BUILDING MATERIALS ROJECT PLASTICS

SHASHANK P S 1DS09AT027 B ARCH VI SEM DSSA

PLASTICS
A plastic material is any of a wide range of synthetic or semisynthetic organic solids that are moldable. Plastics are typically organic polymers of high molecular mass, but they often contain other substances. They are usually synthetic, most commonly derived from petrochemicals, but many are partially natural. Composition Almost invariably, organic polymers mainly comprise plastics. The vast majority of these polymers are based on chains of carbon atoms alone or with oxygen, sulfur, or nitrogen as well. The backbone is that part of the chain on the main "path" linking a large number of repeat units together. To customize the properties of a plastic, different molecular groups "hang" from the backbone (usually they are "hung" as part of the monomers before linking monomers together to form the polymer chain). The structure of these "side chains" influence the properties of the polymer. This fine tuning of the properties of the polymer by repeating unit's molecular structure has allowed plastics to become an indispensable part of the twenty-first century world. Additives Most plastics contain other organic or inorganic compounds blended in. The amount of additives ranges from zero percentage for polymers used to wrap foods to more than 50% for certain electronic applications. The average content of additives is 20% by weight of the polymer. Fillers improve performance and/or reduce production costs. Stabilizing additives include fire retardants to lower the flammability of the material. Many plastics contain fillers, relatively inert and inexpensive materials that make the product cheaper by weight. Typically fillers are mineral in origin, e.g., chalk. Some fillers are more chemically active and are called reinforcing agents. Since many organic polymers are too rigid for particular applications, they are blended with plasticizers, oily compounds that confer improved rheology. Colourants are of course common additives, although their weight contribution is small. Many of the controversies associated with plastics are associated with the additives.

Classification Plastics are usually classified by their chemical structure of the polymer's backbone and side chains. Some important groups in these classifications are the acrylics, polyesters, silicones,polyurethanes, and halogenated plastics. Plastics can also be classified by the chemical process used in their synthesis, such as condensation, polyaddition, and cross-linking.

Thermoplastics and thermosetting polymers There are two types of plastics: thermoplastics and thermosetting polymers. Thermoplastics are the plastics that do not undergo chemical change in their composition when heated and can be moulded again and again. Examples include polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride, and polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE).[4] Common thermoplastics range from 20,000 to 500,000 amu, while thermosets are assumed to have infinite molecular weight. These chains are made up of many repeating molecular units, known as repeat units, derived from monomers; each polymer chain will have several thousand repeating units. Thermosets can melt and take shape once; after they have solidified, they stay solid. In the thermosetting process, a chemical reaction occurs that is irreversible. The vulcanization of rubber is a thermosetting process. Before heating with sulfur, the polyisoprene is a tacky, slightly runny material, but after vulcanization the product is rigid and non-tacky. Other classifications Other classifications are based on qualities that are relevant for manufacturing or product design. Examples of such classes are the thermoplastic and thermoset, elastomer, structural, biodegradable, and electrically conductive. Plastics can also be classified by various physical properties, such as density, tensile strength, glass transition temperature, and resistance to various chemical products.

Biodegradability Biodegradable plastics break down (degrade) upon exposure to sunlight (e.g., ultra-violet radiation), water or dampness, bacteria, enzymes, wind abrasion, and in some instances rodent pest or insect attack are also included as forms of biodegradation or environmental degradation. Some modes of degradation require that the plastic be exposed at the surface, whereas other modes will only be effective if certain conditions exist in landfill or composting systems. Starch powder has been mixed with plastic as a filler to allow it to degrade more easily, but it still does not lead to complete breakdown of the plastic. Some researchers have actually genetically engineered bacteria that synthesize a completely biodegradable plastic, but this material, such as Biopol, is expensive at present.[5] The German chemical company BASF makes Ecoflex, a fully biodegradable polyester for food packaging applications. Natural vs synthetic BioplasticMost plastics are produced from petrochemicals. Motivated by the finiteness of petrochemical reserves and possibility of global warming, bioplastics are being developed. Bioplastics are made substantially from renewable plant materials such as cellulose and starch.[6] In comparison to the global consumption of all flexible packaging, estimated at 12.3 million tonnes, estimates put global production capacity at 327,000 tonnes for related bio-derived materials.[7][8] Crystalline vs amorphous Some plastics are partially crystalline and partially amorphous in molecular structure, giving them both a melting point (the temperature at which the attractive intermolecular forces are overcome) and one or more glass transitions (temperatures above which the extent of localized molecular flexibility is substantially increased). The so-called semicrystalline plastics include polyethylene, polypropylene, poly (vinyl chloride), polyamides (nylons), polyesters and some polyurethanes. Many plastics are completely amorphous, such as polystyrene and its copolymers, poly (methyl methacrylate), and all thermosets.

History Early plastics were bio-derived materials such as egg and blood proteins, which are organic polymers. Treated cattle horns were used as windows for lanterns in the Middle Ages. Materials that mimicked the properties of horns were developed by treating milk-proteins (casein) with lye. In the 1800s the development of plastics accelerated with Charles Goodyear's discovery of vulcanization as a route to thermoset materials derived from natural rubber. Many storied materials were reported as industrial chemistry was developed in the 1800s. In the early 1900s, Bakelite, the first fully synthetic thermoset was reported by Belgian chemist Leo Baekeland. After the First World War, improvements in chemical technology led to an explosion in new forms of plastics. Among the earliest examples in the wave of new polymers were polystyrene (PS) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC). The development of plastics has come from the use of natural plastic materials (e.g., chewing gum,shellac) to the use of chemically modified natural materials (e.g., rubber, nitrocellulose, collagen, galalite) and finally to completely synthetic molecules (e.g., bakelite, epoxy, polyvinyl chloride).

