in the Y amplifier channel. The idea of this is to delay the Y signal fractionally so that the sweep starts a trifle before the Y signal arrives at the c.r.t. Some scopes also have an Auto Sweep function, which triggers the timebase automatically at a relatively low sweep rate, even when theres no Y input signal. Otherwise, without Lets now take a look at the type of scope that provides two simultaneous displays. Weve already learned that scopes of this kind use either a c.r.t. with two beams and two deflection systems (the true dual-beam scope) or an electronic means of obtaining two beams from a single-beam c.r.t. (the dual-trace scope). The block diagram, Fig. 1 (on page 22), shows the basic arrangement of a dual-trace version, which is the kind most likely to represent a rally purchase. While having some duplicated features of its single-channel counterpart (see Part 3), the configuration has now expanded into two Y input channels, called channel 1 (Ch1) and channel 2 (Ch2), whose signals for examination pass to the Y deflection plates of the c.r.t. through an electronic beam switching circuit.
The
Part 4 -
Dual Trace Principles and XY Applications

Practical Wireless, April 2005
21
G TAKING THE MYSTERY OUT OF DOUBLE BEAM AND DUAL TRACE INSTRUMENTS
Fig. 1: This block diagram of a dual channel scope is explained in the text.
CH1 in
CH1 attenuator
Y Amplifier CH1
Mode select
4 3 2
1 2 3 4
1
CH1 CH2 Chop Alternate
CRT Y2
CH2 in
CH2 attenuator
Y Amplifier CH2
Channel switching circuit Beam switch
X1
X2
Y1
CH2 Ext. in trigger CH1 External
WT2717
Trigger circuit
Sweep circuit
X amplifier
There are two dual-trace modes of operation. One, called the alternate mode, sweeps Ch1 and Ch2 alternately, and works in the following manner: At the conclusion of, lets say, a Ch1 sweep, a pulse from the timebase operates the beam switch and instigates Ch2 sweep, while at the same time cutting off Ch1. At the conclusion of Ch2 sweep, the sweep of Ch1 is instigated and Ch2 is cut off, and so on. (Note: The alternate sweeps only become apparent when the scope is operating at very low sweep speeds). The other way, often referred to as the the chopped mode, switches between the two channels at a much higher rate, under the control of an built-in multivibrator. This means that each trace then consists of many closely adjacent alternate segments, corresponding to the switching rate. The chopped mode suffers less from flicker at low sweep speeds, and boasts better phase integrity between the two channels than the alternate mode. But the separate segments do tend to become more apparent as the sweep speed is increased. The block diagram shows that the mode selecting switch also has positions for independent operation of Ch1 or Ch2. A fifth position labelled Add might also be included. On this setting the two channels are added so that the display then becomes a combination of the Ch1 and Ch2
input signals. Its possible, of course, to make vertical adjustments to each trace by its own shift control. The timebase can usually be triggered from either the Ch1 or Ch2 signal, or from an external source, as the block diagram shows.
The X & Y Inputs

At this juncture lets change tack a bit and look at one application of the scope where external signals are applied to both the X and Y inputs. On some scopes the X deflection circuit can be disconnected from the sweep generator by setting the time/div switch of the main timebase to a position marked external. The display will then consist either of a vertical trace (if a signal is being applied to the Y input) or merely a bright, luminescent spot somewhere on the screen, as dictated by the setting of the shift controls. To obtain horizontal deflection a signal must somehow be applied to the X plates, which on some scopes may be by way of an external X input. However, the deflection sensitivity of the c.r.t. alone is pretty dismal! Its expressed in terms of mere millimetres of deflection per volt, and there are very few applications where an external X signal could be connected directly to the X plates of the c.r.t. Realistic horizontal deflection from small signals, therefore, generally calls for a fair degree of amplification
between the external X source and the X plates, and its useful if this can be adjusted by a calibrated control in the same way as the Y signal. Dual-trace scopes often satisfy this requirement by adopting one of the Y channels for amplifying and setting the level of the signal destined to provide the X deflection. This, known as X-Y operation, is a neat way of achieving well-balanced and controlled horizontal and vertical deflection from external X and Y signals. Accuracy of display requires a high degree of linearity to be retained through the amplifiers over their full dynamic range. The bandwidth, too, must be adequate for the task in hand, a factor that will be considered as we continue on our way.
Phase Shifts & Angles

