Cannabis (drug) - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Cannabis (drug)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The drug cannabis, also called marijuana or hashish, is produced from parts of the cannabis plant, primarily the cured flowers and gathered trichomes of the female plant. The major active chemical compound 9tetrahydrocannabinol, commonly referred to as THC, has psychoactive and medicinal effects when consumed, usually by smoking or ingestion. Humans have consumed cannabis for thousands of years; in the 20th century there was a rise in the use of cannabis for recreational and religious purposes.

A Cannabis sativa plant

The possession, use, or sale of psychoactive cannabis products became illegal in many parts of the world in the early 20th century. Since then, while some countries have intensified the enforcement of cannabis prohibition, others have reduced the priority of enforcement to the point of de facto legality. The supplying of cannabis remains illegal almost everywhere in the world through the 1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, the 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances, and the 1988 United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, while simple possession of small quantities is tolerated in a few countries.

Contents
1 Wild cannabis 2 Ancient history 3 Religious and spiritual use 4 Medicinal use 4.1 United States 5 New breeding and cultivation techniques 6 Preparations for human consumption 6.1 Smoking 6.2 Oral consumption 6.3 Vaporization 6.3.1 Hot-knifing (Blades) 7 Immediate effects of consumption 7.1 Active ingredients, metabolism, and method of activity 7.2 List of effects 7.2.1 Cognitive effects 7.2.2 Behavioral effects 7.2.3 Physiological effects 7.3 Lethal dose 8 Health issues and the effects of cannabis 9 Legality 9.1 Recent history 9.2 Decriminalization and legalization 10 References 10.1 Notes

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10.2 Bibliography

Wild cannabis
Cannabis still grows wild in many places around the world, the most prominent species being Cannabis sativa. This species has been found growing wild around the world.[1] Wild Cannabis indica is mainly confined to hash producing areas such as Afghanistan, parts of the US Virgin Islands, and in Morocco. Wild C. sativa shows great local variation, for example, in warm places, it can reach heights up to 20 feet (6 m) tall, but in colder climates it can be as short as 1 foot (30 cm) in height. Almost every single flower branch bears a seed. The wild C. sativa has long, thin and airy buds and a Christmas tree shape structure. Wild C. indica remains compact and bushy with thick buds for the most part, and is sometimes used by the locals for hashish production. Generally, there are far fewer seeds in wild C. indica.[2] In many areas the wild population of cannabis is threatened due to government eradication and urbanization.

Ancient history
Biologists generally agree that the cannabis plant first grew somewhere in the Himalayas.[3] Evidence of the smoking of cannabis can be found as far back as the Neolithic age, where charred hemp seeds were found in a ritual brazier at a burial site in present day Romania[4] . The most famous users of cannabis were the ancient Hindus. It was called ganjika in Sanskrit (ganja in modern Indian languages).[5] According to legend, Shiva, the destructive aspect of the Hindu trinity, told his disciples to revere the plant. The ancient drug soma, mentioned in the Vedas as a sacred intoxicating hallucinogen, was sometimes associated with cannabis. It has also been identified with a number of other plants and a mushroom, Amanita muscaria, so the involvement of cannabis cannot be definitively quantified. The citizens of the Persian Empire would partake in the ceremonial burning of massive cannabis bonfires, directly exposing themselves and neighboring tribes to the billowing fumes, oftentimes for over 24 hours [6][7] Cannabis was also known to the Scythians, as well as to the Thracians/Dacians, whose shamans (the kapnobatai "those who walk on smoke/clouds") burned cannabis flowers in order to induce trances. The cult of Dionysus, which is believed to have originated in Thrace, is also believed to have inhaled cannabis smoke.

Religious and spiritual use

Cannabis has a long history of religious use, especially in India, where it has been used by wandering spiritual sadhus for centuries. The religious group that (in the west) is most well-known for their use of cannabis in a spiritual context is the Rastafari movement, though it is by no means the only group (e.g. Church of the Universe). Some historians and etymologists have claimed that cannabis was used by ancient Jews, early Christians, and of early Muslims of the Sufi order.[8] Cannabis, usually in the form of hashish, was an important yet frowned-upon part of Arab society during various periods of history. Hashish was said to have been used by the Hashshashin, a warrior sect.[8] Many individuals also consider their use of cannabis to be spiritual regardless of organized religion though it is banned in many parts of the world, and in

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some cases because it is banned (cf. Bob Marley, "the more man smoke herb, the more Babylon fall"[9]).

Spiritual use of cannabis: an Indian Sadhu smokes charas from a traditional pipe.

Medicinal use
Medically, cannabis is most often used as an appetite stimulant and pain reliever for certain illnesses such as cancer, AIDS and other diseases. It is used to relieve glaucoma and certain neurological illnesses such as epilepsy, migraine and bipolar disorder. It has also been found to relieve nausea for chemotherapy patients. The medical use of cannabis is politically controversial, but physicians sometimes recommend it informally. A synthetic version of the major active chemical in cannabis, THC, is available in many countries in the form of a pill as the prescription drug dronabinol (Marinol). THC has also been found to reduce arterial blockages[10]. A sublingual spray derived from an extract of cannabis has also been approved for treatment of multiple sclerosis in Canada as the prescription drug Sativex [11] - this drug may now be legally imported into the United Kingdom and Spain on prescription.[12]