Parkesine

The plastic material, parkesine, was patented by Alexander Parkes, In Birmingham, UK in 1856.[9] It was unveiled at the 1862 Great International Exhibition in London.[10] Parkesine won a bronze medal at the 1862 World's fair in London. Parkesine was made from cellulose (the major component of plant cell walls) treated with nitric acid as a solvent. The output of the process (commonly known as cellulose nitrate or pyroxilin) could be dissolved inalcohol and hardened into a transparent and elastic material that could be molded when heated.[11] By incorporating pigments into the product, it could be made to resemble ivory. Bakelite BakeliteThe first so called plastic based on a synthetic polymer was made from phenol and formaldehyde, with the first viable and cheap synthesis methods invented in 1907, by Leo Hendrik Baekeland, aBelgian-born American living in New York state. Baekeland was looking for an insulating shellac to coat wires in electric motors and generators. He found that combining phenol (C6H5OH) and formaldehyde (HCOH) formed a sticky mass and later found that the material could be mixed with wood flour, asbestos, or slate dust to create strong and fire resistant "composite" materials. The new material tended to foam during synthesis, requiring that Baekeland build pressure vessels to force out the bubbles and provide a smooth, uniform product, as announced his in 1909, in a meeting of the American Chemical Society.[12] Bakelite was originally used for electrical and mechanical parts, coming into widespread use in consumer goods in the 1920s. Bakelite was a purely synthetic material, not derived from living matter. It was also an early thermosetting plastic.

Representative polymers

Polystyrene

Plastic piping and firestops being installed in Ontario. Certain plastic pipes can be used in some non-combustible buildings, provided they are firestopped properly and that the flame spread ratings comply with the localbuilding code. Polystyrene is a rigid, brittle, inexpensive plastic that has been used to make plastic model kits and similar knick-knacks. It would also be the basis for one of the most popular "foamed" plastics, under the name styrene foam or Styrofoam. Foam plastics can be synthesized in an "open cell" form, in which the foam bubbles are interconnected, as in an absorbent sponge, and "closed cell", in which all the bubbles are distinct, like tiny balloons, as in gas-filled foam insulation and flotation devices. In the late 1950s, high impact styrene was introduced, which was not brittle. It finds much current use as the substance of toy figurines and novelties.

Styrene polymerization Polyvinyl chloride Polyvinyl chloride (PVC, commonly called "vinyl")[13] incorporates chlorine atoms. The C-Cl bonds in the backbone are hydrophobic and resist oxidation (and burning). PVC is stiff, strong, heat and weather resistant, properties that recommend its use in devices for plumbing, gutters, house siding, enclosures for computers and other electronics gear. PVC can also be softened with chemical processing, and in this form it is now used for shrink-wrap, food packaging, and rain gear.

Vinylchloride polymerization All PVC polymers are degraded by heat and light. When this happens, hydrogen chloride is released into the atmosphere and oxidation of the compound occurs.[14] Because hydrogen chloride readily combines with water vapor in the air to form hydrochloric acid,[15] polyvinyl chloride is not recommended for long-term archival storage of silver, photographic film or paper (mylar is preferable).[16]

Nylon

The plastics industry was revolutionized in the 1930s with the announcement of polyamide (PA), far better known by its trade name nylon. Nylon was the first purely synthetic fiber, introduced by DuPont Corporation at the 1939 World's Fair in New York City. In 1927, DuPont had begun a secret development project designated Fiber66, under the direction of Harvard chemist Wallace Carothers and chemistry department director Elmer Keiser Bolton. Carothers had been hired to perform pure research, and he worked to understand the new materials' molecular structure and physical properties. He took some of the first steps in the molecular design of the materials. His work led to the discovery of synthetic nylon fiber, which was very strong but also very flexible. The first application was for bristles for toothbrushes. However, Du Pont's real target was silk, particularly silk stockings. Carothers and his team synthesized a number of different polyamides including polyamide 6.6 and 4.6, as well as polyesters.[17]

General condensation polymerization reaction for nylon It took DuPont twelve years and US$27 million to refine nylon, and to synthesize and develop the industrial processes for bulk manufacture. With such a major investment, it was no surprise that Du Pont spared little expense to promote nylon after its introduction, creating a public sensation, or "nylon mania". Nylon mania came to an abrupt stop at the end of 1941 when the USA entered World War II. The production capacity that had been built up to produce nylon stockings, or just nylons, for American women was taken over to manufacture vast numbers of parachutes for fliers and paratroopers. After the war ended, DuPont went back to selling nylon to the public, engaging in another promotional campaign in 1946 that resulted in an even bigger craze, triggering the so called nylon riots.

Manufacture of plastics:

The production of plastics can be roughly divided into four categories: 1. Acquiring the raw material or monomer. 2. Synthesizing the basic polymer. 3. Compounding the polymer into a material that can be used for fabrication. 4. Molding or shaping the plastic into its final form. Raw Materials Historically, resins derived from vegetable matter were used to produce most plastics. This included such materials as cellulose (from cotton), furfural (from oat hulls), oils (from seeds) and various starch derivatives. Today, most plastics are produced from petrochemicals which are widely available and tend to be cheaper than other raw materials. However, the global supply of oil is exhaustible, so researchers are investigating other sources of raw materials, such as coal gasification. Synthesis of the Polymer The first step in plastic manufacturing is polymerization. The two basic methods by which polymerization can occur are addition and condensation reactions. These can occur in the gaseous, liquid and occasionally solid phase. Sometimes the polymer synthesis can take place at the interface of two immiscible liquids in which the monomers are dissolved. Additives Chemical additives can be used in the production of plastics to achieve certain characteristics. These additives include:

antioxidants to protect the polymer from degradation by ozone or oxygen ultraviolet stabilizers to protect against weathering plasticizers to increase the polymers flexibility lubricants to reduce friction problems pigments to give the plastic colour flame retardants antistatics

Polycarbonate Roofing Sheet

Polycarbonate Roofing Sheet , also known as: structural polycarbonate, polycarbonate channel, hollow polycarbonate. The name Cell material was due to its internal structure. The air contained in the voids between the layers of boards honeycombs, provides its high insulation properties, and the ribs great structural strength of polycarbonate. His produce extruded from high quality polycarbonate material of the leading manufacturers in accordance with European quality standards ISO.Polycarbonate Roofing Sheet is resistant to UV radiation, has good insulating properties, high light transmission and impact resistance, and exceptional insulating properties. Polycarbonate Roofing Sheet is used in construction and architecture, which requires a high degree of thermal insulation, as well as maximum strength and resistance to high loads. Structured polycarbonate panels (Polycarbonate Roofing Sheets) are hollow panel, in which two or more layers of polycarbonate combined longitudinal stiffeners. High ductility and strength of the hollow polycarbonate making it possible to obtain an extruded sheet with a way to thin walls (0,3 0,7 mm) no loss of impact resistant characteristics and at the same time with very low birth weight. Applications:

CONSTRUCTION AND RENOVATION :

the transparent roof; glazed roof and stained glass; vaulted ceilings galleries; soundproofed barriers highways; office partitions; glazed internal doors; swimming pools and sports facilities; awnings and canopies; walls in the bathroom and shower.