Lets now switch our attention to diagram (a) in Fig. 2. Here is shown an oscillator feeding a sinewave signal to the input of a device under test (it could be an amplifier, filter, simple or complicated network, etc.). Youll be able to see that the same signal is simultaneously applied to the Y input of the scope, while the X input is receiving output signal from the device under test. Depending upon the nature of the device it may be necessary to connect a load resistor across its output, as shown. (This requirement
would apply particularly to an audio amplifier). The plan initially is to obtain equal deflection vertically and horizontally by adjusting the controls and signal levels. This is easy if the scope is equipped with an X level control, as just explained; otherwise it will be necessary to employ some other method of external adjustment, such as the adjust X potentiometer shown in the diagram. When the X and Y signals are applied to the scope simultaneously any phase shift between the input and output of the device under test will be revealed by the display. A forward sloping diagonal line indicates zero phase (or 180 when sloping in the opposite direction), a perfect circle (assuming correctly balanced X and Y signals), as distinct from an ellipse, indicates a phase shift of 90, while forward or backward sloping elliptical displays indicate intermediate phase shifts. By aligning the display centrally against the graticule lines, as at (b) in the diagram, the sine of the phase angle can be calculated by dividing distance A by distance B. For example, if A corresponds to one graticule division and B to two divisions, then the A/B ratio is equal to 0.5. By using a scientific calculator or a table of trigonometric functions theres no trouble in finding the angle, which, of course, is 30 (e.g., the sine of 30 equals 0.5). The forward sloping ellipse shown on the scope in diagram (a) indicates a
Fig. 3: This indicates a phase angle of around 55 (see text).
22
Feature
phase angle of around 35. There are times when servicing or optimising an item of electronics that an idea of its overall phase shift could be useful. An audio amplifier, for example, may be found to go unstable and generate its own signals owing to an abnormal shift of phase at the extremes of its pass band. Under normal conditions a well-designed amplifier would probably indicate a reasonably steady 180 phase difference when a signal generator is used to swing the input signal over its designedfor range of frequencies. This would be shown on the display as a diagonal line, though a shift of a few degrees, indicated by the diagonal line display tending to break into elliptical formation, could possibly be tolerated! Application of the scopes facilities can also be very useful when designing filters (which will invariably reveal phase shift), balanced push-pull drivers and so forth. It can also be revealing when examining an audio amplifier in this way to see how much the tone controls and filters impair its overall phase integrity. Additionally, in the case in mind this case, possibly also affect the performance of the negative feedback, sometimes tending to make it more positive than negative, but thats another story!
Fig. 2: Showing at (a) how a scope can be applied to measure the phase angle of an active or passive device, and inset at (b) how the phase shift between the input and output of the device can be assessed (see text).
sin = ( A ) B (b) Y E X
WT2718
Adjust X
Oscillator
Device under test (a) Earth Load
Lissajous Figures
Now its time to look at Lissajous figures. To start, an off-screen shot of a phasing display is given in
Fig. 3, where the phase angle works out to about 5, calculated from its A/B ratio, whose value is approaching 0.82 (e.g., the sine of 5 equals 0.819). Displays of this kind are known as Lissajous figures, a technique named after the French physicist Jules Lissajous (1822-80). In practice Lissajous figures can take on numerous and complicated configurations when signals of different frequencies are applied simultaneously to the X and Y inputs. Weve already seen that when two signals of the same frequency (e.g., a frequency ratio of 1:1) are applied simultaneously to the X and Y inputs the display takes the form of a circle, an ellipse or a diagonal line, depending upon how they differ in phase. When sine waves of different frequencies are applied simultaneously to the X and Y
inputs, displays such as illustrated in Fig. 4 are obtained. The frequency ratio between the two signals is indicated on this kind of Lissajous figure by the number of loops occurring along the horizontal and vertical sides. Looking at Fig. 4, at (a) the two loops along the horizontal side and the one loop along the vertical side indicate a frequency ratio of 2:1. For example, a figure like this would result from inputs of 50Hz and 100Hz. Similarly, the figure at (b) indicates a frequency ratio of 3:1. The more complicated figure at (c) has three loops horizontally and two vertically, indicating a 3:2 ratio. Displays in the orientation shown are obtained when the X input corresponds to the lower frequency signal and the Y input the higher frequency signal. When the frequency of, say, the X signal is
known it then becomes possible to find the frequency of the Y signal simply by dividing the number of horizontal loops by the number of vertical loops, and multiplying the result by the known frequency. Distorted displays occur when the inputs differ from a sinewave, and for the display to hold steady the frequency of one wave needs to be a simple multiple or fraction of the other. Drifting frequencies cause the display to change and move erratically, making loop counting difficult, especially on the more complicated figures. Well, once again, this just about ties up this months instalment. There are still plenty of interesting things to discover about scopes, so dont forget to focus on next months story. Cheerio for this time. PW
(a) X and Y deflections (see text).
(b)
(c)
Fig. 4: These examples of Lissajous figures illustrate the ratios of two sine waves applied to the X and Y inputs of a scope when adjusted for suitable
23
G IMPORTANT OSCILLOSCOPE Y AMPLIFIER RELATIONSHIPS
Oscilloscope
example, bandwidth is given by k/rise time, and rise time by k/bandwidth. When the bandwidth is in MegaHertz (MHz) and the rise time in microseconds, the value for k could range between 0.3 and 0.5, depending on how the terminal frequency is determined, the characteristics of the response and the nature of the upper-frequency roll-off. However, when the terminal frequency refers to the -3dB bandwidth, which is a common definition, e have already discovered that the value for k is generally taken as 0.35. Based on when the Y attenuator is set to, this value, therefore, a bandwidth of 10MHz relates say, 1mV/div and a sinewave of to a rise time of 0.035 microsecond (35 nanoseconds). 5mV peak-to-peak (p-p) is Similarly, a rise time of 0.1 microsecond (100 applied to the input, the overall nanoseconds) relates to a bandwidth of 3.5MHz. amplitude of the display, between the positive and The display shown in Fig. 2 represents the negative peaks, would correspond pretty closely to leading edge of a rectangular or square wave as it five vertical divisions on the graticule. may appear on the screen However, this calibration will only hold of a scope. With the true within a given frequency range, timebase sweeping at the Rise Time? What is n for which brings us to two important rate of 0.1 microsecond s the time take Answer: It een relationships of the Y amplifier; namely, per horizontal division, a m to rise betw a wavefor g bandwidth and rise time. fair assessment of the ts on its leadin two poin Because the Y channel (or channels) time taken by the signal hich correspond edge, w % of can be switched to respond right down to to rise from 10 to 90% of y to 10 and 90 respectivel d.c., scope bandwidth is essentially the its maximum value can ak amplitude. its pe frequency range to a defined upper be calculated from the frequency limit, which is commonly the graticule. This is shown to be around 0.3s, frequency where the response roll-off is 0.707 times corresponding to a -3dB bandwidth of about its mid-band value, known as the -3dB bandwidth. If 1.16MHz. this upper frequency limit is, say, 10MHz, and the Y Expanding X Deflection input control is set to 1mV/div as before, then the Most of the scopes obtainable from rallies and overall amplitude of a 10MHz display would be a similar places will almost certainly be equipped with shade over three and half vertical divisions with a a switch for expanding the X deflection, usually by a 5mV p-p input, instead of five vertical divisions factor of 10. Times 10 x expansion can be very useful obtained at lower frequencies. when assessing fast rise times. Rise Time For example, if the timebase is set for a sweep of For the measurement and examination of pulse and 0.5s/div, which could be the scopes maximum transient-type signals, a scope must be capable of setting, switching in the times 10 expansion will displaying fast-rising waveforms with the least decrease the sweep time to 0.05s/div, making it distortion, which means that the rise time of the Y much easier to read off rise times against the amplifier or amplifiers must be shorter than that of graticule, and to examine the detail of the input signal itself. So, what is rise time? Well, its fast occurring xpansion nothing more involved than the time it takes an pulses. Indeed, X Deflection En can be very amplifier or a network to respond to a fast-rising the rise time pansio Times 10 x ex st rise signal, such as the leading edge of a pulse or displayed in Fig. n assessing fa useful whe are copes squarewave. By definition it is the time taken for a 2 could well have times. Many s r waveform to rise between two points on its leading been obtained with switch fo equipped ction. edge, which correspond respectively to 10 and 90% with the timebase e X defle expanding th of its peak amplitude, as shown in Fig. 1. set to 1 s/div and Because of the relationship between bandwidth the times 10 and rise time, knowing one makes it possible to expansion activated. obtain a fair approximation of the other. For The expansion, of course, also has the effect of
Gordon King G4VFV continues with his look at the theory and practices of the Oscilloscope.
The
Part 5 Bandwidth, Rise Time, Square Waves and Ancillaries