United States
Eleven states[13] in the United States passed laws allowing cannabis possession and consumption for medical purposes; however, the Supreme Court of the United States in Gonzales v. Raich ruled that the listing of cannabis as a Schedule I controlled substance was constitutional, and that possession for any reason other than approved medical research was therefore illegal under federal law. This remained consistent with their ruling in United States v. Oakland Cannabis Buyers Cooperative, an 8-0 decision stating that there is no exception as a Schedule I drug for people to use cannabis for medical purposes.[14] This creates an interesting tension between state and federal laws.[15] Some local and state governments have either partially decriminalized the possession of small amounts of cannabis, or simply advised local authorities to limit enforcement of controlled substance laws to more serious offenses. A 2005 initiative in Denver, Colorado, for instance, repealed municipal penalties for possession of less than one ounce of cannabis by adults twenty-one and older, though Colorado state and federal penalties remain in effect.[16] A 2006 advisory policy adopted by the city of West Hollywood, California holds that the city's contracted law enforcement agency, the Los Angeles County Sheriff, should not target simple possession or private consumption of cannabis by adults within the city.[17][18] With the 1975 Ravin v. State decision, the Alaska Supreme Court declared the state's anti-drug law unconstitutional with respect to simple possession of cannabis, holding that the right to privacy guaranteed by the Alaska state constitution outweighed the state's public health interest in banning the drug.[19] A new law attempting to reinstate state penalties in connection with cannabis was signed into law June 2, 2006; possession of up to four ounces was to be punishable as a misdemeanor.[20] The legislative effort faces a judicial challenge, however; see Decriminalization and legalization, below. A 1998 study by pro-legalization lobby NORML estimated cannabis to be the largest cash crop in several nonMidwestern states, and the fourth largest cash crop nationwide.[21]

New breeding and cultivation techniques

Advances in breeding and cultivation techniques have increased the diversity and potency of cannabis strains since 1970, and these strains are now widely smoked all over the world. These advances are known as the

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sinsemilla techniques of production; sinsemilla, Spanish for without seed, are the dried, seedless female flowers of cannabis plants which have been grown in the absence of males to ensure no pollination takes place. Because THC potency and production drops off once pollination takes place, various techniques such as seed banks, hydroponics, cloning, lighting techniques, and the sea of green method have been utilized, in part as a response to prohibition enforcement efforts which have made outdoor cultivation more risky; thus, efficient indoor cultivation has become more common. These same advances have led to fewer seeds being present in cannabis currently than were present 20 years ago. Many opponents of cannabis use, both in and out of government, have exaggerated the increases in potency and ramifications thereof. In the United States, government advertisements encourage parents to disregard their own experience with cannabis when speaking to their children, on the premise that pot today is significantly stronger and thus more dangerous than that which they themselves might have smoked in the past.[22] In a general pattern of proposing reverses in cannabis rescheduling, the UK government is considering scheduling stronger cannabis (skunk, in local parlance) as a separate, more restricted substance. Many cannabis proponents disagree vehemently, reasoning that as one must smoke less cannabis to achieve the same effect, it actually is safer and less potentially carcinogenic in the long run than that which was smoked in earlier times.
Some cannabis seeds

Preparations for human consumption

Cannabis is prepared for human consumption in several forms: Marijuana or buds, the resin gland-rich flowering tops of female plants. Hashish, a concentrated resin made from pressing and heating kif into blocks. Sinsemilla or sensemillia, flowering tops which are free of seeds as a result of being grown in a pollen-free environment. Since no plant energy can go into seed formation, this version is higher in psychoactive components. Kief or kif, a powder containing the resin glands (glandular trichomes, often incorrectly called "crystals" or "pollen"); Cannabis flowers, or buds, in a plastic bag. it is produced by sifting marijuana and leaves. Charas, produced by hand-rubbing the resin from the resin gland-rich parts of the plant. Often thin dark rectangular pieces. Bhang, prepared by the wet grinding of the leaves of the plant and used as a drink. Hash oil, resulting from extraction or distillation of THC-rich parts of the plant with isopropyl or butane. Budder, processed hash oil. Ordinary hash oil is whipped to incorporate air, making it a foam. It has been marketed as being anywhere between 82% and 100% THC, though no actual lab tests have been done to validate this claim. Resin, when smoked through a pipe all of the above will cause black goo to create a film on the sides or collect in certain nooks depending on its shape. This can be collected and resmoked. This method is commonly referred to as scraping. Minimally potent leaves and detritus, called shake, brush, bush or leaf. There are also four recognized subspecies of Cannabis. These include Cannabis sativa sativa, Cannabis sativa indica, Cannabis sativa rasta, and Cannabis sativa ruderalis, the last containing much less THC and generally not used as a psychoactive substance.

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Smoking
There are several methods of smoking cannabis. The most popular include the spliff or joint, the bong, the pipe, the shotgun, and the one-hitter. To create a joint, cannabis is rolled up into a cigarette, using rolling paper. Cannabis cigars, or blunts, can also be created by using the wrapper of a standard cigar. A bong is a water pipe through which cannabis smoke is filtered. Variants include the gravity bong, which consists of a cone atop a perforated or cut water bottle. This method of cannabis smoking is one of the most efficient, as the presence of chamber and carburetor reduce smoke waste. Pipes are usually made of blown glass, wood, or non-reactive metals. Metal pipes are often made of interchangeable pieces. Glass pipes have a carburetor, colloquially referred to as a carb or rush that is covered for suction then released for inhalation. Some users also prefer vertically held pipes, or improvised pipes made from aluminum foil, small plumbing fittings, soda cans, or crisp fruits or vegetables. A shotgun involves two people. One person takes a hit then puts the joint or blunt ember first into his mouth. Another person then places his mouth over the front end, and first person exhales through the joint, blowing both his smoke and the joints smoke into the other persons mouth. More efficient variations of shotgunning involve both members curling their hands to form a 'shotgun' chamber. Simultaneous exhaling by one member and inhaling by the other member will effectively transfer smoke between the two people. Many consider this to be a very intimate practice. A one-hitter is a device that looks similar to a cigarette. Seedless, stemless cannabis buds are loaded into a compartment in a container known as a dugout. A hitter, contained in another compartment, is loaded and lit. This is repeated for each hit. This method is also efficient in titrating the exact dose desired.