AGRICULTURE :

greenhouses, conservatories and winter garden verandas and farm.

ADVERTISING AND DESIGN :

exhibition stands, pavilions, windows; outdoor lighting advertising.

Scope of Polycarbonate Roofing Sheets, depending on their thickness: 4mm greenhouses and sheds, advertising design (exhibition stands and display cases) 6mm a material widely used (canopies, greenhouses, stained glass); 8mm a material widely used (walls, roofs, greenhouses, roof), 10mm For a solid glaze vertical surfaces (rooflights, noise barriers for highways), 16mm a roof over long spans (buildings), for large loads. The advantages of Polycarbonate Roofing Sheets Polycarbonate Roofing Sheets have a number of properties which, in full, does not possess any of the other transparent materials used in construction, namely: 1. Emergency light, low specific gravity (Polycarbonate Roofing Sheet weighs 16 times less than glass and is 6 times less than the acrylic of the same thickness, which significantly reduces the cost of supporting structures). 2. High impact strength (polycarbonate, as a viscous polymer, 200 times stronger than glass and 8 times stronger than acrylic plastic). The panels of polycarbonate, not broken and do not crack, and, consequently, sharp splinters on impact. 3. Polycarbonate panels can withstand significant wind and snow loads, do not tear like plastic film, which makes them the best material for greenhouses. Thus, the panel of polycarbonate are resistant to shock and hail are safe glazing.

4. High temperature resistance (the properties of polycarbonate little dependent on changes in the environment, and the critical temperature at which the material becomes brittle, are outside the zone of operation).

5. Low flammability (the coefficient of F-1), did not ignite in a fire, is not conducive to its spread and temperature fracture poses no danger to life. Polycarbonate Roofing Sheet under the influence of the flame melts with the formation of nonconducting arachnoid fibers and, unlike other plastics, not accompanied by the release of toxic substances. 6. High insulating properties, low thermal conductivity (heat transfer coefficient 3.4 W / sq and the resistance of the transmission of heat is higher than that of conventional single-layered glass, which reduces energy consumption for heating and cooling by about 50%). 7. Excellent sound insulation (sound absorption significantly compared with singlelayer materials by quenching of the sound wave, which passes from one medium to another). This allows you to successfully use Polycarbonate Roofing Sheet as noise barriers. 8. high light transmission (transparency up to 86%, good dispersion of light, no shadows, the gain due to the reflection on the partitions). 9. The bending strength and tensile strength. 10. Wide operating temperature range: -40 to +120 C, which allows the use Polycarbonate Roofing Sheet in different climatic conditions. The outer surface of the panel is covered with a layer that protects against UV radiation. This layer absorbs the ultraviolet portion of solar spectrum and provides a constant mechanical and optical properties over many years of operation.

Corrugated Profiles Some Types of Commonly Used Corrugated Profiles:

Asbestos Cement Big Six Asbestos Cement Trafford Galvanised Iron Profile (G.I) Indal Profile (Aluminium Sheet) Tiger Steel Profile Metacolor Profile Interarch Profile Lloydeck Profile

Application Areas

As highlighted earlier, these Polycarbonate Corrugated Sheets are used principally in industrial applications which include Industrial skylights, Strip lighting and North light glazing. However, these corrugated roofing sheets may also be used in commercial buildings, infrastructural complexes and residential applications. Following are a few typical application areas:

Skylights in railway stations & bus stands Skylights for large warehouses Natural lighting for operational areas in airports, ports, cargo complexes etc. Terrace coverings, chajjas and private extensions. Green houses for critical cash crops, sensitive to climatic changes. Schools & educational institutions. Weather protection for aquaculture

These polycarbonate roofing sheets can be deployed to harness sunlight for a wide range of applications thereby reducting or eliminating the need for artificial

lights

during

day

time.

Ventilator With Polycarbonate Base Plate

Polycarbonate Base Plate

Application Ventilator

Terrace coverings, chajjas and private extensions.

Weather protection for Schools & educational aquaculture ponds. institutions.

Bus Q shelters

Fibre reinforced plastics

Fibre-reinforced plastic (FRP) (also fibre-reinforced polymer) is a composite material made of a polymer matrix reinforced with fibres. The fibres are usually glass, carbon, or aramid, although other fibres such as paper or wood or asbestos have been sometimes used. The polymer is usually an epoxy, vinylester or polyester thermosetting plastic, and phenol formaldehyde resins are still in use. FRPs are commonly used in the aerospace, automotive, marine, and construction industries. Process definition A polymer is generally manufactured by polycondensation, polymerization or polyaddition. When combined with various agents to enhance or in any way alter the material properties of polymers the result is referred to as a plastic. Composite plastics refer to those types of plastics that result from bonding two or more homogeneous materials with different material properties to derive a final product with certain desired material and mechanical properties. Fibre reinforced plastics are a category of composite plastics that specifically use fibrous materials to mechanically enhance the strength andelasticity of plastics. The original plastic material without fibre reinforcement is known as the matrix. The matrix is a tough but relatively weak plastic that is reinforced by stronger stiffer reinforcing filaments or fibres. The extent that strength and elasticity are enhanced in a fibre reinforced plastic depends on the mechanical properties of both the fibre and matrix, their volume relative to one another, and the fibre length and orientation within the matrix.[1] Reinforcement of the matrix occurs by definition when the FRP material exhibits increased strength or elasticity relative to the strength and elasticity of the matrix alone.[2] Process description FRP involves two distinct processes, the first is the process whereby the fibrous material is manufactured and formed, the second is the process whereby fibrous materials are bonded with the matrix during the moulding process.[2]