Practical Wireless, May 2005
30
feature
WT2742
Fig. 2: Rise time of a step wave can be assessed in conjunction with the scopes graticule and possibly X expansion. The display shown is the leading edge of a rectangular or square wave, and with a sweep of 0.1 microsecond/div the rise time is seen to be around 0.3s.
WT2746
100 90
a scope connected frequency around 28kHz. However, directly to the output the rounded corners of this 10 socket of a low distortion waveform point to an impaired high0 sinewave/squarewave frequency response, which was in the Time Rise oscillator, with the sweep circuits through which the time set to 10s/div. squarewave was passing (and, Since the time taken indeed, testing) - not in the scopes Y Fig. 1: By definition the rise time is the by a complete cycle (one half-cycle channel. There time taken for a waveform to rise negative-going and was no need in between two points on its leading the other positivethis case for X arewaves Squ d of edge, which correspond respectively to going) is shown to expansion to ave is compose A squarew 10 and 90% of its peak amplitude, as be approximately determine the wave at the a sine plus a this diagram shows. 54s (54 x 10-6 rise time, tal frequency fundamen ted seconds), the which can be rmonically rela series of ha repetition frequency seen to be newaves. si making the trace that much longer. With times 10 expansion (another common value is times 5) the effect is tantamount to the trace becoming ten times longer than without expansion. This might mean that when the expansion is switched on the part of the waveform it is required to examine suddenly vanishes outside the range of the screen. This is no problem, though, as it can easily be brought back into the screen area by the horizontal shift control. works out to about 18.5kHz (1/54 x 10-6 = 18.518Hz). The sweep is not sufficiently fast on this display to determine the rise time, but by the application of times 10 expansion it was found to be in the order of 0.1s, corresponding to a -3dB bandwidth of about 3.5MHz. Since the same timebase sweep of 10s/div was also used for obtaining oscillogram (b), the time of a complete cycle is shown to be close to 35s, indicating a repetition around 3 microseconds, corresponding to a 3dB bandwidth of around 116kHz.
Ancillary Equipment
That more or less puts rise time and bandwidth in their places for now. The next article will continue to keep these themes in perspective; but to conclude this instalment, lets take a look at how the scope can be linked to ancillary equipment to provide spectral analysis and frequency response displays.
Fairly recently Kenwood Electronics (in conjuction with Vann Draper Electronics, suppliers of Kenwood test instruments) launched an interesting 1GHz Spectrum Analyser Adaptor Model SAE 1001, which is pictured in Fig. 4 along with the Kenwood Dual-Trace 20MHz Oscilloscope Model CS 4124. The interesting and useful Kenwood partnership, together with the Model FCE 1131 hand-held frequency counter, was the subject of a review of mine in the July 1997 issue of Practical Wireless. If further insight is required into the application potential of scopes with X-Y facilities (see Part 4), and an idea of the more advanced tests that become possible when a fairly basic scope is linked to ancillary equipment, then this article may be worth another read. Who knows, one day a bargain spectrum analyser adaptor might come up at a radio rally to partner a bargain scope! Spectrum analysers are remarkably expensive instruments in themselves, so hooking such an adaptor onto a scope opens up many other channels of interest within the budget of a hobby, while certainly aiding the ongoing learning philosophy of Amateur Radio. This instalment would not really be complete without some
Squarewaves
The discussion brings us neatly to squarewaves! A squarewave is composed of a sinewave at the fundamental frequency plus a series of harmonically related sinewaves, and it is the addition of essentially odd harmonics in specific phase relationship and amplitude that endow the waveform with its square shape. Owing to this wideband structure, a squarewave represents a particularly potent test signal when used in conjunction with a scope. Consider now the two off-screen displays at (a) and (b) in Fig. 3. The oscillogram at (a) was obtained with
Amplitude (percent)
(a)
(b)
Fig. 3: Oscillogram (a) shows a squarewave taken directly from the output of a low distortion sinewave/squarewave oscillator. With the sweep control set to 10s/div, a single cycle takes about 54s, which means that the repetition frequency is close to 18.5kHz and the rise time about 0.1s, but needing a faster sweep for a realistic assessment. Using the same sweep setting, oscillogram (b) takes about 35s, putting the repetition frequency around 28kHz; but in this case the rise time is significantly longer at about 3s.
31
G IMPORTANT OSCILLOSCOPE Y AMPLIFIER RELATIONSHIPS