Oral consumption
Cannabis may be orally consumed. In order to release its psychoactive properties hashish can be eaten raw or mixed with water but marijuana will only be absorbed into the bloodstream by blending it with ethanol or lipids. The effects of the drug take longer to begin, but last longer and may be perceived as more physical rather than mental, though there are claims to the contrary. A dose of oral cannabis is often considered to give a stronger experience than the equivalent dose of smoked cannabis. A common belief holds that smoking cannabis leads to a large amount of the active compounds being lost in the exhaled smoke or simply decomposing on burning, whereas ingested cannabis results in 100% consumption of the active compounds, an assertion which cannot be confirmed without objective analysis. It is thought that the active component of cannabis, 9-THC, is converted to the more psychoactive 11-hydroxy-THC in the liver.[23] Titration is much A glass bong- a more complex than through inhalation. Common preparations involve blending with butter, method of to create Cannabutter that is used in preparing Brownies, fudge, cookies, ganja goo balls or smoking cannabis space cakes. However there are some preparations that do not contain butter in them and therefore fall into a slightly different category; these include the Leary biscuit, which requires less preparation than more "conventional" recipes. Infusion in drinks containing milk and flavoring herbs is also possible, and more common in India. Hollowed-out gumballs filled with the drug, wrapped and distributed labeled as Greenades, were identified in 2006 as being used by high school students in the United States.[24]

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As with other drugs that are taken orally, it is sometimes customary to fast before taking the drug to increase the effect, possibly because an empty stomach will absorb the drug faster so it 'hits' stronger. However, some people do eat before consuming the drug because eating it on an empty stomach makes them feel sick. Still, time to effect onset is an hour or sometimes more, as opposed to smoking, where effects can be almost immediate. Cannabis can also be leached in high-percentage ethanol (often grain alcohol) to create Green Dragon. This process is often used to utilize otherwise low-quality stems and leaves. Cannabis can also be consumed as a tea. THC is lipophilic and only slightly water soluble, with a solubility of only 2.8 grams per litre,[25] but enough to make a tea effective. Water-based infusion is generally considered to be inefficient. The seeds of the plant, high in protein and fatty acids, are appreciated by many species of birds. Many countries, including the United States, make the possession of viable cannabis seeds illegal[26], although they can be openly bought and sold legally in much of Europe, including the UK.

Vaporization
With a vaporizer, cannabis can be heated to a temperature of about 365 F (185 C), at which the active ingredients are released into gaseous form with little or no burning of the plant material. With this method, the user does not inhale as many (or any) toxic chemicals depending on the quality of the vaporizer. Scientific studies by MAPS/NORML have yielded varied results on the effectiveness of vaporizing as a method of cannabis consumption. One particular study by MAPS/NORML found 95% THC and no toxins delivered in the vapor.[27] However, an older study by MAPS/NORML showed minimal reduction of toxins.[28]

Hot-knifing (Blades)
Hot-knifing, spots, blasting or doing blades) is a process in which the tips of two knives are heated to a very high temperature, often by inserting them into the heating element of an electric or gas stove. The cannabis is then pressed between the heated knife-tips, rapidly combusting, or vaporising it depending upon the amount of heat used. The vaporized cannabis is funneled into the mouth of the smoker through the use of a glass or plastic bottle (note: care must be taken or, a glass bottle used as vapours from melted or burnt plastic are carcinogenic), empty pen, or other hollow tube or funnel commonly known as a "hooter". In New Zealand and Australia, this is known as "spots". "Spots" can refer to both the activity of hot-kniving (aka "spotting") and the small, rolled balls of cannabis consumed in the process. Spots are much more efficient than bongs or joints; as the amount of cannabis required to constitute a hit is less and the dosage is easily controlled. This method is most commonly employed with high quality cannabis (aka skunk) or hashish. Another method of "spotting" uses knife blades heated to a much lower temperature, only hot enough to vaporise the active ingredients, leaving the organic material scorched, rather than burnt to ash, thus decreasing potential harmful consequences of the smoke itself.

Immediate effects of consumption

The nature and intensity of the immediate effects of cannabis consumption vary according to the dose, the species or hybridization of the source plant, the method of consumption, the user's mental and physical characteristics (such as possible tolerance), and

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the environment of consumption. This is sometimes referred to as set and setting. Smoking the same cannabis either in a different frame of mind (set) or in a different location (setting) can alter the effects or perception of the effects by the individual. Effects of cannabis consumption may be loosely classified as cognitive and physical. Anecdotal evidence suggests that the Cannabis sativa species tends to produce more of the cognitive or perceptual effects, while Cannabis indica tends to produce more of the physical effects.

