An ideal gas is a theoretical gas composed of a set of randomly-moving, non-interacting point particles.

The ideal gas concept is useful because it obeys the ideal gas law, a simplified equation of state, and is amenable to analysis under statistical mechanics.

The Spanning tree protocol (STP) is a link layer network protocol that ensures a loop-freetopology for any bridged LAN. Thus, the basic function of STP is to prevent bridge loops and ensuing broadcast radiation.

The torr (symbol: Torr) is a non-SI unit of pressure with the ratio of 760 to 1 standard atmosphere, chosen to be roughly equal to the fluid pressure exerted by a millimeter of mercury, i.e. a pressure of 1 Torr is approximately equal to 1 mmHg. Note that the symbol is spelled exactly the same as the unit, but the symbol is capitalized, as is customary in metric units derived from names. It was named afterEvangelista Torricelli, an Italian physicist and mathematician who discovered the principle of the barometer in 1644.[1]

Pressure (the symbol: P) is the force per unit area applied in a direction perpendicular to the surface of an object. Gauge pressure is the pressure relative to the local atmospheric or ambient pressure. Pressure is an effect which occurs when a force is applied on a surface. Pressure is the amount of force acting on a unit area. The symbol of pressure is P.

The molar volume, symbol Vm,[1] is the volume occupied by one mole of a substance (chemical element or chemical compound) at a giventemperature and pressure. It is equal to the molar mass (M) divided by the mass density ( ). It has the SI unit cubic metres per mole (m /mol),[1] although it is more practical to use the units cubic decimetres per mole (dm /mol) for gases and cubic centimetres per mole (cm /mol) for liquids and solids.
3 3 3

In chemistry and physics, Dalton's law (also called Dalton's law of partial pressures) states that the total pressure exerted by a gaseousmixture is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of each individual component in a gas mixture. This empirical law was observed by John Dalton in 1801 and is related to the ideal gas laws.

2. Although

the ideal gas model is very useful, it is only an approximation of the real nature of gases, and the equations derived from its assumptions are not entirely dependable. As a consequence, the measured properties of a real gas will very often differ from the properties predicted by our calculations. Lets look at some of the reasons for these discrepancies. Chapter 11
a.
b.

fluid that has passed through a filter

A mixture where two or more substances are mixed together but are not chemically combined is called as an heterogeneous mixture. In this article we are going to discuss about heterogeneous mixture.

c.

A substance that is uniform in composition is a definition of homogeneous in Chemistry. This is in contrast to a substance that isheterogeneous.[1] The definition of homogeneous strongly depends on the context used. In Chemistry, a homogeneous suspension of material means that when dividing the volume in half, the same amount of material is suspended in both halves of the substance. However, it might be possible to see the particles under a microscope. In Chemistry, another homogeneous substance is air. It is equally suspended, and the particles and gases and liquids cannot be analyzed separately or pulled apart.

d. A solution is a special type of homogeneous mixture. Solutions are homogeneous because, the ratio of solute to solvent remains the same throughout the solution even if homogenized with multiple sources, and stable because, the solute will not settle out, no matter how long the solution sits, and it cannot be removed by a filter or a centrifuge.[3] This type of mixture is very stable, i.e., its particles do not settle, or separate. e. Solute, a substance dissolved in fluid, forming a solution. Solute (echinoderm), a group of Paleozoic echinoderms f. A solvent (from the Latin solvere, "loosen") is a liquid, solid, or gas that dissolves another solid, liquid, or gaseous solute, resulting in asolution that is soluble in a certain volume of solvent at a specified temperature. Common uses for organic solvents are in dry cleaning (e.g.tetrachloroethylene), as a paint thinner (e.g. toluene, turpentine), as nail polish removers and glue solvents (acetone, methyl acetate, ethyl acetate), in spot removers (e.g. hexane, petrol ether), in detergents (citrus terpenes), in perfumes (ethanol), and in chemical synthesis. The use of inorganic solvents (other than water) is typically limited to research chemistry and some technological processes. g. Solubility is the property of a solid, liquid, or gaseous chemical substance called solute to dissolve in a liquid solvent to form a homogeneous solution of the solute in the solvent. The solubility of a substance fundamentally depends on the used solvent as well as on temperature and pressure. The extent of the solubility of a substance in a specific

solvent is measured as the saturation concentration where adding more solute does not increase the concentration of the solution. h. In chemistry, an electrolyte is any substance containing free ions that make the substance electrically conductive. The most typical electrolyte is an ionic solution, but molten electrolytes and solid electrolytes are also possible.Electrolytes commonly exist as solutions of acids, bases or salts. Furthermore, some gases may act as electrolytes under conditions of high temperature or low pressure. Electrolyte solutions can also result from the dissolution of some biological (e.g., DNA, polypeptides) and synthetic polymers (e.g., polystyrene sulfonate), termed polyelectrolytes, which contain charged functional groups.
i. A substance that does exist in an ionic form in aqueous solution In physics and chemistry, a solution obtained when a solvent (liquid) can dissolve no more of a solute (usually a solid) at a particular temperature. Normally, a slight fall in temperature causes some of the solute to crystallize out of solution. If this does not happen the phenomenon is called supercooling, and the solution is said to be supersaturated.