reference, at least, to the way in which the scope, again in partnership with ancillary equipment, has been adopted over the years by radio buffs, both professional and amateur, to help with the design, alignment and response tailoring of the r.f., i.f. and filter circuits of radio and television receivers and hi-fi tuners. The basic set-up for plotting the overall response characteristics of a radio receiver, for example, is depicted at (a) in Fig. 5. The signal from the output of the swept generator is coupled to the input of the receiver under examination, while the d.c. output from the detector is coupled to the d.c. input of the scopes Y channel. Let us suppose that the sweep function is de-activated and that the frequency of the input signal is adjusted manually over the receivers passband. In this case the Y deflection will be seen first to increase to a maximum as the frequency rises up the response curve to the response peak, and then to decrease as the frequency passes down the other side of the curve. It would be virtually impossible, of course, to determine the precise nature of the response characteristic manually. But when the sweep function is activated the operation becomes entirely automatic, and because the frequency of the r.f. output is continuously swept over the passband in direct synchronism with the scopes horizontal X deflection, it follows that the scope will display a detailed repetitive image of the receivers response curve. It is essential to ensure that the scopes X and Y levels are carefully set to avoid overloading, which could flatten the response curve, and that the frequency sweep of the generator is set to embrace the full frequency range of the expected response curve. Its often necessary to identify parts of the curve in terms of actual frequency, and this is where the marker generator comes in. When the signal from this generator is lightly coupled (too tight a coupling causes distortion) a small pip appears on the response curve at the frequency to which the marker generator is tuned, as shown on the scope display in the diagram Fig. 5. Diagram (b) of Fig. 5 gives more detail showing how the response display is produced from the X and Y inputs and the rising ramp voltage from the scopes timebase. It is likely that many of the scopes for sale at radio rallies will have a ramp output interface (possibly located at the rear) suitable for driving a swept generator. Although in some cases additional amplification might be necessary, depending on the type of scope and swept generator. Its noteworthy that the swept generator is an instrument that was vogue in radio workshops and labs not too long ago boasting the title wobbulator. When examining the response characteristics of tuned amplifiers, filters, etc. that do not incorporate a detector stage, a simple lowcapacitance detector probe allows the scopes Y input to be picked up
from almost any point in a receiver or amplifier, or even at the output of a filter circuit. Some of the early swept generators included a lowcapacitance probe as an accessory, while other instruments might have included an inbuilt detector. That just about ties things up for this instalment. The plan for the final part is to venture more deeply into the practical applications of the scope in the workshop and radio
Fig. 4: A Kenwood pair. The SAE 1001 Spectrum Analyser Adaptor working in conjunction with the CS 4125 dual trace scope.
shack, and to discover just what sort of displays are possible from the dual-trace instrument. Until then, keep an eye open for that possible bargain - not forgetting the ancillaries for spectrum analysis and response plotting. PW
Marker pip
Fig. 5: Linked to swept and marker generators, it becomes possible for a scope to trace out response curves as illustrated at (a). Diagram (b) shows how such a display is formed from the X and Y inputs and timebase ramp.
Ramp for X sweep
X Receiver Detector load Y E Y
Display
X
WT2718
Swept generator
Ramp
(b)
(a) Response of receiver Centre frequency
Marker generator
Errors & Updates