Active ingredients, metabolism, and method of activity

Of the approximately 400 different chemicals found in Cannabis, the main active ingredient is tetrahydrocannabinol (delta-9tetrahydrocannabinol, THC). THC can degrade to other cannabinoids, such as cannabidiol or cannabinol, which can make one feel sleepy and disoriented. Different cannabis products have different ratios of these and other cannabinoids. Depending on the ratio, the quality and nature of the "high" will vary. THC has an effect on the modulation of the immune system, which may have an effect on malignant cells, but there is insufficient scientific study to determine whether this might promote or limit cancer. Cannabinoid receptors are also present in the human reproductive system, but there is insufficient scientific study to conclusively determine the effects of cannabis on reproduction. Mild allergies to cannabis may be possible in some members of the population. A study has shown that holding cannabis smoke in one's lungs for longer periods of time does not conclusively increase THC's effects.[29]

A dried flowered bud of the Cannabis sativa plant, in this case, Sweet Tooth #3, a fourth generation, third backcross to Sweet Pink Grapefruit mother

List of effects
Cannabis has a broad spectrum of possible cognitive, behavioral, and physiological effects, the occurrence of which vary from user to user. Some of these are the intended effect desired by users, some may be considered desirable depending on the situation, and others are generally considered undesirable. Users of cannabis report that these kinds of effects are more often produced by the sativa species of Cannabis. Cannabis also has effects that are predominantly physical or sensory, widely believed to be more common with the indica species.

Cognitive effects
Short or long-term psychosis/schizophrenic disorders in some young users [30] Varying amounts of paranoia and anxiety in some users[31] Loss of coordination and distorted sense of time [32] Impairment of short-term memory in some users[33] Auditory or visual hallucinations at high doses in some users[34] Induced sense of novelty Increased awareness of sensation, including visual stimulation, music, taste, and sexual pleasure Increased mental activity, like metacognition and introspective or meditative states of mind Relaxation or stress reduction Mild entheogenesis (e.g. per Rastafarian users, more "Jah-Vibrations")

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Behavioral effects
Varying degrees of euphoria and feelings of well-being, ranging from feelings of general well-being to lengthy fits of laughter Paramnesia, repetitiveness and ambiguation Initial wakefulness followed by drowsiness and lassitude ("burnout") Gain or loss of some inhibitions

Physiological effects
Antiemetic properties (in moderate doses) [35] Lowered intraocular pressure, beneficial to glaucoma patients and sufferers of headaches, cramps, and eye pain. Dilation of blood vessels (vasodilation),[36] resulting in: Increased blood flow and heart rate (possibly even tachycardia) Reddening or drying of eyes Enhancement of many other drug effects (such as those of alcohol, MDMA, or opiates)[35] Lower blood pressure while standing. Higher blood pressure while sitting (note that this can lead to instances of orthostatic hypotension, also known as head rush).[37] Increased appetite (often referred to as "the munchies"), an effect of stimulation of the endocannabinoid system, which affects body weight, insulin resistance, and dyslipidemia.[38] Varying degrees of dry (cotton) mouth[39] Dilation of alveoli (air sacs) in lungs, resulting in deeper respiration and increased coughing. Induces drowsiness (beneficial to sufferers of insomnia and sleep deprivation).[40]

Lethal dose
It is generally considered to be impossible to achieve a lethal overdose by smoking cannabis. According to the Merck Index, 12th edition, the LD50, the lethal dose for 50% of rats tested by inhalation, is 42 mg/kg of body weight. That is equivalent of a 165 lb (75 kg) man ingesting all of the THC in 21 one-gram cigarettes of highpotency (15% THC) cannabis buds at once, assuming no THC was lost through burning or exhalation. For oral consumption, the LD50 for rats is 1270 mg/kg and 730 mg/kg for males and females, respectively, equivalent to the THC in about a pound of 15% THC cannabis. Only with intravenous administration an unheard-of method of use may such a level be even theoretically possible.[41] There has only ever been one recorded verdict (although not ultimately upheld) of fatal overdose due to cannabis. In January 2004, Lee Maisey of Pembrokeshire, Wales was found dead. The coroner's report stated "Death due to probable cannabis toxicity". It had been reported that Maisey smoked about six joints a day. Mr. Maisey's blood contained 130 nanograms per milliliter (ng/ml) of the THC metabolite THC-COOH. However, the validity of the finding did not stand up well under review. As reported on 2004-01-28 in the Neue Zricher Zeitung, the Federal Health Ministry of Switzerland asked Dr. Rudolf Brenneisen, a professor at the department for clinical research at the University of Bern, to review the data of this case. Dr. Brenneisen said that the data of the toxicological analysis and collected by autopsy were "scanty and not conclusive" and that the conclusion "death by cannabis intoxication" was "not legitimate."[42]

