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PrinterFriendlyViewPack - PHP PackId 170516
To transmit bits over a medium; to provide mechanical and electrical specifications error control coding Units is Bits
To organise bits into frames; to provide hop-to-hop delivery Error control Units is Frames
To organise bits into frames; to provide hop-to-hop delivery Provides connection or connectionless service Units is Packets
To provide reliable process to process message delivery and recovery Unit is Segment
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Connection-oriented service
Connection oriented service requires a pair of processes in the two computers to establish a connection before sending data.
Connectionless-oriented service
In connectionless service, data packets are independent of each other and they may not arrive at the destination in the proper order.
Path from source to destination must be established before data packets can be sent Called a Virtual Circuit (VC)
No advanced setup is needed Packets called datagrams and carry the full destination address and are thus routed through the system independent of all the others.
A logical connection is established, with both sides initilize variables and counters to track which frames have been recieved
Connection doesn't need to be established, data frames can be lost, duplicated, and out of order.
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TCP/IP Networks
TCP Node
IP Node
Routing on IP Addresses Provision of an unreliable Datagram service over multiple networks for the transport of UDP or TCP messages
The transmission power and the propagation delay is much smaller compared to geostationary satellites.
Sophisticated tracking and acquisition systems are needed to pick the wanted signal. One satellite may only be visible for a few miutes, thus suitable hand off procedures must be organized to switch to the next satellite.
Connection orentiated needs to make a connection between the two computers before sending the data arrives in specific order Connectionless doesn't arrives in any order
byte stuffing
A special ESC byte inserted before each accidental flag byte in the data. If an escape byte occurs naturally in the middle of the data, it's stuffed with an escape byte as well.
Error Control
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Checks on the number of ones in a byte Can only detect single bit errors Even Parity
Odd Parity
Hamming Distance
This is the number of differences of two words between corresponding bits. 000 XOR 011 (two 1's difference)
Detecting Errors
To guarantee detection of up to S errors, dmin = S+1. To guarantee correction of up to T errors, dmin = 2T+1.
The bit pattern used is equvalent to the remainder from the message and generator. The Divisor is used to generate the codeword (data word + remainder)
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Generation
Specifies functions of the physical and data link layers of major LAN protocols Data Link layer into 2 parts IEEE802 (Project 802) LLC Link Layer Control MAC (media access control) Layer
Combines flow control, error control, and part of framing duties. Single data link layer control protocol for all IEEE LANs makes MAC sub-layer transparent PDU similar to HDLC
LLC header contains a control fiels like HDLC used for flow and error control.
Multiple access protocols Media Access Control MAC 3 access protocols Random access Controlled access Channelization Frames data from upper layer and passes it to physical layer
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Preamble SFD (Start Frame Delimiter) DA (Desitination Address) SA (Source Address) Length or type of PDU (Protocol Data Unit) Upper Layer data Unit CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check)
Ethernet - reliability
Even Parity
Odd Parity
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Data Link layer - framing Destination service, DSAP Source Service, SSAP Two access point fields to define upper layer protocol
These define the upper layer protocol at the source and destinations that uses LLC.
Hub
small, 2-8 computer networks only 1 protocol speed not prime importance Common subnet
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Switch
Router
Any number of computers on different subnets, or seperate from Public IP Network Number of protocols Security is potentially important connects 2 networks
Bridge
connect 2 LANs using similar LAN protocols Accept and forward frames to different networks minor protocol translation OSI kayer 2 (data link)
a request for running program from server, sends content at time of request
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Applet runs at client end to generate document requested at server Sent to client pc to run.
Proxy Server
Acts on behalf of other clients to present requests to a server Acts as a server interacting with clients, and as a client when interacting with servers Security intermediary, firewall with proxy
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JPEG - Quantization
Looses Data
Network Layer
header size of 64bits 8 bits for type 8 bits for Code 16 bits for Checksum
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A 0 7 bits net, 24 bits host B 10 14 bits net, 16 bits host C 110 21 bits net, 8 bits host D 1110 28 bits multicast group E 1111 experimental
Number of octets contained in the packet 16 bits long, limits to 65.5K octetc
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Enables a source to identify the desired delivery priority of this packet (4 bits).