j.

k. Solution that is capable of dissolving more solute than it already contains at the same temperature. l.

supersaturated solution: a solution that contains more solute than it would if the dissolved solute were in equilibrium with the undissolved solute.

m. Percent Composition by Mass is the mass of the solute divided by the mass of the solution (mass of the solute plus mass of thesolvent), multiplied by 100.

n. Volume percent is usually used when the solution is made by mixing two fluids, such as liquids or gases. However, percentages are only additive for ideal gases.[1]The solute is what you get from the solution. For example, if you distilled salt water, the solution would be the salt water, and the solvent would be the distilled water. o. In chemistry, mole fraction x is a way of expressing the composition of a mixture. The mole fraction of each component i is defined as itsamount of substance ni divided by the total amount of substance in the system, n where

The sum is over all components, including the solvent in the case of a chemical solution. As an example, if a mixture is obtained by dissolving 10 moles of sucrose in 90 moles of water, the mole fraction of sucrose in that mixture is 0.1. p. An alternative unit of concentration to molarity is molality. The molality of a solute is the number of moles of that solute divided by the weight of the solvent in kilograms. For water solutions, 1 kg of water has a volume close to that of 1 liter, so molality and molarity are similar in dilute aqueous solutions.

q. Another way of expressing

concentration, the way that we will use most in this course, is calledmolarity. Molarity is the number of moles of solute dissolved in one liter of solution. The units, therefore are moles per liter, specifically it's moles of solute per liter of solution.
r. A colloid is a substance microscopically dispersed evenly throughout another one. A colloidal system consists of two separate phases: a dispersed phase (or internal phase) and a continuous phase (or dispersion medium). A colloidal system may be solid, liquid, orgaseous. s. Osmosis is the movement of water molecules across a partially-permeable membrane down a water potential gradient.[1] More specifically, it is the movement of water across a partially permeable membrane from an area of high water potential (low solute concentration) to an area of low water potential (high solute concentration). It is a physical process in which a solvent moves, without input of energy, across a semipermeable membrane (permeable to the solvent, but not the solute) separating two solutions of different concentrations.[2] Osmosis releases energy, and can be made to do work[3]. Osmosis is a passive process, like diffusion. t. Osmotic pressure is the pressure applied by a solution to prevent the inward flow of water across a semipermeable membrane.[1]The phenomenon of osmotic pressure arises from the tendency of a pure solvent to move through a semi-permeable membrane and into a solution containing a solute to which the membrane is impermeable. This process is of vital importance in biology as the cell'smembrane is selective towards many of the solutes found in living organisms.
[1]

3. A pure substance: y y y y y cannot be separated into 2 or more substances by physical or mechanical means is homogeneous, ie, has uniform composition throughout the whole sample its properties are constant throughout the whole sample its properties do not depend on how it is prepared or purified has constant chemical composition

Rate of solution is how quickly a solute dissolves in a solvent. Factors determining the rate of solution are: Surface Area

When a solute dissolves, only the surface of the solute comes in contact with the solvent. Therefore, the more the surface area of the solute, the faster it dissolves. This is why sugar powder dissolves faster than chunks of sugar. Stirring When you're dealing with solid and liquid solutes, stirring brings fresh parts of the solvent into contact with the solute and particles are forced to connect. Amount of solute already dissolved As the solvent approaches the point where it is saturated, it can hold less and less solute. Temperature Increasing the temperature also generally increases the amount of solute the solvent can hold (solid and liquid solutes). Categories: Solutions

In chemistry, concentration is the measure of how much of a given substance there is mixed with another substance. This can apply to any sort of chemical mixture, but most frequently the concept is limited to homogeneous solutions, where it refers to the amount of solute in thesolvent. To concentrate a solution, one must add more solute (e.g. alcohol), or reduce the amount of solvent (e.g. water). By contrast, to dilute a solution, one must add more solvent, or reduce the amount of solute. Unless two substances are fully miscible there exists a concentration at which no further solute will dissolve in a solution. At this point, the solution is said to be saturated. If additional solute is added to a saturated solution, it will not dissolve (except in certain circumstances, when supersaturation may occur). Instead, phase separation will occur, leading to either coexisting phases or a suspension. The point of saturation depends on many variables such as ambient temperature and the precise chemical nature of the solvent and solute. Dilute solution

A solution that contains a small amount of solute relative to the amount that could dissolve.