On page 23 of Part 4 (April issue) of my Oscilloscope series in the first paragraph under the subheading Lissajous Figures my 55 was incorrectly printed twice as 5. You the reader will have undoubtedly already realised the misprint since the 55 is correctly given in Fig. 3 caption. Sorry about this mishap. G4VFV
32
G TAKING THE MYSTERY OUT OF THE OSCILLOSCOPE
feature
Oscilloscope
Gordon King G4VFV now guides you through the workshop use and applications of the oscilloscope.
generator is usually built into the scope to cater for this and other requirements). When assessing the amplitude of a signal picked up by a probe of this kind, account must be taken of the voltage-divide ratio in conjunction with the setting of the scopes volts/div control. However, there are active probes that provide a high tip impedance without impairing the input sensitivity.
f youve been following this series you should now have a basic idea of the working principles of the scope, how time and amplitude measurements are made and interpreted, rise time and bandwidth implications, the characteristics of sine and square waves, elementary applications and so forth, so now is the time to consider the use of the bargain scope in the workshop and shack. Actually being able to see the nature of the signals you are dealing with can be of immense help to the self training philosophy of our hobby - and lets face it, that is a primary aspect of Amateur Radio. Coupling the Y input of a scope to the test signal through an open length of wire is prone to 50Hz ripple and spurious signal pick-up and should generally be avoided. Using screened cable terminated by a couple of crocodile clips for ease of connection is satisfactory for relatively low-frequency signals, and for pulses of not too short rise time. However, there are occasions requiring a more specialised interface, such as when application is to a point of high impedance, or when the voltage or amplitude of the test signal is greater than the oscilloscopes Y input capability.
Amplitude Modulation
A classic example of amplitude modulation (a.m.) is shown in the oscillogram in Fig. 2. Here a modulated r.f. signal, provided by a Marconi signal generator applied to the Y2 input, is shown by the lower trace, while the audio frequency (a.f.) sinewave responsible for the modulation, provided by a Radford low distortion oscillator coupled to the Y1 input, is shown by the upper trace. The oscillogram (Fig. 2) nicely illustrates how a dualtrace scope makes it possible to display two related waveforms simultaneously. In this case, direct comparison between the modulation envelope of the lower display and the modulating sinewave of the upper display gives a basic indication of any modulation distortion. Hardly any in this example, though. Because the timebase sweep needs to be set to suit the frequency of the modulating signal, the separate sinewaves of the higher frequency carrier wave, of course, are much too close together to be discernible. The modulation percentage can be determined from the lower display by dividing the difference between the maximum and minimum amplitudes within the envelope by their sum, and then multiplying the result by 100. In the example given, the difference and sum respectively are about 2.2 and 6, signifying a modulation percentage close to 36.6% (2.2 divided by 6 times 100). Increasing the modulation to 100%, so that the minimum amplitude within the envelope just drops to zero, results in the peaks of the modulation envelope rising to twice that of the unmodulated carrier wave.
Compensated Probe
When a scope is connected directly to a radio frequency (r.f.) source of high impedance through screened cable, the total shunt capacitance of the cable and the Y input capacitance could well approach 100pF, which could adversely affect the circuit under test. This problem can be reduced by using a probe of suitable characteristics to interface the source to the scope. The circuit of one example of a passive probe, known as a compensated voltage-divide probe, is shown in Fig. 1. When used with a scope whose Y input resistance is 1M, which would apply to many practical scopes of the kind we are looking at, the resistance at the tip of the probe would rise by a factor of ten to 10M, as established by the series resistor, but at the expense of a ten-to-one reduction in sensitivity. Relative to the capacitance of the screened connecting cable and the Y input capacitance of the scope itself, the trimmer capacitor Cc is adjusted to divide down the capacitive reactance equally, thereby reducing the tip capacitance by a factor of ten. All frequencies are equally attenuated when the trimmer is adjusted for the least rounding or overshoot at the leading corner of a 1kHz squarewave applied to the probe tip. (A squarewave
Oscilloscope Monitoring
The scope can also be arranged to monitor the signal radiated by your transmitter by connecting a short length of wire, acting as an antenna, to the Y input through a length of coaxial cable, and setting the Y sensitivity and timebase controls accordingly. Troublesome 50Hz mains ripple can be reduced, but at the expense of some r.f. amplitude, by connecting a 50 resistor between the inner conductor and outer screen of the coaxial (a radiofrequency choke could be a better alternative). The Y bandwidth will need to embrace the frequency of the transmission, of course, but most practical scopes should be capable of responding to the signals of the lower frequency Amateur bands. Working 4W QRP on the 7MHz band into my roof-space trap dipole antenna, I get a display of around 0.6V peak-to-peak (p-p) when monitoring my transmission in this way.
The
Part 6 Workshop and Radio Shack Applications
Probe Probe tip 9M Cc 3 - 30P Earth Screened probe cable
Oscilloscope
Yin
Fig. 1: This example circuit of a simple compensated voltage-divider probe increases the resistance and reduces the
C in
1M
capacitance of the Y input, but at the expenses of a ten time reduction in sensitivity, as explained in the text.
WST2759
17
Practical Wireless, June 2005
G TAKING THE MYSTERY OUT OF THE OSCILLOSCOPE