Health issues and the effects of cannabis

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There is some conclusive scientific evidence about the long-term effects of human cannabis consumption.[43] The findings of many earlier studies purporting to demonstrate the effects of the drug are unreliable and generally regarded as junk science, as the studies were flawed, with strong bias and poor methodology. The most significant confounding factor is the use of other drugs, including alcohol and tobacco, by test subjects in conjunction with cannabis. When subjects using only cannabis were combined in the same sample with subjects using other drugs as well, researchers could not reach a conclusion as to 4 bags of cannabis whether their findings were caused by cannabis, other drugs, or the interaction between them. In addition, research using cannabis is heavily restricted in many countries, making it difficult to get new studies funded or approved. Since there are so many different compounds in cannabis, it is difficult to predict or accurately measure its effects. Some conclusions established with some degree of certainty that cannabis is less likely to cause emphysema or cancer than tobacco [44]; that it is unlikely to cause birth defects or developmental delays in the children of users,[45][46] and in a study done by the University of California Los Angeles in 2006, that even heavy marijuana smokers do not increase their risk for lung cancer.[47] According to a United Kingdom government report, using cannabis is less dangerous than both tobacco and alcohol in social harms, physical harm and addiction.[48] Newer research has also shown that cannabis use is generally higher among sufferers of schizophrenia, but causality has not been established[49][50] and confirmed that sustained early-adolescent cannabis use among certain genetically predisposed individuals has an elevated correlation with certain mental illness outcomes, ranging from psychotic episodes to clinical schizophrenia.[51][52]

Legality
Since the 20th century, most countries have enacted laws against the cultivation, use, possession, or transfer of cannabis for recreational use. Naturally, these laws impact adversely on the cannabis plant's cultivation for non-recreational purposes, but there are many regions where, under certain circumstances, handling of cannabis is legal or licensed, and others where laws against its use, possession, or sale are not enforced. Many jurisdictions have also decriminalized possession of small quantities of cannabis, so that it is punished by confiscation or a fine, rather than imprisonment. By effectively removing the user from the criminal justice system, decriminalization focuses more on those who traffic and sell the drug on the black market. However, this does not A large scale anti-prohibition demonstration in solve the problem of how a user will obtain the "legal Vancouver, Canada organized by the Marijuana Party amount" of marijuana, since buying or growing and Marc Emery on April 20, 2005 marijuana is still illegal. Increasingly, many jurisdictions also permit cannabis use for medicinal purposes. Some countries allow the sale through drug companies. However, simple possession can carry long jail sentences in some countries, particularly in East Asia, where the sale of cannabis may lead to a sentence of life in prison or even execution.

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See also: Legality of cannabis in the United States

Recent history
Under the name cannabis, 19th century medical practitioners sold the drug, (usually as a tincture) popularizing the word amongst English-speakers. It was rumoured to have been used to treat Queen Victoria's menstrual pains as her personal physician, Sir John Russell Reynolds, was a staunch supporter of the benefits of cannabis.[53] Cannabis was also openly available from shops in the US. By the end of the 19th century, its medicinal use began to fall as other drugs like aspirin took over its use as a pain reliever. In 1894, the Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission commissioned by the UK Secretary of State and the government of India, was instrumental in the decision not to criminalize the drug in those countries. The Report, which at over 500 pages remains one of the most complete collections of information on marijuana in existence, shows the stark contrast in the way that the American and British governments went about deciding whether to criminalize marijuana.[54] The name marijuana (Mexican Spanish marihuana, mariguana) is associated almost exclusively with the plant's psychoactive use. The term is now well known in English largely due to the efforts of American drug prohibitionists during the 1920s and 1930s, which deliberately used a Mexican name for cannabis in order to turn the populace against the idea that it should be legal. (See 1937 Marijuana Tax Act) Although cannabis has been used for its psychoactive effects since ancient times, it first became well known in the United States during the jazz music scene of the late 1920s and 1930s. Louis Armstrong became a prominent and life-long devotee. It was popular in the blues scene as well, and eventually became a prominent part of 1960s counterculture.

Decriminalization and legalization

In recent decades, a movement to decriminalize cannabis has arisen in several countries. This movement seeks to make simple possession of cannabis punishable by only confiscation or a fine, rather than prison. In the past several years, the movement has started to have some successes. These include Denver, Colorado legalizing possession of up to an ounce of cannabis[55], a broad coalition of political parties in Amsterdam, Netherlands unveiling a pilot program to allow farmers to legally grow it,[56] and Massachusetts voting in favor of a bill to decriminalize the possession of up to an ounce of marijuana[57]. Also, in Alaska, marijuana was decided legal for in-home, personal use under the Raven vs. State ruling in 1975. This ruling allowed up to four ounces of marijuana for these purposes. On July 17th, 2006, that amount was reduced to one ounce due to an "increase in potency" since the Raven verdict. In 2001 in the United Kingdom, it was announced that cannabis would become a Class C drug, rather than a Class B, this change took effect in 2004. [58] The Government of Mexico voted to legalize the possession of cannabis under 5 grams on April 28, 2006. [59] However, as of May 3, 2006, Mexican President Vicente Fox has said that he will not sign this proposed law until Congress removes the parts that would decriminalize the possession of small quantities of drugs[60] and vetoed the bill on May 4, 2006,[61] sparking broad controversy over the bill.[62][63][64] In the early summer of 2006 Fox and the Mexican congress came to an agreement and legalized possession of small amounts (and also measured amounts of other drugs). On July 17th, 2006, Italian Social Solidarity Minister Paolo Ferrero, speaking of the urgent need for depenalising the consumption of light drugs, said that "a joint is less harmful than a litre of wine." [65]