Used by a source to identify associated packets needing the same type of special handling, eg real-time service between a pair of hosts (24 bits).
Specifies the maximum number of hops that a packet may take before it is discarded (8 bits).
distance metric focuses on how many hops it takes to get to the destination linked state calculates the states of the outgoing links and chooses the fastest and most suited link.
This is where the router will find the path with the shortest number of hops to reach it's destination.
Repeater
POP3 Advantages
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POP3 Disadvantages
IMAP Advantages
IMAP Disadvantages
POP3 Description
PassThrough tech, the server holds the mail until you request it and then when you do it will send the mail to you.
IMAP Description
Syncing server holds the mail on the server and when you request new mail it will send a copy of the mail while keeping a copy on the server If you delete or compose on your client then these actions will be performed automatically on the server copies.
IPV4 to IPV6
To ease the transition there are a few options for networks. There can be Duel stacks or tunneling. Duel Stacks is where IPV4 and IPV6 can coexist where tunneling is where the non supported addressing version is encapsulated within the supported version.
Private - Both parties have a copy of the encryption/decryption algorithm and they use these to send messages. Public - There is only
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encryption
one private key that will decrypt the message if it is encoded with the persons public key. The user sends out the public key to others so they can use it to encrypt data for them.
Allows a heighrachy of charging systems to support local, reginal international and interconnect acounts. Support for a layered security model with centeralised administration with passive and active monitoring capabilities. Support for tighter QOS specifications for performance improvements in various data connections.
TCP implements Flow control so the data is sent accuratly to the receiving computer. This method is reliable but slow. This is generally used for webpages and databases. UDP is only concerned with speed. There is no flow control and this is usually used for non essential appliactions like streaming media across the internet/
if there are multiple best paths the tie for the top position in the routing table, packets ay be sent via different paths to balance the loading in the network which should improve the bandwidth per pipe.
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This is where two armies are in a war, one army splits their forces and forms a pincer movement. If both sides of the pincer attack at the same time then this army will win. They both set up camp and then the problem is how to communicate to the other party when they will attack. If they send a messenger and the messenger does not arrive in time then they will attack alone and lose. This is like the connectionless service and hence we call it unreliable as we dont actually know if the message was sent and received.
NAT
Network Address Translation Converts an external IP to an internal IP in a network. This allows less IPV4 addresses to be assigned to end users. This meant that there would be a great reduction in external assignmnets and thus saving IPV4.
This is where all the packets are sent along the same routing path and this means that the packets cant arrive out of order.
This algorithm allows the network to use the shortest path between any two nodes minimising delay.
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Application- Firewall and Anti-virus Session - Authentication checks to make sure the session is correst Datalink - Encryption so when transmitted people can't intercept it. Physical - Gas Pressure in lines
Modulo-2 arithmetic
Data
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The length in bytes of the UDP header and the encapsulated data. The minimum value for this field is 8.
Computed as the 16-bit one's complement of the one's complement sum of a pseudo header of information from the IP header, the UDP header, and the data, padded as needed with zero bytes at the end to make a multiple of two bytes. If the checksum is cleared to zero, then checksuming is disabled. If the computed checksum is zero, then this field must be set to 0xFFFF.
Requests Response
REGISTER: Used by a UA to
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indicate its current IP address and the URLs for which it would like to receive calls. INVITE: Used to establish a media session between user agents. ACK: Confirms reliable message exchanges. CANCEL: Terminates a pending request. BYE: Terminates a session between two users in a conference. OPTIONS: Requests information about the capabilities of a caller, without setting up a call. PRACK(Provisional Response Acknowledgement): PRACK improves network reliability by adding an acknowledgement system to the provisional Responses (1xx). PRACK is sent in response to provisional response (1xx).