By setting the timebase to the fastest sweep rate and activating the X10 facility, it should be possible to resolve the separate sinewaves of an unmodulated carrier. Under these conditions most rally-acquired scopes will achieve a maximum sweep rate of 0.05 microsecond/div. One complete sinewave of a 7MHz carrier would then occupy about 2.86 divisions on the graticule. By noting the vertical amplitude of the display when the transmitter is sending a low-level c.w. signal, it becomes possible to determine the output at other amplitudes of deflection. For example, lets say that the amplitude of the display is 0.6V when the transmitter is sending 4W, then at an amplitude of 6V the output would have increased to 400W. So, how do we know this? Well, the arithmetic is simple. We merely divide 6 by 0.6, square the result and multiply by 4; e.g., (6/0.6)2x 4 = 400. The deflections are squared because power is proportional to the square of the voltage (see below), while beam deflection is directly proportional to the voltage. Ive used this method of scope monitoring to keep an eye on the p.e.p. while transmitting in s.s.b. mode. Its one way to avoid overdriving and inadvertently peaking above the 400W p.e.p. limit. Clearly, care must be taken to avoid interference to other Amateurs and users of the band when running a transmitter while monitoring off-air for test purposes. Detailed tests and measurements using a scope require the transmitter to be driven into a dummy load with a means of measuring the power, and an arrangement for coupling a small sample of the signal across the load to the Y input. When a scope is used to assess transmitter performance, a two-tone modulating signal of suitable level for applying to the microphone input can be useful. The two tones should be low distortion sinusoidal, equal in amplitude, non-harmonically related and, of course, within the rigs modulation bandwidth. (Note: The PW Two Tone Oscillator by Tony Nailer G4CFY, published in the February 2005 issue, would make a useful piece of kit to partner your scope. The article also describes how the oscillator can be used with a scope, along with details of test results. It also tells how an in-line sniffer unit can be constructed to yield a low-level r.f. Y input).
Fig. 2: The modulated carrier wave and the signal responsible for the modulation of this dual trace a.m. oscillogram are shown respectively on the lower and upper traces. Modulation percentage can be calculated from the ratio of the maximum and minimum amplitudes within the modulation envelope, as explained in the text.
Fig. 3: An impression of the leading edge of a radiated keying waveform based on the oscilloscopes timebase running at 1mS/div.
Power, Voltage and Resistance