References

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Notes
1. ^ International Narcotics Control Strategy Report (http://www.state.gov/p/inl/rls/nrcrpt/2006/vol1/) (English) (2006). Retrieved on 2006-09-16. 2. ^ Hemp Species (http://www.innvista.com/HEALTH/foods/hemp/species.htm). Retrieved on 2006-03-25. 3. ^ Greg Green (2003). The Cannabis Grow Bible. 4. ^ Richard Rudgley (1999). The Lost Civilizations of the Stone Age. 5. ^ "HEMP (http://57.1911encyclopedia.org/H/HE/HEMP.htm)". Encyclopdia Britannica (11). (1911). Retrieved on 2006-06-15. 6. ^ Abu Usaybia, Uyunu al-Anba fi Tabaquat al-Atibba, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1965. 7. ^ (Fall 1967). "Plastic Cement: The Ten Cent Hallucinogen". International Journal of the Addictions 2: 271-272. 8. ^ a b James Wasserman (2001). The templars and the Assassins. 9. ^ Bob Marley - Chair T-Shirt (http://www.oldglory.com/lp/product/~category_id=BFD_71/~product_id=011499BMTS). OldGlory.com. Retrieved on 2006-05-30. 10. ^ "Cannabis compound benefits blood vessels (http://www.nature.com/news/2005/050404/full/050404-7.html)", Nature (magazine), 2005-04-04. 11. ^ "Spray alternative to pot on the market in Canada (http://www.usatoday.com/news/health/2005-06-23-potspray_x.htm)", 2005-06-23. 12. ^ Europe: Sativex Coming to England, Spain (http://stopthedrugwar.org/chronicle/411/sativex.shtml). Retrieved on 2006-03-25. 13. ^ State Medical Marijuana Laws (http://www.medicalmarijuanaprocon.org/pop/StatePrograms.htm). Retrieved on 2006-04-12. 14. ^ FindLaw U.S. v. Oakland Cannabis Buyers Cooperative (http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl? court=US&vol=000&invol=00-151). Retrieved on 2006-03-25. 15. ^ Pacula, R. L. Chriqui, J. F. Reichmann, D. A. Terry-McElrath, Y. M. (2002). "State Medical Marijuana Laws: Understanding the Laws and their Limitations (http://scholar.google.com/url? sa=U&q=http://www.impacteen.org/generalarea_PDFs/medicalmarijuanapaper100301.pdf)". Journal of Public Health Policy 23 (4): 413-439. ISSN 0197-5897. 16. ^ Denver Voters Pass Key Ballot Initiatives (http://www.denvergov.org/newsarticle.asp?id=9500). City and County of Denver (2005-11-03). Retrieved on 2006-09-18. 17. ^ Council Considers Formal Position Regarding Marijuana Consumption and Possession (http://www.weho.org/news/index.cfm/fuseaction/story/ID/1378/). City of West Hollywood (2006-06-16). Retrieved on 2006-09-06. 18. ^ City Council, City of West Hollywood, Minutes, Monday, June 19, 2006 (http://www.weho.org/download/index.cfm/fuseaction/download/cid/4461/). Retrieved on 2006-09-06. 19. ^ Supreme Court of Alaska (1975-05-28). Ravin v. State, 537 P.2d 494 (Alaska 1975) (http://www.druglibrary.org/Schaffer/legal/l1970/ravin.htm). Schaffer Library of Drug Policy (http://druglibrary.org/schaffer). Retrieved on 2006-09-20. 20. ^ "Alaska Recriminalizes Marijuana Possession (http://www.officer.com/article/article.jsp?siteSection=6&id=30812)", Associated Press, 2006-06-05. Retrieved on 2006-09-15. 21. ^ NORML Report on U.S. Domestic Marijuana Production (http://www.norml.org/index.cfm?Group_ID=4444) (October 1998). Retrieved on 2006-09-08. 22. ^ United States Department of Health and Human Services (2004-09-09). Nation's Youth Turning Away from Marijuana, as Perceptions of Risk Rise; Most Adults with Substance Abuse Problems Are Employed (http://www.dhhs.gov/news/press/2004pres/20040909b.html). Press release. Retrieved on 2006-05-30. 23. ^ Paulo Borini; Romeu Cardoso Guimares; Sabrina Bicalho Borini (May 2004). "Possible hepatotoxicity of chronic marijuana usage (http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?pid=S1516-31802004000300007&script=sci_arttext&tlng=en)". Sao Paulo Medical Journal 122 (3). DOI:10.1590/S1516-31802004000300007 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S151631802004000300007). Retrieved on 2006-05-02. 24. ^ "Greenades, Marijuana Gumballs, Identified by Maryland Police, Used by High School Students (http://www.prweb.com/releases/2006/7/prweb414446.htm)", PR Web, 2006-07-22. Retrieved on 2006-09-15. 25. ^ Akinde Omotayo. The Medical Applications of Cannabinoids (http://lib1.bmcc.cuny.edu/studres/projectsakinde.html). Borough of Manhattan Community College. Retrieved on 2006-09-15. 26. ^ Controlled Substances Act (http://www.usdoj.gov/dea/agency/csa.htm). 21 USCS 801. United States Drug Enforcement Agency. Retrieved on November 4, 2005. 27. ^ Gieringer, Dale; Joseph St. Laurent, Scott Goodrich. Cannabis Vaporizer Combines Efficient Delivery of THC with Effective Suppression of Pyrolytic Compounds (http://www.maps.org/mmj/Gieringer-vaporizer.pdf). Retrieved on 2006-04-21.

