Differentiation From First Principles

Gradient of a Curve A curve does not have a constant gradient. At any point on a curve, the gradient is equal to the gradient of the tangent at that point (a tangent to a curve is a line touching the curve at one point only). For example, the gradient of the below curve at A is equal to the gradient of the tangent at A, which is XY.

An approximation to the gradient at any point can be found by drawing a chord. A chord joins together two points on a curve. The closer together these two points are, the closer one gets to the actual gradient of the graph at the point in question.

Therefore in the above diagram, AB and AC are chords. The gradient at A is closer to the gradient of AC than AB, since the chord AC is shorter. Every time one makes the chord shorter, the gradient of the chord gets closer and closer to the gradient of the curve at A. Eventually, when the chord becomes so short that it is a tangent, the gradient of the graph will equal the gradient of this tangent. The Derivative We can use algebra to find out what the gradient of this tangent will be.

A is any point, (x, y). To find the gradient at A, we need to find the gradient of the tangent at A. Let B be a point which is just a little further along the graph. The gradient of the chord AB is approximately the gradient of A. If the horizontal distance between A and B is called dx ("delta" x) and the vertical distance between A and B is called dy, the coordinates of B are (x + dx, y + dy). y2 - y1, where the two points are (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) x2 - x1 In this case, the two points are (x, y) and (x + dx, y + dy). So substituting these values into the formula, the gradient of the chord is: y + dy - y = dy (pronounced "delta y by delta x") x + dx - x dx This is the gradient of the chord. The gradient of the curve is the

gradient of the chord when the chord has no length- i.e. when it is a tangent. This will happen when dx = 0 . The gradient of the curve is therefore: lim ( dy ) dx0 ( dx ) This basically means that the gradient is dy/dx as dx approaches or "tends to" () zero. We can rewrite the coordinates of (x, y) as (x, f(x)) and the coordinates of (x + dx, y + dy) as (x + dx, f(x + dx)), since y is a function of x (y = f(x)). So the gradient of the curve is: lim (y + dy - y) dx0 (x + dx - x) since y = f(x) and y + dy = f(x + dx): Gradient is: lim f(x + dx) - f(x) dx0 dx This is denoted by dy/dx ("dee y by dee x"). dy/dx is known as the derivative of y with respect to x. So, in summary, dy = lim f(x + dx) - f(x) dx dx0 dx Example :Find the formula for the gradient of the graph y = x . dy = lim (x + dx) - x dx dx0 dx = lim x + 2xdx + (dx) - x dx0 dx = lim 2xdx + (dx) dx0 dx The dx on the denominator cancels with those on the numerator. Therefore dy/dx = lim 2x + dx dx0 When dx becomes zero, dy/dx = 2x. Therefore the gradient of y = x is 2x. For example, at the point (2, 4), the gradient is 2x = 4 .

Differentiation
Differentiation allows us to find rates of change. For example, it allows us to find the rate of change of velocity with respect to time (which is acceleration). It also allows us to find the rate of change of x with respect to y, which on a graph of y against x is the gradient of the curve. There are a number of simple rules which can be used to allow us to differentiate many functions easily. If y = some function of x (in other words if y is equal to an expression containing numbers and x's), then the derivative of y (with respect to x) is written dy/dx, pronounced "dee y by dee x" . Differentiating x to the power of something 1) If y = xn, dy/dx = nxn-1 2) If y = kxn, dy/dx = nkxn-1(where k is a constant- in other words a number) Therefore to differentiate x to the power of something you bring the power down to in front of the x, and then reduce the power by one. Examples If y = x4, dy/dx = 4x3 If y = 2x4, dy/dx = 8x3 If y = x5 + 2x-3, dy/dx = 5x4 - 6x-4 Example Find the derivative of:

This looks hard, but it isn't. The trick is to simplify the expression first: do the division (divide each term on the numerator by 3x. We get: (1/3)x3/2 + (5/3)x - x- (using the laws of indices). So differentiating term by term: x + (5/6)x- + x-3/2. Notation