Fibre process The manufacture of fibre fabric

Reinforcing Fibre is manufactured in both two dimensional and three dimensional orientations 1. Two Dimensional Fibre Reinforced Polymer are characterized by a laminated structure in which the fibres are only aligned along the plane in x-direction and y-direction of the material. This means that no fibres are aligned in the through thickness or the z-direction, this lack of alignment in the through thickness can create a disadvantage in cost and processing. Costs and labour increase because conventional processing techniques used to fabricate composites, such as wet hand lay-up, autoclave and resin transfer moulding, require a high amount of skilled labour to cut, stack and consolidate into a preformed component. 2. Three-dimensional Fibre Reinforced Polymer composites are materials with three dimensional fibre structures that incorporate fibres in the x-direction, y-direction and z-direction. The development of three-dimensional orientations arose from industry's need to reduce fabrication costs, to increase through-thickness mechanical properties, and to improve impact damage tolerance; all were problems associated with two dimensional fibre reinforced polymers. Moulding processes There are two distinct categories of moulding processes using FRP plastics; this includes composite moulding and wet moulding. Composite moulding uses Prepreg FRP, meaning the plastics are fibre reinforced before being put through further moulding processes. Sheets of Prepreg FRP are heated or compressed in different ways to create geometric shapes. Wet moulding combines fibre reinforcement and the matrix or resist during the moulding process.[2] The different forms of composite and wet moulding, are listed below.

Composite moulding

Bladder moulding Individual sheets of prepreg material are laid -up and placed in a female-style mould along with a balloon-like bladder. The mould is closed and placed in a heated press. Finally, the bladder is pressurized forcing the layers of material against the mould walls. The part is cured and removed from the hot mould. Bladder moulding is a closed moulding process with a relatively short cure cycle between 15 and 60 minutes making it ideal for making complex hollow geometric shapes at competitive costs.[16] Compression moulding A "preform" or "charge", of SMC, BMC or sometimes prepreg fabric, is placed into mould cavity. The mould is closed and the material is compacted & cured inside by pressure and heat. Compression moulding offers excellent detailing for geometric shapes ranging from pattern and relief detailing to complex curves and creative forms, to precision engineering all within a maximum curing time of 20 minutes.[16] Autoclave / vacuum bag Individual sheets of prepreg material are laid-up and placed in an open mold. The material is covered with release film, bleeder/breather material and a vacuum bag. A vacuum is pulled on part and the entire mould is placed into an autoclave (heated pressure vessel). The part is cured with a continuous vacuum to extract entrapped gasses from laminate. This is a very common process in the aerospace industry because it affords precise control over the moulding process due to a long slow cure cycle that is anywhere from one to two hours. This precise control creates the exact laminate geometric forms needed to ensure strength and safety in the aerospace industry, but it is also slow and labour intensive, meaning costs often confine it to the aerospace industry.[16] Mandrel wrapping Sheets of prepreg material are wrapped around a steel or aluminium mandrel. The prepreg material is compacted by nylon or polypropylene cello tape. Parts are typically batch cured by hanging in an oven. After cure the cello and mandrel are removed leaving a hollow carbon tube. This process creates strong and robust hollow carbon tubes.[16]

Wet layup Fibre reinforcing fabric is placed in an open mould and then saturated with a wet [resin] by pouring it over the fabric and working it into the fabric and mould. The mould is then left so that the resin will cure, usually at room temperature, though

heat is sometimes used to ensure a proper curing process. Glass fibres are most commonly used for this process, the results are widely known as fibreglass, and is used to make common products like skis, canoes, kayaks and surf boards.[16] Chopper gun Continuous strand of fibreglass are pushed through a hand-held gun that both chops the strands and combines them with a catalysed resin such as polyester. The impregnated chopped glass is shot onto the mould surface in whatever thickness the design and human operator think is appropriate. This process is good for large production runs at economical cost, but produces geometric shapes with less strength than other moulding processes and has poor dimensional tolerance.[16] Filament winding Machines pull fibre bundles through a wet bath of resin and wound over a rotating steel mandrel in specific orientations Parts are cured either room temperature or elevated temperatures. Mandrel is extracted, leaving a final geometric shape but can be left in some cases.[16] Pultrusion Fibre bundles and slit fabrics are pulled through a wet bath of resin and formed into the rough part shape. Saturated material is extruded from a heated closed die curing while being continuously pulled through die. Some of the end products of the pultrusion process are structural shapes, i.e. I beam, angle, channel and flat sheet. These materials can be used to create all sorts of fibreglass structures such as ladders, platforms, handrail systems tank, pipe and pump supports.[16] RTM & VARTM Fabrics are placed into a mould which wet resin is then injected into. Resin is typically pressurized and forced into a cavity which is under vacuum in the RTM (Resin Transfer Molding) process. Resin is entirely pulled into cavity under vacuum in the VARTM (Vacuum Assisted Resin Transfer Molding) process.