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28. ^ Gieringer, Dale. Marijuana Water Pipe and Vaporizer Study (http://www.maps.org/newsletters/v06n3/06359mj1.html). Retrieved on 2006-04-21. 29. ^ Block RI, Farinpour R & Braverman K. (1992). "Acute effects of marijuana on cognition: relationships to chronic effects and smoking techniques". Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behaviour 43(3): 907 917. 30. ^ One in four at risk of cannabis psychosis (http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,3561-1565337,00.html). London Times. Retrieved on 2006-09-05. 31. ^ Effects of Cannabis (http://www.guide4living.com/drugabuse/cannabis-effects.htm). Guide4Living. Retrieved on 2006-05-30. 32. ^ Drugs and Human Performance Fact Sheets - Cannabis / Marijuana (D 9 - Tetrahydrocannabinol, THC) (http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/PEOPLE/INJURY/research/job185drugs/cannabis.htm). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Retrieved on 2006-06-08. 33. ^ Marijuana (http://www.brown.edu/Student_Services/Health_Services/Health_Education/atod/marijuana.htm) 34. ^ Symptom: Hallucinations (http://www.wrongdiagnosis.com/sym/hallucinations.htm) 35. ^ a b Nahas, G. et al. (2002). "A molecular basis of the therapeutic and psychoactive properties of cannabis (D9tetrahydrocannabinol) (http://www.bioch.ox.ac.uk/glycob/papers/prog_neuro_psychopharm_biol_psychiatry_(2002) _26_p721.pdf)" (pdf). Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry 26: 721-730. Retrieved on 2006-06-08. 36. ^ Jrai, Zoltn, Jens A. Wagner, Kroly Varga, Kristy D. Lake, David R. Compton, Billy R. Martin, Anne M. Zimmer, Tom I. Bonner, Nancy E. Buckley, Eva Mezey, Raj K. Razdan, Andreas Zimmer, and George Kunos (November 1999). "Cannabinoid-induced mesenteric vasodilation through an endothelial site distinct from CB1 or CB2 receptors (http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/96/24/14136)". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 96 (24): 14136-14141. Retrieved on 2006-05-30. 37. ^ Marijuana: Medical Implications (http://www.aafp.org/afp/991201ap/2583.html) 38. ^ Malcher-Lopes, Renato, Shi Di, Victor S. Marcheselli, Feng-Ju Weng, Christopher T. Stuart, Nicolas G. Bazan, and Jeffrey G. Tasker (2006). "Opposing Crosstalk between Leptin and Glucocorticoids Rapidly Modulates Synaptic Excitation via Endocannabinoid Release (http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/content/full/26/24/6643? maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits=10&RESULTFORMAT=&author1=MalcherLopes&searchid=1&FIRSTINDEX=0&resourcetype=HWCIT)". The Journal of Neuroscience 26: 6643-6650. Retrieved on 2006-06-22. 39. ^ Fact Sheet - Marijuana (http://www.well.com/user/woa/fspot.htm) 40. ^ Marijuana As Medicine?: The Science Beyond the Controversy (2000) (http://darwin.nap.edu/openbook.php? record_id=9586&page=106) 41. ^ Erowid. Cannabis Chemistry (http://www.erowid.org/plants/cannabis/cannabis_chemistry.shtml). Retrieved on 200603-20. 42. ^ Switzerland/UK: Death was not caused by cannabis (http://www.cannabismed.org/english/bulletin/ww_en_db_cannabis_artikel.php?id=166#2). IACM-Bulletin (2004). Retrieved on 2006-0501. 43. ^ The Dangers of Cannabis (http://www.mth.kcl.ac.uk/~streater/cannabis.html) by Professor Ray Streater 44. ^ Fred Gardner. "Marijuana Smoking Does Not Cause Lung Cancer (http://www.mapinc.org/drugnews/v05/n1106/a09.html?275821)", 2006-07-06. 45. ^ J.S. Hayes, R. Lampart, M.C. Dreher, L. Morgan (1991). "Five-year follow-up of rural Jamaican children whose mothers used marijuana during pregnancy". West Indian Medical Journal 40 (3): 120-3. 46. ^ M.C. Dreher, K. Nugent, R. Hudgins (1994). "Prenatal Marijuana Exposure and Neonatal Outcomes in Jamaica: An Ethnographic Study". Pediatrics 93 (3): 254-260. 47. ^ "Study finds no marijuana-lung cancer link (http://www.washingtonpost.com/wpdyn/content/article/2006/05/25/AR2006052501729_pf.html)", Washington Post, 2006-05-26. Retrieved on 2006-0713. 48. ^ "UK government report (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/31_07_06_drugsreport.pdf)", House of Commons Science and Technology Committee, 2006-07-18. Retrieved on 2006-08-29.] 49. ^ Ccile Henquet, Lydia Krabbendam, Janneke Spauwen, Charles Kaplan, Roselind Lieb, Hans-Ulrich Wittchen and Jim van Os (2004). "Prospective cohort study of cannabis use, predisposition for psychosis, and psychotic symptoms in young people". British Medical Journal 330 (11). 50. ^ G C Patton, Carolyn Coffey, J B Carlin, Louisa Degenhardt, Micheal Lynskey and Wayne Hall (2005). "Cannabis use and mental health in young people: cohort study". British Medical Journal 325 (1195). 51. ^ Louise Arseneault, Mary Cannon, Richie Poulton, Robin Murray, Avshalom Caspi, Terrie E Moffitt (2002). "Cannabis use in adolescence and risk for adult psychosis: longitudinal prospective study (http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/reprint/325/7374/1212.pdf)". British Medical Journal. 52. ^ Avshalom Caspi, Terrie E. Moffitt, Mary Cannon, Joseph McClay, Robin Murray, HonaLee Harrington, Alan Taylor, Louise Arseneault, Ben Williams, Antony Braithwaite, Richie Poulton, and Ian W. Craig (January 2005). "Moderation of the Effect of Adolescent-Onset Cannabis Use on Adult Psychosis by a Functional Polymorphism in the catechol-O-Methyltransferase Gene:Longitudinal Evidence of a Gene X Environment Interaction (http://www.ukcia.org/research/COMTgene.pdf)". Society of Biological Psychiatry.