There are a number of ways of writing the derivative. They are all essentially the same: (1) If y = x2, dy/dx = 2x This means that if y = x2, the derivative of y, with respect to x is 2x. (2) d (x2) = 2x dx This says that the derivative of x2 with respect to x is 2x. (3) If f(x) = x2, f'(x) = 2x This says that is f(x) = x2, the derivative of f(x) is 2x. Finding the Gradient of a Curve A formula for the gradient of a curve can be found by differentiating the equation of the curve. Example What is the gradient of the curve y = 2x3 at the point (3,54)? dy/dx = 6x2 When x = 3, dy/dx = 6 9 = 54

Tangents and Normals

If you differentiate the equation of a curve, you will get a formula for the gradient of the curve. Before you learnt differentiation, you would have found the gradient of a curve by drawing a tangent and measuring the gradient of this. This is because the gradient of a curve at a point is equal to the gradient of the tangent at that point. The equation of the tangent to a point on a curve can therefore be found by differentiation. Example Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y = x3 at the point (2, 8). dy = 3x2 dx Gradient of tangent when x = 2 is 3 22 = 12. From the coordinate geometry section, the equation of the tangent is therefore: y - 8 = 12(x - 2) since the gradient of the tangent is 12 and we know that it passes through (2, 8) so y = 12x - 16 You may also be asked to find the gradient of the normal to the curve. The normal to the curve is the line perpendicular (at right angles) to the tangent to the curve at that point. Remember, if two lines are perpendicular, the product of their gradients is -1. So if the gradient of the tangent at the point (2, 8) of the curve y = x3 is 12, the gradient of the normal is -1/12, since -1/12 12 = -1 . The equation of the normal at the point (2, 8) is therefore: y - 8 = -1/12 (x - 2) hence the equation of the normal at (2,8) is 12y + x = 98 .

Uses of Differentiation
Increasing and Decreasing Functions An increasing function is a function where: if x1 > x2, then f(x1) > f(x2) , so as x increases, f(x) increases. A decreasing function is a function which decreases as x increases. Of course, a function may be increasing in some places and decreasing in others. A point where a function changes from an increasing to a decreasing function or visa-versa is known as a turning point. A turning point is a type of stationary point (see below). We can use differentiation to determine if a function is increasing or decreasing: A function is increasing if its derivative is always positive. A function is decreasing if its derivative is always negative. Examples y = -x has derivative -1 which is always negative and so -x is decreasing. y = x2 has derivative 2x, which is negative when x is less than zero and positive when x is greater than zero. Hence x2 is decreasing for x<0 and increasing for x>0 . Stationary Points Stationary points are points on a graph where the gradient is zero. There are three types of stationary points: maximums, minimums and points of inflection (/inflexion). The three are illustrated here:

Example Find the coordinates of the stationary points on the graph y = x2 . We know that at stationary points, dy/dx = 0 (since the gradient is zero at stationary points). By differentiating, we get: dy/dx = 2x. Therefore the stationary points on this graph occur when 2x = 0, which is when x = 0. When x = 0, y = 0, therefore the coordinates of the stationary point are (0,0). In this case, this is the only stationary point. If you think about the graph of y = x2, you should know that it is "U" shaped, with its lowest point at the origin. This is what we have just found. Maximum, Minimum or Point of Inflection? At all the stationary points, the gradient is the same (= zero) but it is often necessary to know whether you have found a maximum point, a minimum point or a point of inflection. Therefore the gradient at either side of the stationary point needs to be looked at (alternatively, we can use the second derivative). At maximum points, the gradient is positive just before the maximum, it is zero at the maximum and it is negative just after the maximum. At minimum points, the gradient is negative, zero then positive. Finally at points of inflexion, the gradient can be positive, zero, positive or negative, zero, negative. This is illustrated here:

Example Find the stationary points on the graph of y = 2x2 + 4x3 and state their nature (i.e. whether they are maxima, minima or points of inflexion). dy/dx = 4x + 12x2 At stationary points, dy/dx = 0 Therefore 4x + 12x2 = 0 at stationary points Therefore 4x( 1 + 3x ) = 0 Therefore either 4x = 0 or 3x = -1 Therefore x = 0 or -1/3 When x = 0, y = 0 When x = -1/3, y = 2x2 + 4x3 = 2(-1/3)2 + 4(-1/3)3 = 2/9 - 4/27 = 2/27 Looking at the gradient either side of x = 0: When x = -0.0001, dy/dx = negative When x = 0, dy/dx = zero When x = 0.0001, dy/dx = positive So the gradient goes -ve, zero, +ve, which shows a minimum point. Looking at the gradient either side of x = -1/3 . When x = -0.3334, dy/dx = +ve When x = -0.3333..., dy/dx = zero When x = -0.3332, dy/dx = -ve So the gradient goes +ve, zero, -ve, which shows a maximum point.