Advantages and limitations FRP allows the alignment of the glass fibres of thermoplastics to suit specific design programs. Specifying the orientation of reinforcing fibres can increase the strength and resistance to deformation of the polymer. Glass reinforced polymers are strongest and most resistive to deforming forces when the polymers fibres are parallel to the force being exerted, and are weakest when the fibres are

perpendicular. Thus this ability is at once both an advantage or a limitation depending on the context of use. Weak spots of perpendicular fibres can be used for natural hinges and connections, but can also lead to material failure when production processes fail to properly orient the fibres parallel to expected forces. When forces are exerted perpendicular to the orientation of fibres the strength and elasticity of the polymer is less than the matrix alone. In cast resin components made of glass reinforced polymers such as UP and EP, the orientation of fibres can be oriented in two-dimensional and three-dimensional weaves. This means that when forces are possibly perpendicular to one orientation, they are parallel to another orientation; this eliminates the potential for weak spots in the polymer. Failure modes Structural failure can occur in FRP materials when: Tensile forces stretch the matrix more than the fibres, causing the material to shear at the interface between matrix and fibres. Tensile forces near the end of the fibres exceed the tolerances of the matrix, separating the fibres from the matrix. Tensile forces can also exceed the tolerances of the fibres causing the fibres themselves to fracture leading to material failure.[2] Material requirements

The matrix must also meet certain requirements in order to first be suitable for the FRP process and ensure a successful reinforcement of itself. The matrix must be able to properly saturate, and bond with the fibres within a suitable curing period. The matrix should preferably bond chemically with the fibre reinforcement for maximum adhesion. The matrix must also completely envelope the fibres to protect them from cuts and notches that would reduce their strength, and to transfer forces to the fibres. The fibres must also be kept separate from each other so that if failure occurs it is localized as much as possible, and if failure occurs the matrix must also debond from the fibre for similar reasons. Finally the matrix should be of a plastic that remains chemically and physically stable during and after reinforcement and moulding processes. To be suitable for reinforcement material fibre additives must increase the tensile strength and modulus of elasticity of the matrix and meet the following conditions; fibres must exceed critical fibre content; the strength and rigidity of fibres itself must exceed the strength and rigidity of the matrix alone; and there must be optimum bonding between fibres and matrix

Glass fibre material FRPs use textile glass fibres; textile fibres are different from other forms of glass fibres used for insulating applications. Textile glass fibres begin as varying combinations of SiO2, Al2O3, B2O3, CaO, or MgO in powder form. These mixtures are then heated through a direct melt process to temperatures around 1300 degrees Celsius, after which dies are used to extrude filaments of glass fibre in diameter ranging from 9 to 17 m. These filaments are then wound into larger threads and spun onto bobbins for transportation and further processing. Glass fibre is by far the most popular means to reinforce plastic and thus enjoys a wealth of production processes, some of which are applicable to aramid and carbon fibres as well owing to their shared fibrous qualities. Roving is a process where filaments are spun into larger diameter threads. These threads are then commonly used for woven reinforcing glass fabrics and mats, and in spray applications. Fibre fabrics are web-form fabric reinforcing material that has both warp and weft directions. Fibre mats are web-form non-woven mats of glass fibres. Mats are manufactured in cut dimensions with chopped fibres, or in continuous mats using continuous fibres. Chopped fibre glass is used in processes where lengths of glass threads are cut between 3 and 26 mm, threads are then used in plastics most commonly intended for moulding processes. Glass fibre short strands are short 0.20.3 mm strands of glass fibres that are used to reinforce thermoplastics most commonly for injection moulding. Carbon fibre Carbon fibres are created when polyacrylonitrile fibres (PAN), Pitch resins, or Rayon are carbonized (through oxidation and thermal pyrolysis) at high temperatures. Through further processes of graphitizing or stretching the fibres strength or elasticity can be enhanced respectively.

Carbon fibres are manufactured in diameters analogous to glass fibres with diameters ranging from 9 to 17 m. These fibres wound into larger threads for transportation and further production processes.[2] Further production processes include weaving or braiding into carbon fabrics, cloths and mats analogous to those described for glass that can then be used in actual reinforcement processes.[1] Aramid fibre material process

Aramid fibres are most commonly known Kevlar, Nomex and Technora. Aramids are generally prepared by the reaction between an amine group and a carboxylic acid halide group (aramid);[1]commonly this occurs when an aromatic polyamide is spun from a liquid concentration of sulfuric acid into a crystallized fibre.[2] Fibres are then spun into larger threads in order to weave into large ropes or woven fabrics (Aramid).[1] Aramid fibres are manufactured with varying grades to based on varying qualities for strength and rigidity, so that the material can be somewhat tailored to specific design needs concerns, such as cutting the tough material during manufacture.[2] Examples of polymers best suited for the process Reinforcing Material Most Common Matrix Materials UP, EP, PA, PC, POM, PP, PBT, VE

Properties Improved

Glass Fibres

Strength, Elasticity, heat resistance

Wood Fibres

PE, PP, ABS, HDPE, PLA

Flexural strength, Tensile modulus, Tensile Strength Elasticity, Tensile Strength, compression strength, electrical strength. Isotropic shrinkage, abrasion, compression strength

Carbon and Aramid Fibres

EP, UP, VE, PA

Inorganic Particulates
[2]

Semicrystalline Thermoplastics, UP

Applications Fibre-reinforced plastics are best suited for any design program that demands weight savings, precision engineering, finite tolerances, and the simplification of parts in both production and operation. A moulded polymer artefact is cheaper, faster, and easier to manufacture than cast aluminium or steel artefact, and maintains similar and sometimes better tolerances and material strengths. The Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution IV also used FRP for its spoiler material.

Carbon fibre reinforced polymers

Advantages over a traditional rudder made from sheet aluminium are: 25% reduction in weight 95% reduction in components by combining parts and forms into simpler moulded parts. Overall reduction in production and operational costs, economy of parts results in lower production costs and the weight savings create fuel savings that lower the operational costs of flying the aeroplane.

Structural Applications of FRP FRP can be applied to strengthen the beams, columns and slabs in buildings. It is possible to increase strength of these structural members even after these have been severely damaged due to loading conditions. For strengthening beams, two techniques are adopted. First one is to paste FRP plates to the bottom (generally the tension face)of a beam. This increases the strength of beam, deflection capacity of beam and stiffness (load required to make unit deflection). Alternatively, FRP strips can be pasted in 'U' shape around the sides and bottom of a beam, resulting in higher shear resistance. Columns in building can be wrapped with FRP for achieving higher strength. This is called wrapping of columns. The technique works by restraining the lateral expansion of the column. Slabs may be strengthened by pasting FRP strips at their bottom (tension face). This will result in better performance, since the tensile resistance of slabs is supplemented by the tensile strength of FRP. In the case of beams and slabs, the effectiveness of FRP strengthening depends on the performance of the resin chosen for bonding. Glass fibre reinforced polymers Engine intake manifolds are made from glass fibre reinforced PA 66.