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53. ^ Positive and negative cerebral symptoms: the roles of Russell Reynolds and Hughlings Jackson (http://jnnp.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/75/8/1148). Retrieved on 2006-03-25. 54. ^ Kaplan, J. (1969) "Introduction" of the Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission ed. by The Honorable W. Mackworth Young, et al. (Simla: Government Central Printing Office, 1894) LCCN 74-84211, pp. v-vi. 55. ^ Patrick O'Driscoll. "Denver votes to legalize marijuana possession (http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2005-1103-pot_x.htm)", USA Today, 2006-11-03. Retrieved on 2005-03-11. 56. ^ Dutch Politicians Seek Marijuana Rules (http://www.twincities.com/mld/twincities/news/breaking_news/13313479.htm). Retrieved on 2006-02-25. 57. ^ Marijuana fight nears (http://www.heraldnews.com/site/news.cfm?newsid=16135095). Retrieved on 2006-02-17. 58. ^ Home Office- Class B to Class C (http://www.idmu.co.uk/homeoffpr.htm). Retrieved on 2006-03-27. 59. ^ Randewich, Noel. "Mexico to decriminalize pot, cocaine and heroin (http://news.yahoo.com/s/nm/20060428/ts_nm/mexico_drugs_dc)", Reuters, 2006-04-28. Retrieved on 2006-04-28. 60. ^ "Mexico's Fox won't sign drug law (http://news.yahoo.com/s/nm/20060504/ts_nm/mexico_drugs_dc_3)", Reuters, 2006-05-03. Retrieved on 2006-05-04. 61. ^ "Mexican legal drug proposal rejected (http://www.signonsandiego.com/news/mexico/20060504-99991n4fox.html)", Sign On San Diego, 2006-05-04. Retrieved on 2006-05-13. 62. ^ "Mexico denies drug law veto result of US pressure (http://www.dominicantoday.com/app/article.aspx?id=13096)", Dominican Today, 2006-05-04. Retrieved on 2006-05-13. 63. ^ "Protest at Mexican Consulate in New York, Friday (http://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/HL0605/S00095.htm)", Scoop, 2006-05-05. Retrieved on 2006-05-13. 64. ^ "Drug Bill Veto Sparks Mexico City Marijuana Smoke-In (http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,194552,00.html)", Fox News, 2006-06-05. Retrieved on 2006-05-13. 65. ^ "DRUG: FERRERO DECRIMINALIZE CONSUMPTION OF LIGHT DRUGS (http://www.agi.it/english/news.pl? doc=200607171332-1085-RT1-CRO-0-NF82&page=0&id=agionline-eng.italyonline)", Agenzia Giornalistica Italia, 2006-07-17.

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Howard Markel. "For Addicts, Relief May Be an Office Visit Away (http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F10E1FFB35580C748EDDA90994DA404482)", New York Times, 2002-10-27. Louise Arsenault, Mary Cannon, Richie Poulton, Robin Murray, Avshalom Caspi, and Terrie E. Moffitt (2002). "Cannabis use in adolescence and risk for adult psychosis: longtudinal prospective study (http://www.ukcia.org/research/CannabisUseInAdolescenceAndRiskForAdultPsychosis.pdf)". British Medical Journal 325: 1212 1213. Avshalom Caspi, Terrie E. Moffitt, Mary Cannon, Joseph McClay, Robin Murray, HonaLee Harrington, Alan Taylor, Louise Arsenault, Ben Williams, Antony Braithwaite, Richie Poulton, and Ian W. Craig (2005). "Moderation of the effect of adult-onset cannabis use on adult psychosis by a functional polymorphism in the Catchol-O-Methyltransferase gene: Longitudinal evidence of a gene X environment interaction (http://www.ukcia.org/research/COMTgene.pdf)". Biol Psychiatry 25: 1117 1127. Henderson, Mark. "One in four at risk of cannabis psychosis (http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,3561-1565337,00.html)", The Times, 2005-04-12. Bruce Mirken and Mitch Earleywine: "Psychosis, Hype And Baloney (http://www.alternet.org/drugreporter/21436/)", AlterNet, 2005-03-07. James Huff and Po Chan (October 2000). "Antitumor Effects of THC (http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/docs/2000/108-10/correspondence.html#thc)". Environmental Health Perspectives 108(10): Correspondence. PMID 11097557 (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi? cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=11097557). "Knife" Sotelo: "Yes I Cannabis (http://www.lulu.com/content/285455)", Promotional Sales Books, LLC, April 20, 2006. Cannabis: A History (2005). Martin Booth - ISBN 0-312-32220-8
Cannabis resources (edit (http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Cannabis_resources&action=edit)) Use: recreational drug, pharmaceutical drug, spiritual, culture, health issues, legal issues, cultivation Preparations: bhang, hashish, kief, shake Smoking: blunt, bong, chillum, dugout, hookah, gravity bong, shotgun, smoking pipe, lung, spliff, steamroller Vaporization: vaporizer, knifers

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Food: cannabutter, dope cake, Ganja goo ball, hash cookie, Green Dragon, Leary biscuit, cannabis brownie, pot tea

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