Now lets look deeper into power, voltage and resistance. The r.f. voltage appearing across a non-reactive dummy load at the output of a transmitter is equal to the square root of the power in watts multiplied by the load resistance in Ohms. At 400W peak envelope power (p.e.p.), therefore, the amplitude of the r.f. would be quite substantial and beyond the Y input capability of a practical scope. This is why its necessary to attenuate the voltage by using a suitable probe, coupling circuit or sniffer. Moreover, when dealing with strong r.f. voltages extreme care is required to avoid r.f. burns to person and serious damage to test equipment. On the audio side, though, its generally less hazardous to connect the audio frequency (a.f.) voltage appearing across a resistive load at the output of an a.f. amplifier either directly to the Y input or through a simple attenuator. This is because a.f. power is often measured in tens rather than in hundreds of watts, while the load resistance is commonly in the order of four or eight Ohms rather than 50. For example, the r.m.s. voltage across a 4 load connected to the output of an a.f. amplifier delivering a sinewave of, say, 25W average power would be 10V, corresponding to 14.14V peak and 28.28V peak-to-peak. Its worth keeping in mind that average power, sometimes erroneously called r.m.s. power, is
equal to the square of the r.m.s. value of the voltage (see Fig. 1 in Part 3 PW March) divided by the load resistance in ohms, or W = V2 /R (or I2xR; where I is the r.f. current), and that the p.e.p. is the average power in one r.f cycle at the highest crest of the modulation envelope delivered to the antenna (or load).
Key Clicks
By keying a transmitter in A1A mode (c.w.), the keying display will give an idea of whether key clicks are likely to be troublesome. The basic keying waveform is tantamount to a squarewave that, as already told in Part 5, is derived from the fundamental (keying) frequency plus a wide range of essentially odd-order harmonics. Harmonics from an untreated keying waveform yield multiple sidebands that can extend many kHz either side of the carrier frequency. It is the energy carried by these sidebands that is responsible for the annoying key clicks sometimes heard far removed from the operating frequency. The trick is to limit the rise (and fall) time of the keying waveform. Most transmitters from commercial sources take care of this quite adequately, indicated by the
controlled rise and fall times of the a keying waveform. An impression of the leading part of a keying waveform of an early transceiver of mine, based on the oscilloscopes timebase running at 1mS/div, is given in Fig. 3. I think this is quite a fair result as witnessed over many years of working c.w. with the rig and not having had any complaints of key-click QRM. If the rise time is increased too much above about 5mS the keying will sound over soft and the code more difficult to read. A rise time of 5mS relates to a bandwidth of between 70 and 100Hz (Part 5, PW May), depending on the nature of the click suppression treatment. The power that exists at the peaks of the modulation envelope represents the p.e.p. This, of course, is also the case with a monitored singlesideband (s.s.b.) audio frequency display, but here the general nature of the display, and the rises and falls in amplitude, are related to the frequency, harmonic content and the loudness of the modulation. With a little practice it becomes possible to glean a rough idea from a speech-derived s.s.b. display whether a rig is suffering from peak clipping, overload, instability or any other significant shortfall. More serious tests, of course, require the use of additional instruments, such as an accurate output power meter, twotone oscillator, r.f. coupler, etc., as mentioned earlier.
Fig. 4: Example oscillograms. (a) Squarewave sag resulting from limited low-frequency response. (b) Squarewave with slight overshoot showing ringing in oscillatory circuit triggered by pulse. (c) Sinewave with clipped positive-going half cycles resulting from incorrect amplifier biasing. (d) Noise display heard as hiss and sometimes referred to as white noise. (e) Electrical interference on 50Hz mains waveform radiated from fluorescent light fitting. (f) Total harmonic distortion (lower trace) carried by the sinewave (upper-trace) remaining after removal of the fundamental frequency by a steep and narrow notch filter. (a) (b)
18
dB
10
50 Hz
100
500
1k
2k
Fig. 5: Frequency response and stereo separation curves of gramophone pickup playing a special test record as displayed on a scope in conjunction with a swept function generator, where the vertical scale of the graticule is 5dB/div logarithmic and the horizontal scale Hz 10 (also see Fig. 5 in Part 5).
Learning Curve
After first acquiring a scope, whether ancient or modern, new or secondhand, you will have triggered a very interesting continuing learning curve. I know, I started on my curve 60 years ago! Like Rob G3XFD said, his first introduction to the scopes usefulness was when it revealed to him a bias fault in a misbehaving tape recorder. Its impossible, of course, within a few thousand words to delve deeply into the scopes myriad applications. But I think it would now be appropriate to round off this short series by highlighting a few of the more interesting oscillograms related to my own diagnostic and performance testing activities over many years, yet which still remain perfectly valid.
trace of overshoot at the upper leading corner, an indication of amplifier instability. Ringing, a diminishing amplitude oscillation, is likely to occur when a fast-rising pulse triggers an undamped, high Q oscillatory circuit. The clipped sinewave at (c) is a fairly typical display as might stem from the signal passing through an incorrectly biased a.f. amplifier. Noise signal such as (d) is responsible for the gentle hiss behind a weak radio signal or from a poorly designed high-gain a.f. amplifier, sometimes, though not always correctly, referred to as white noise. Interference generated by a poorly suppressed fluorescent light can be seen on the 50Hz mains waveform at (e), revealing the remarkable versatility of the workshop scope. Finally, the dual trace display at (f) shows a pure sinewave on the upper trace, and the total harmonic distortion (THD) contained within the sinewave on the lower trace, obtained by notching out the fundamental frequency.
home-constructed a.c./d.c. converter with a logarithmic amplifier.
The Z Input
In addition to the X and Y inputs, most scopes are usually equipped with a Z input that links to the grid of the c.r.t. By coupling positive - or negative-going pulses to this input, which is often located at the rear of the instrument, the trace can be either intensified or darkened for the period of the pulse. In this way timing markers can be superimposed on the display by the application of suitable pulses from a calibrated generator, representing an alternative method of reading sweep time, for example. Having now arrived at Z my story too has virtually ended, but not before a few words of encouragement to newcomers. The oscilloscope has been of immense help to me during my life working with things electronic. We came together when I was young and repairing radios on the home front at the start of the war, and we became even more of a technical duo during my war time activities in the Royal Corps of Signals with Special Communication and Experimental Units in SE Asia. The reintroduction of television and the revival of hi-fi sound in stereo not long after the war finished, rendered the scope an even more potent aid for procedures related to both design and servicing (Fig. 6). It also became a primary instrument during the time I was pioneering coaxial relay (cable TV) and developing electronic devices such as the King Telebooster, electronic car rev counter, automatic slide change unit, etc.
Fig. 6: Gordon G4VFV managing an electronics division not long after the end of the Second World War, showing an early Cossor scope along with a mini-scope (on the side table). Despite its limited features, radio buffs and service departments in the 1950s often chose this relatively inexpensive miniscope.
Frequency Response Plots