Advantages this has over cast aluminium manifolds are: Up to a 60% reduction in weight Improved surface quality and aerodynamics Reduction in components by combining parts and forms into simpler moulded shapes.

Automotive gas and clutch pedals made from glass fibre reinforced PA 66 (DWP 12-13)

Advantages over stamped aluminium are: Pedals can be moulded as single units combining both pedals and mechanical linkages simplifying the production and operation of the design. Fibres can be oriented to reinforce against specific stresses, increasing the durability and safety.

Design considerations FRP is used in designs that require a measure of strength or modulus of elasticity that non-reinforced plastics and other material choices are either ill suited for mechanically or economically. This means that the primary design consideration for using FRP is to ensure that the material is used economically and in a manner that takes advantage of its structural enhancements specifically. This is however not always the case, the orientation of fibres also creates a material weakness perpendicular to the fibres. Thus the use of fibre reinforcement and their orientation affects the strength, rigidity, and elasticity of a final form and hence the operation of the final product itself. Orienting the direction of fibres either, unidirectional, 2-dimensionally, or 3-dimensionally during production affects the degree of strength, flexibility, and elasticity of the final product. Fibres oriented in the direction of forces display greater resistance to distortion from these forces and vice versa, thus areas of a product that must withstand forces will be reinforced with fibres in the same direction, and areas that require flexibility, such as natural hinges, will use fibres in a perpendicular direction to forces.

Using more dimensions avoids this either or scenario and creates objects that seek to avoid any specific weak points due to the unidirectional orientation of fibres. The properties of strength, flexibility and elasticity can also be magnified or diminished through the geometric shape and design of the final product. These include such design consideration such as ensuring proper wall thickness and creating multifunctional geometric shapes that can be moulding as single pieces, creating shapes that have more material and structural integrity by reducing joints, connections, and hardware.[2] Disposal and recycling concerns

As a subset of plastic FRP plastics are liable to a number of the issues and concerns in plastic waste disposal and recycling. Plastics pose a particular challenge in recycling processes because they are derived from polymers and monomers that often cannot be separated and returned to their virgin states, for this reason not all plastics can be recycled for re-use, in fact some estimates claim only 20% to 30% of plastics can be material recycled at all. Fibre reinforced plastics and their matrices share these disposal and environmental concerns. In addition to these concerns, the fact that the fibres themselves are difficult to remove from the matrix and preserve for re-use means FRP amplify these challenges. FRP are inherently difficult to separate into base a material, that is into fibre and matrix, and the matrix into separate usable plastic, polymers, and monomers. These are all concerns for environmentally informed design today, but plastics often offer savings in energy and economic savings in comparison to other materials, also with the advent of new more environmentally friendly matrices such as bioplastics and uv-degradable plastics, FRP will similarly gain environmental sensitivity.[1]

Acrylics Poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) is a transparent thermoplastic, often used as a light or shatter-resistant alternative to glass. It is sometimes calledacrylic glass. Chemically, it is the synthetic polymer of methyl methacrylate. The material was developed in 1928 in various laboratories, and was first brought to market in 1933 by Rohm and Haas Company, under the trademark Plexiglas.[4] It has since been sold under many different names including Lucite and Perspex.

The often-seen spelling poly(methyl 2-methylpropanoate) with -an- is an error for poly(methyl 2-methylpropenoate), based on propenoic acid. PMMA is an economical alternative to polycarbonate (PC) when extreme strength is not necessary. Additionally, PMMA does not contain the potentially harmful bisphenol-A subunits found in polycarbonate. It is often preferred because of its moderate properties, easy handling and processing, and low cost, but behaves in a brittle manner when loaded, especially under an impact force, and is more prone to scratching compared to conventional inorganic glass. Synthesis PMMA is routinely produced by emulsion polymerization, solution polymerization and bulk polymerization. Generally radical initiation is used (including living polymerization methods), but anionic polymerization of PMMA can also be performed. To produce 1 kg (2.2 lb) of PMMA, about 2 kg (4.4 lb) of petroleum is needed. PMMA produced by radical polymerization (all commercial PMMA) is atactic and completely amorphous. Processing The glass transition temperature (Tg) of atactic PMMA is 105 C. The Tg values of commercial grades of PMMA range from 85 to 165 C (185 to 329 F); the range is so wide because of the vast number of commercial compositions which are copolymers with co-monomers other than methyl methacrylate. PMMA is thus an organic glass at room temperature i.e., it is below its Tg. The forming temperature starts at the glass transition temperature and goes up from there.[12] All common molding processes may be used, including injection molding, compression molding and extrusion.

The highest quality PMMA sheets are produced by cell casting, but in this case, the polymerization and molding steps occur concurrently. The strength of the material is higher than molding grades owing to its extremely high molecular mass. Rubber toughening has been used to increase the strength of PMMA owing to its brittle behavior in response to applied loads. Uses Transparent glass substitute

Close-up of pressure sphere ofBathyscaphe Trieste, with single conical window of PMMA (Plexiglas) set into sphere hull. The very small black circle (smaller than the man's head) is the inner side of the plastic "window," and is only a few inches in diameter. The larger circular clear black area represents the larger outer-side of the thick one-piece plastic cone "window."