In chemistry, an electrolyte is any substance containing free ions that make the substance electrically conductive. The most typical electrolyte is an ionic solution, but molten electrolytes and solid electrolytes are also possible.

Weak electrolyte. Electrolytes commonly exist as solutions of acids, bases or salts. Furthermore, some gases may act as electrolytes under conditions of high temperature or low pressure. Electrolyte solutions can also result from the dissolution of some biological (e.g., DNA, polypeptides) and synthetic polymers (e.g., polystyrene sulfonate), termed polyelectrolytes, which contain charged functional groups. Electrolyte solutions are normally formed when a salt is placed into a solvent such as water and the individual components dissociate due to the thermodynamic interactions between solvent and solute molecules, in a process called solvation A strong electrolyte is a solute that completely, or almost completely, ionizes or dissociates in a solution. These ions are good conductors of electric current in the solution. Originally, a "strong electrolyte" was defined as a chemical that, when in aqueous solution, is a good conductor of electricity. With greater understanding of the properties of ions in solution its definition was gradually changed to the present one. A concentrated solution of this strong electrolyte has a lower vapour pressure than that of pure water at the same temperature. Strong acids,strong bases, and soluble ionic salts that are not weak acids or weak bases are strong electrolytes.

An ionic or electrovalent compound that conducts electricity in molten (fused) or aqueous (solution) state can be classified as an electrolyte. However, if the compound is unable to ionise it does not conduct electricity it is called a non-electrolyte. In general, the extent to which an electrolyte can break up into ions categorises an electrolyte. This gives a measure of the degree of dissociation (a) of an electrolyte. Based on this degree the electrolytes can be classified as strong or weak electrolyte and non-electrolyte.

Strong Electrolyte
A strong electrolyte dissociates or ionises completely or almost completely to form free mobile ions in the solution or molten form. The more the availability of free mobile ions in an electrolyte, the greater is its capacity to carry or conduct current i.e. the stronger the electrolyte. The ability to conduct current can be observed by setting up a cell as shown in figure 4.4. The bulb glows brightly.

For e.g.,

Sodium chloride even in crystalline form consists of ions. But the ions are not mobile. When melted or dissolved in water, it dissociates completely into free, mobile ions.

Pure sulphuric acid exists mostly in the form of molecules. But when mixed with water, it almost completely breaks up into free mobile ions.

Weak Electrolyte
A weak electrolyte ionises or dissociates only partially to form free mobile ions. Most of the electrolyte remains as unionised molecules. For example in acetic acid, the number of its dissociated ions (the acetate and hydrogen ions) is less compared to the total amount of acetic acid molecules present. Similarly in ammonium hydroxide the number of its dissociated ions (the ammonium and hydroxyl ions) are less compared to the total amount of the molecules present.

Thus both these compounds are weak electrolytes. When the number of mobile ions is less in an electrolyte, the lesser is its capacity to carry or conduct current i.e. the weaker is the electrolyte. This is observed by setting up the cell as shown in figure 4.5. The bulb glows less brightly.

Remember If one liter of a solution containing one molar mass of sulphuric acid, and one liter of a solution containing one molar mass of citric or acetic acid, are subjected to the same current, then:

y y

The bulb glows brightly in the case of the sulphuric acid, showing it to be a strong electrolyte The bulb glows dimly in the case of the citric or acetic acid, showing that it is a weak electrolyte.

Non-electrolyte
A non-electrolyte does not provide ions in a solution and therefore current does not flow through such solution. The bulb in the given set up does not glow (Fig.4.6). Some examples of non-electrolytes are: alcohol, carbon tetrachloride, carbon disulphide.

Examples of Electrolytes
Strong electrolyte
Sea water Hydrochloric acid Sulphuric acid Aqueous copper sulphate Molten lead bromide Aqueous sodium chloride Nitric acid Aqueous potassium hydroxide

Weak electrolyte
Tap water Carbonic acid Acetic acid Ammonium hydroxide Citric acid Oxalic acid

Non-electrolyte
Chemically pure water Alcohol Kerosene Aqueous sugar solution Carbon disulphide