The dual trace display in Fig. 5 shows how I have also used a scope to plot a.f. response curves. Here the upper trace shows the frequency response of the speaking channel of a stereo gramophone pick-up playing a frequency response recording, and the lower trace the breakthrough signal in the non-speaking channel. The graticule is scaled in 5dB/div vertically and Hz-times-ten horizontally, corresponding to vertical and horizontal ranges of 40dB and 20Hz to 20kHz respectively. I have also used this technique for checking the frequency response of stereo radio receivers and hi-fi tuners. The idea is similar to that described for tuned circuit alignment (Part 5), but for these audio tests a swept functions generator was used in conjunction with a Telequipment dual beam scope. The Y deflection was made logarithmic by using a
Fig. 7: G4VFV on the air in his lab/shack at Brixham, showing a Telequipment Oscilloscope, Marconi Signal Generator, HP Spectrum Analyser and other associated items used by Gordon for his design and magazine reviewing activities.
Looking At Oscillograms
The oscillograms are brought together in Fig. 4, where the first one at (a) depicts a low frequency squarewave with horizontal sag resulting from its passage through an amplifier or circuit that tends to attenuate (or roll-off) the lower frequencies slightly relative to the middle and higher frequencies. This is the converse of high-frequency rolloff which, as we saw in Part 5, impairs the rise time and rounds the leading corners of a squarewave. The squarewave at (b) reveals a
The scope continued to flourish in my domain during the happy years I subsequently spent testing and reviewing hi-fi equipment for the audio magazines, and writing many technical books and hundreds of articles for the technical press. Now, after more decades than I care to remember, the scope and I find it hard to be parted. Together, you will find us still in the radio shack one way or another (Fig. 7). Have fun becoming acquainted with your bargain scope! PW
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
19

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Oscilloscope Series

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G THE OSCILLOSCOPE PART 1 - BASIC PRINCIPLES

Cathode Ray Tube

Did You Know?

Part 1 Basic Principles

Horizontal (X) deflection plates

Electr on electr beam gu n ic foc ussin and g unit

Focused stream of electrons

Y1 Electron beam from 'gun' X1

Electron beam to screen

Post Deflection Acceleration

Did You Know?

ratio between the two being known as the p.d.a. ratio.

Beware High Voltages!

Practical Wireless, January 2005

G THE OSCILLOSCOPE PART 1 - BASIC PRINCIPLES

Oscillograms & Photography

Did You Know?

Dual Display Oscilloscopes

Practical Wireless, January 2005

G GETTING TO KNOW THE BASIC APPLICATIONS OF YOUR SCOPE

Part 2 Basic Applications

Did You Know?

Vertical trace on c.r.t. Horizontal trace on c.r.t.

Time & Frequency

Did You Know?

Practical Wireless, February 2005

G GETTING TO KNOW THE BASIC APPLICATIONS OF YOUR SCOPE

Did You Know?

Timebase & Sensitivity

Practical Wireless, February 2005

G Gordon G4VFV helps you control your scope and synchronise!

Controls, synchronisation & triggering

100 70.7 Positive peak 0 Negative peak

Root Mean Squared (r.m.s.) level

Vertical & Horizontal Shift

Practical Wireless, March 2005

G GETTING TO KNOW THE BASIC APPLICATIONS OF YOUR SCOPE

CRT AC Y input attenuator Y amplifier Y2

Y1 Polarity Trigger select Trigger circuit External

Level X amplifier X select

Sweep Linearity Essential

Practical Wireless, March 2005

Dual Channel Trigger Level

Dual Trace Principles and XY Applications

CH1 CH2 Chop Alternate

Channel switching circuit Beam switch

CH2 Ext. in trigger CH1 External

The X & Y Inputs

Phase Shifts & Angles

Fig. 3: This indicates a phase angle of around 55 (see text).

Practical Wireless, April 2005

Device under test (a) Earth Load

(a) X and Y deflections (see text).

Practical Wireless, April 2005

G IMPORTANT OSCILLOSCOPE Y AMPLIFIER RELATIONSHIPS

Part 5 Bandwidth, Rise Time, Square Waves and Ancillaries

Practical Wireless, May 2005

G IMPORTANT OSCILLOSCOPE Y AMPLIFIER RELATIONSHIPS

Ramp for X sweep

X Receiver Detector load Y E Y

(a) Response of receiver Centre frequency

Errors & Updates

Practical Wireless, May 2005