10 meter deep Monterey Bay Aquarium tank has acrylic windows up to 33 cm thick to withstand the water pressure

PMMA acrylic glass is commonly used for constructing residential and commercial aquariums. Designers started building big aquariums when poly(methyl methacrylate) could be used. It is less-used in other building types due to incidents such as the Summerland disaster. Acrylic is used for viewing ports and even complete pressure hulls of submersibles, such as the Alicia submarine's viewing sphere and the window of thebathyscaphe Trieste. PMMA is used in the lenses of exterior lights of automobiles.[20]

The spectator protection in ice hockey rinks is made from PMMA. Historically, PMMA was an important improvement in the design of aircraft windows, making possible such iconic designs as the bombardier's transparent nose compartment in the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress. Police vehicles for riot control often have the regular glass replaced with acrylic to protect the occupants from thrown objects. [21] Acrylic is an important material in the making of certain lighthouse lenses. PMMA (under the brand name "Lucite") was used for the ceiling of the Houston Astrodome. Daylight redirection

Laser cut acrylic panels have been used to redirect sunlight into a light pipe or tubular skylight and, from there, to spread it into a room.[22] Their developers Veronica Garcia Hansen, Ken Yeang, and Ian Edmonds were awarded the Far East Economic Review Innovation Award in bronze for this technology in 2003.[23][24] Attenuation being quite strong for distances over one meter (more than 90% intensity loss for a 3000 K source[25]), acrylic broadband light guides are then dedicated mostly to decorative uses. Pairs of acrylic sheets with a layer of microreplicated prisms between the sheets can have reflective and refractive properties that let them redirect part of incoming sunlight in dependence on its angle of incidence. Such panels act as miniature light shelves. Such panels have been commercialized for purposes of daylighting, to be used as a window or a canopy such that sunlight descending from the sky is directed to the ceiling or into the room rather than to the floor. This can lead to a higher illumination of the back part of a room, in particular when combined with a white ceiling, while having a slight impact on the view to the outside compared to normal glazing.[26][27] AESTHETIC USES

Lexus Perspex car sculpture.

Kawai acrylic grand piano.

Plexiglas art by Manfred KielnhoferThyssenKrupp Plastics Austria.

Acrylic paint essentially consists of PMMA suspended in water; however since PMMA is hydrophobic, a substance with both hydrophobic and hydrophilic groups needs to be added to facilitate the suspension. Modern furniture makers, especially in the 1960s and 1970s, seeking to give their products a space age aesthetic, incorporated Lucite and other PMMA products into their designs, especially office chairs. Many other products (for example, guitars) are sometimes made with acrylic glass to make the commonly opaque objects translucent.

Perspex has been used as a surface to paint on, for example by Salvador Dal. Diasec is a process which uses acrylic glass as a substitute for normal glass in picture framing. This is done for its relatively low cost, light weight, shatterresistance, aesthetics and because it can be ordered in larger sizes than standard picture framing glass.

From approximately the 1960s onward, sculptors and glass artists such as Leroy Lamis began using acrylics, especially taking advantage of the material's flexibility, light weight, cost and its capacity to refract and filter light. In the 1950s and 1960s, Lucite was an extremely popular material for jewelry, with several companies specialized in creating high-quality pieces from this material. Lucite beads and ornaments are still sold by jewelry suppliers.

RECYCLING OF PLASTIC Plastic recycling is the process of recovering scrap or waste plastics and reprocessing the material into useful products, sometimes completely different in form from their original state. For instance, this could mean melting down soft drink bottles and then casting them as plastic chairs and tables. Typically a plastic is not recycled into the same type of plastic, and products made from recycled plastics are often not recyclable.[

Challenges When compared to other materials like glass and metal materials, plastic polymers require greater processing (heat treating, thermal depolymerization and monomer recycling) to be recycled.[citation needed] Plastics have a low entropy of mixing, which is due to the high molecular weight of their large polymer chains. A macromolecule interacts with its environment along its entire length, so its enthalpy of mixing is large compared to that of an organic molecule with a similar structure. Heating alone is not enough to dissolve such a large molecule; because of this, plastics must often be of nearly identical composition to mix efficiently. When different types of plastics are melted together they tend to phase-separate, like oil and water, and set in these layers. The phase boundaries cause structural weakness in the resulting material, meaning that polymer blends are only useful in limited applications. Another barrier to recycling is the widespread use of dyes, fillers, and other additives in plastics. The polymer is generally too viscous to economically remove fillers, and would be damaged by many of the processes that could cheaply remove the added dyes. Additives are less widely used in beverage containers and plastic bags, allowing them to be recycled more often. Yet another barrier to removing large quantities of plastic from the waste stream and landfills is the fact that many common but small plastic items lack the universal triangle recycling symbol and accompanying number. A perfect example is the billions of plastic utensils commonly distributed at fast food restaurants or sold for use at picnics. The use of biodegradable plastics is increasing. If some of these get mixed in the other plastics for recycling, the reclaimed plastic is not recyclable because of the variance in properties and melt temperatures.[1]

Processes Before recycling, most plastics are sorted according to their resin type. In the past, plastic reclaimers used the resin identification code (RIC), a method of categorization of polymer types, which was developed by the Society of the Plastics Industry in 1988. Polyethylene terephthalate, commonly referred to as PET, for instance, has a resin code of 1. Most plastic reclaimers do not rely on the RIC now; they use automatic sort systems to identify the resin, such as near infrared (NIR) technology. Some plastic products are also separated by color before they are recycled. The plastic recyclables are then shredded. These

shredded fragments then undergo processes to eliminate impurities like paper labels. This material is melted and often extruded into the form of pellets which are then used to manufacture other products.]Monomer recycling Many recycling challenges can be resolved by using a more elaborate monomer recycling process, in which a condensation polymer essentially undergoes the inverse of the polymerization reaction used to manufacture it. This yields the same mix of chemicals that formed the original polymer, which can be purified and used to synthesize new polymer chains of the same type. Du Pont opened a pilot plant of this type in Cape Fear, North Carolina, USA, to recycle PET by a process of methanolysis, but it closed the plant due to economic pressures.[2] Thermal depolymerisation Another process involves the conversion of assorted polymers into petroleum by a much less precise thermal depolymerization process. Such a process would be able to accept almost any polymer or mix of polymers, including thermoset materials such as vulcanized rubber tires and the biopolymers in feathers and other agricultural waste. Like natural petroleum, the chemicals produced can be made into fuels as well as polymers. A pilot plant of this type exists in Carthage, Missouri, USA, using turkey waste as input material. Gasification is a similar process, but is not technically recycling since polymers are not likely to become the result.