Provisional (1xx): Request received and being processed. Success (2xx): The action was successfully received, understood, and accepted. Redirection (3xx): Further action needs to be taken (typically by sender) to complete the request. Client Error (4xx): The request contains bad syntax or cannot be fulfilled at the server. Server Error (5xx): The server failed to fulfill an apparently valid request. Global Failure (6xx): The request cannot be fulfilled at any server.
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Flooding Algorithm
Receive message. Look for record in database. If the record is not yet included, add it to the database, broadcast the message. Else if the number in the base is lower than the number in the message, replace the value with the new one and broadcast the message. Else if the number in the base is higher, transmit the current database value through the incoming interface. Else if both numbers were the same, do nothing.
Source address
Destination Address
Options Padding
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when packet reaches the destination, this field determines what program uses it
Contains No Op fields
32
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hexadecimal digits.
8 byte
hidden station problem can arise in an 802.11x Basic Service Set. Briefly explain how this difficulty is overcome.
To overcome this problem, handshaking is implemented in conjunction with the CSMA/CA scheme.
port address
port address is the address of a session running on a host as used by the transport layer.
logical address
logical address is an address used in the network layer to identify a host that is connected to the Internet.
physical address.
physical address (link address) is the address of a node as defined by its LAN or WAN, it is the lowest level address and is assigned to a physical device.
An organisation is granted the block 125.238.0.0/16. The administrator wants to create 512 subnets: - Find the subnet mask required
This is a class A address range so that the default mask is /8. We need sufficient bits to produce 512 subnets so 2x = 512 where x is the number of bits required. Hence x = 9, thus we require the mask to be /8+9 = /17. OR 255.255.128.0
An organisation is granted the block 125.238.0.0/16. The administrator wants to create 512
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subnet is 32768 2 = 32766 since 2 addresses are not able to be used for hosts (they are reserved addresses).
An organisation is granted the block 125.238.0.0/16. The administrator wants to create 512 subnets: Find the first and last allocatable addresses in subnet 1
01111101 11101110 00000000 00000001 (125.238.0.1) Finally, we note that the broadcast address is the last one of the 32768 addresses so the last allocatable one is the one before that broadcast address so it must be 01111101 11101110 00000000 00000000 (125.0.127.254)
An organisation is granted the block 125.238.0.0/16. The administrator wants to create 512 subnets: Find the first and last allocatable addresses in subnet 14
The first and last allocatable addresses in subnet 14 are: To find the 14th subnet we have to add 13 to the subnet number of the first subnet. We can add this amount to the first allocatable address of the first subnet as we know that the first address in every block is not allocatable as it is a special address.
BGP is regarded as a Path Vector Protocol, how does it differ from Link State and Distance Vector Protocols?
The primary function of a BGP system is to exchange network reachability information with other BGP systems. BGP is rule based rather than metric based as distinct from the case of the other two protocols. Link state protocols pass around topology and network status information using a flooding protocol.
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List three reasons why most network specialists prefer Link State Routing instead of Distance Vector Routing.
Dual-stack method
Dual stack means running IPv4 and IPv6 simultaneously until everyone is ready for IPv6. (To figure out which version of IP to use when sending a packet to the destination, the source must send a query to the DNS server. If the DNS server returns an IPv4 address then the source sends an IPv4 packet, else it sends an IPv6 packet.)
Tunnelling
Tunnelling involves encapsulating an IPv4 packet inside an IPv6 packet or vice versa and setting the protocol indicator for the packet as IP
Header translation
Header translation used if the receiver doesnt understand IPv4and you are using IPv6. Translation is required at the router that connects to the IPv4 destination network.
Version- IP version number (Version 4) IHL Internet Header Length Type of Service Type of service
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IPv4 header
Total Length Total length of the packet Identification Flags Indications as to whether a packet has been segmented Fragment offset Offset if a packet must be segmented Time to live number of hops before packet is dicarded Protocol identifier for the program to be run at the destination (TCP, UDP OSPF, etc etc) Header Checksum A checksum CRC-32 for the header only Source address a 32 bit address for the source address Destination address a 32 bit address for the destination address Options Extra options required to be passed to the destination Padding padding to complete 32 bit fields if options dont use all 32 bits of a word.
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