Therefore there is a maximum point at (-1/3 , 2/27) and a minimum point at (0,0). Example Find the least area of metal required to make a closed cylindrical container from thin sheet metal in order that it might have a capacity of 2000 cm3. The total surface area of the cylinder, S, is 2r2 + 2rh The volume = r2h = 2000 Therefore r2h = 2000. Therefore h = 2000/r2 Therefore S = 2r2 + 2r( 2000/r2 ) = 2r2 + 4000 r So we have an expression for the surface area. To find when the surface area is a minimum, we need to find dS/dr . dS = 4r - 4000 dr r2 When dS/dr = 0: 4r - (4000)/r2 = 0 Therefore 4r = 4000 r2 So 4r3 = 4000 So r3 = 1000 So r = 10 You should then check that this is indeed a minimum using the technique above. So the minimum area occurs when r = 10. This minimum area is found by substituting into the equation for the area the value of r = 10. S = 2r2 + 4000 r 2 = 2(10) + 4000 10 = 200 + 400 = 600 Therefore the minimum amount of metal required is 600 cm2

The Second Derivative

The second derivative is what you get when you differentiate the derivative. Remember that the derivative of y with respect to x is written dy/dx. The second derivative is written d2y/dx2, pronounced "dee two y by d x squared".

Stationary Points The second derivative can be used as an easier way of determining the nature of stationary points (whether they are maximum points, minimum points or points of inflection). A stationary point on a curve occurs when dy/dx = 0. Once you have established where there is a stationary point, the type of stationary point (maximum, minimum or point of inflexion) can be determined using the second derivative. If d2y is positive, then it is a minimum point dx2 If d2y is negative, then it is a maximum point dx2 If d2y = zero, then it could be a maximum, minimum or point of inflexion dx2 If d2y/dx2 = 0, you must test the values of dy/dx either side of the stationary point, as before in the stationary points section. Example Find the stationary points on the curve y = x3 - 27x and determine the nature of the points:

At stationary points, dy/dx = 0 dy/dx = 3x2 - 27 If this is equal to zero, 3x2 - 27 = 0 Hence x2 - 9 = 0 (dividing by 3) So (x + 3)(x - 3) = 0 So x = 3 or -3 d2y/dx2 = 6x When x = 3, d2y/dx2 = 18, which is positive. When x = -3, d2y/dx2 = -18, which is negative. Hence there is a minimum point at x = 3 and a maximum point at x = -3.

Integration
Introduction Integration is the reverse of differentiation. However: If y = 2x + 3, dy/dx = 2 If y = 2x + 5, dy/dx = 2 If y = 2x, dy/dx = 2 So the integral of 2 can be 2x + 3, 2x + 5, 2x, etc. For this reason, when we integrate, we have to add a constant. So the integral of 2 is 2x + c, where c is a constant. A "S" shaped symbol is used to mean the integral of, and dx is written at the end of the terms to be integrated, meaning "with respect to x". This is the same "dx" that appears in dy/dx . To integrate a term, increase its power by 1 and divide by this figure. In other words:

When you have to integrate a polynomial with more than 1 term, integrate each term. So:

Area Under a Curve

Definite Integrals So far when integrating, there has always been a constant term left. For this reason, such integrals are known as indefinite integrals. With definite integrals, we integrate a function between 2 points, and so we can find the precise value of the integral and there is no need for any unknown constant terms [the constant cancels out].

The Area Under a Curve The area under a curve between two points can be found by doing a definite integral between the two points. To find the area under the curve y = f(x) between x = a and x = b, integrate y = f(x) between the limits of a and b.

Areas under the x-axis will come out negative and areas above the x-axis will be positive. This means that you have to be careful when finding an area which is partly above and partly below the x-axis.

You may also be asked to find the area between the curve and the y-axis. To do this, integrate with respect to y. Example Find the area bounded by the lines y = 0, y = 1 and y = x2.