Heat compression Yet another process that is gaining ground with startup companies (especially in Australia, United States and Japan) is heat compression.[citation needed] The heat compression process takes all unsorted, cleaned plastic in all forms, from soft plastic bags to hard industrial waste, and mixes the load in tumblers (large rotating drums resembling giant clothes dryers). The most obvious benefit to this method is the fact that all plastic is recyclable, not just matching forms. However, criticism rises from the energy costs of rotating the drums, and heating the postmelt pipes.

Other processes A process has also been developed in which many kinds of plastic can be used as a carbon source in the recycling of scrap steel.[3] Applications PET

Bales of PET bottles to be recycled. Post-consumer polyethylene terephthalate (PET) containers are sorted into different colour fractions, and baled for onward sale. PET recyclers further sort the baled bottles and they are washed and flaked (or flaked and then washed). Non PET fractions such as caps and labels are removed during this process. The clean flake is dried. Further treatment can take place e.g. melt filtering and pelletising or various treatments to produce food contact approved recycled PET (RPET). RPET has been widely used to produce polyester fibres.[4] This sorted postconsumer PET waste is crushed, chopped into flakes, pressed into bales, and offered for sale.[5] One use for this recycled PET that has recently started to become popular is to create fabrics to be used in the clothing industry.[6] The fabrics are created by spinning the PET flakes into thread and yarn.[5] This is done just as easily as creating polyester from brand new PET.[7] The recycled PET thread or yarn can be used either alone or together with other fibers to create a very wide variety of fabrics. Traditionally these fabrics were used to create strong, durable, rough, products, such as jackets, coat, shoes, bags, hats, and accessories. However, these fabrics are usually too rough on the skin and could cause irritation. Therefore, they

usually are not used on any clothing that may irritate the skin, or where comfort is required.[8] But in today's new eco-conscious world there has been more of a demand for green products. As a result, many clothing companies have started looking for ways to take advantage of this new market and innovations in the use of recycled PET fabric are beginning to develop. These innovations included different ways to process the fabric,[5] to use the fabric, or blend the fabric with other materials.[9] Some of the fabrics that are leading the industry in these innovations include Billabong's Eco-Supreme Suede,[9]Livity's Rip-Tide III,[10] Wellman Inc's Eco-fi(formerly known as EcoSpun),[4] and Reware's Rewoven.[7] Some additional companies that take pride in using recycled PET in their products areCrazy Shirts[11] and Playback.[6] Other major outlets for RPET are new containers (food contact or non food contact) produced either by (injection stretch blow) moulding into bottles and jars or by thermoforming APET sheet to produce clam shells, blister packs and collation trays. These applications used 46% of all RPET produced in Europe in 2010. Other applications, such as strapping tape, injection moulded engineering components and even building materials account for 13% of the 2010 RPET production. PVC

PVC SPI code, for recycling (Society of the Plastics Industry). The Unicodecharacter for this symbol is U+2675. In Europe, developments in PVC waste management are monitored by Vinyl 2010,[12] a legal entity established in 2000. In the waste management area their commitment is to 1. Support integrated waste management approaches, using raw materials as efficiently as possible 2. Work with the stakeholders to research, develop, and implement recycling of 200,000 tonnes per year of PVC postconsumer waste in 2010 in addition

to waste already recycled in 2000, or regulated by the PPW, ELV and E&E Waste Directives 3. Recycle collectable, available PVC postconsumer waste from pipes, window profiles, and roofing membranes. Vinyl 2010 has a Monitoring Committee and publishes annual reviews.[13][14] In 2011, it reported that 260,842 tonnes of post-consumer PVC waste was recycled in 2010, i.e. an increase of 220,000 tonnes over the 1999 volumes, exceeding the 10-year target of 200,000 tonnes. Collection and recycling schemes for PVC waste stream are managed through Recovinyl[15] which reported the recycled tonnage as follows: profile 107,000 tonnes, flexible cables 79,000 tonnes, pipe 25,000 tonnes, rigid film 6,000 tonnes, and mixed flexible 38,000 tonnes. Recovinyl states that of the recycled material 75% is for floors, 15% for foils, 5% for traffic cones, 3% for hoses end 2% for other applications. One of the recycling processes is the Vinyloop Texyloop[16] used for solvent-based mechanical recycling. It involves recovering PVC plastic from composite materials through dissolution and precipitation, and is a closed-loop system, recycling the solvent and regenerating PVC. HDPE The most-often recycled plastic[citation needed], HDPE (high-density polyethylene) or number 2, is downcycled into plastic lumber, tables, roadside curbs, benches, truck cargo liners, trash receptacles, stationery (e.g. rulers) and other durable plastic products and is usually in demand. PS

The resin identification code symbol for polystyrene

Most polystyrene products are currently not recycled due to the lack of incentive to invest in the compactors and logistical systems required. Expanded polystyrene scrap can be easily added to products such as EPS insulation sheets and other EPS materials for construction applications. And many manufacturers cannot obtain sufficient scrap because of the aforementioned collection issues. When it is not used to make more EPS, foam scrap can be turned into clothes hangers, park benches, flower pots, toys, rulers, stapler bodies, seedling containers, picture frames, and architectural molding from recycled PS.[17] Recycled EPS is also used in many metal casting operations. Rastra is made from EPS that is combined with cement to be used as an insulating amendment in the making of concrete foundations and walls. American manufacturers have produced insulating concrete forms made with approximately 80% recycled EPS since 1993. Other plastics The white plastic polystyrene foam peanuts used as packing material are often accepted by shipping stores for reuse.[18] Successful trials in Israel have shown that plastic films recovered from mixed municipal waste streams can be recycled into useful household products such as buckets.[19] Similarly, agricultural plastics such as mulch film, drip tape and silage bags are being diverted from the waste stream and successfully recycled[20] into much larger products for industrial applications such as plastic composite railroad ties.[21] Historically, these agricultural plastics have primarily been either landfilled or burned on-site in the fields of individual farms.[22]