Pagc 1 oI 19

Phonemic Stutement
of Tugubuwu

CurI D. DuBois und Iuurettu J. DuBois

Summcr Institutc of Linguistics









2006
ISBN 978-971-18-0406-0
www.siI.org,usiu,phiIippines,pIb_downIoud.htmI
EthnoIogue Iunguuge nume und code: Tugubuwu (bgs)
www.ethnoIogue.com
Pagc 2 oI 19
CONTLNTS
O. Introduction
1. Phoncmcs
1.1. Chart oI Phoncmcs
1.2. Dcscription oI Phoncmcs
1.2.1. Consonants
1.2.2. VowcIs
2. Strcss
3. Distribution
3.1. Distribution oI SyIIabIcs
3.2. Distribution oI Phoncmcs
3.2.1. Consonants
3.2.2. VowcIs
4. Phoncmc Contrasts
5. Notcs
0. INTRODUCTION
Thc Tagabawa Ianguagc bcIongs to thc Manobo subIamiIy oI PhiIippinc Ianguagcs. Thc Tagabawa
pcopIc aIso rcIcr to thcmscIvcs as Bagobo, a dcsignation aIso appIicd to and uscd by spcakcrs oI Guiangan
(1angan or Dyangan), a diIIcrcnt Ianguagc not bcIonging to thc Manobo subIamiIy
This study is an attcmpt to dcIinc thc phonoIogy oI thc Tagabawa spokcn by thosc rcsiding in MaIasiIa,
MakiIaIa, Cotabato. It is aIso assumcd to bc thc phonoIogy oI thc cntirc Ianguagc spokcn throughout a roughIy
scmicircuIar arca southwcst and southcast oI Mount Apo cxtcnding Irom Kidapawan on thc wcst to ToriI on thc
cast, incIuding parts oI Cotabato and Davao dcI Sur provinccs and Davao City. Somc rcgionaI variation cxists in
thc choicc bctwccn thc /I/ and /r/ phoncmcs in givcn words, /I/ prcdominating in thc wcstcrn arca oI thc Ianguagc,
and /r/ prcdominating in thc ccntraI and castcrn arcas.
Thc data in this dcscription was coIIcctcd throughout thc ycars 1987 and 1988 in Sitio Lambac, MaIasiIa,
MakiIaIa, Cotabato, by thc authors undcr thc auspiccs oI thc Summcr Institutc oI Linguistics. Thc principaI
Ianguagc assistant was Miss PcIigrina L. Lambac, 34 ycars oId at thc timc.
1. PHONEMES
Thc phoncmic invcntory oI Tagabawa consists oI twcnty-two scgmcntaI phoncmcs, oI which sixtccn arc
consonants and six arc vowcIs. Thcsc phoncmcs arc summarizcd in thc IoIIowing chart.
Pagc 3 oI 19
1.1. Chart oI Phoncmcs
CONSONANTS
BILABIAL ALVLOLAR VLLAR GLOTTAL
STOPS
vI. p t k
vd. b d g
IRICATIVLS s h
NASALS m n
LATLRAL I
ILAP r
BILABIAL PALATAL
SLMIVOWLLS w j

VOWLLS
IRONT CLNTRAL BACK
HIGH i
MID c o
LOW a
1.2. Dcscription oI Phoncmcs
1.2.1. Consonants
Thc phoncmcs /p/, /t/, /k/ and // arc voiccIcss stops articuIatcd rcspcctivcIy at thc biIabiaI, aIvcoIar, vcIar
and gIottaI positions. Lach has a rcIcascd aIIophonc, [pj, [tj, [kj and [j, occurring in syIIabIc onscts, as in:
[paaj /paa/ 'Ioot, Icg`
[pagodj /pagod/ 'cIIort`
[pcnkj /pcnck/ 'to cIimb`
[pidj /pid/ 'to bring, carry`
[pkj /pkc/
[apaj /apaj 'kind oI grasshoppcr`
Pagc 4 oI 19
[ipnnoj /ipnnoj 'to IiII`
[oposj /opos/ 'a kind oI squash`
[tabaj /taba/ 'an answcr, to answcr`
[tcmmsj /tcmms/ 'to arrangc, tidy up`
[tiaj /tia/ 'to carry on shouIdcr`
[tktkj /tktkj 'to pcck hoIcs in Iruit`
[atdj /atd/ 'to takc, dcIivcr`
[tpj /tcp/ 'human spccch, animaI caII`
[mataj /mata/ 'cyc`
[itisj /itis/ 'to pour a IIiquid`
[otaj /otaj 'dcbt`
[kagpaj /kagpa/ 'chcst`
[kcdoj /kcdo/ 'mcrcy
[kiIaIaj /kiIaIa/ 'rccognizc`
[kmbcj /kmbc/ '1cw`s harp`
[kodaj /koda/ 'horsc`
[akarj /akar/ 'to trick`
[abasj /abas/ 'mcasIcs`
[cdtj /cdt/ 'to bouncc`
[bckgj /bckg/ 'crookcd`
[bitokaj /bitoka/ 'intcstincs`
[ibaj /iba/ 'IcIt sidc or hand`
[gtj /gct/ 'cIoth yardagc`
[obadj /obad/ 'to untic`
[oIoj /oIo/ 'onc`s hcad`
[Iaasj /Iaas/ 'to cut oII`
[Iikdj /Iikd/ 'to knccI`
[oIIaj /oIIa/ 'to scrcam, shout`
[bacj /bac/ 'a kind oI yam`
Lach aIso has an unrcIcascd aIIophonc, [pj, [tj, [kj and [j, occurring in word-IinaI position and bcIorc
stops, as in:
[atpj /atp/ 'rooI`
[Ikkpj /Ikkp/ 'ccIipsc`
[sagkopj /sagkop/ 'twiIight`
[awatj /awat/ 'rcccivc`
[bttdj /bcttd/ 'to uproot`
[maittj /maitt/ 'dark, obscurc`
[awakj /awak/ 'waist`
[sakdaj /sakda/ 'to ask about`
[bkkrj /bkkr/ 'strcngth`
[bkkgj /bkkg/ 'onc`s back`
[bahaj /baha/ 'chin`
Pagc 5 oI 19
[dapdapj /dapdap/ 'a kind oI trcc`
[bitbitj /bitbit/ 'to dangIc`
[bakbakj /bakbak/ 'buIIIrog`
[bakIayanj /bakIayan/ 'sand`
Thc phoncmcs /b/, /d/ and /g/ arc voiccd stops articuIatcd rcspcctivcIy at thc biIabiaI, aIvcoIar and vcIar
positions. AII thrcc aIso havc rcIcascd and unrcIcascd aIIophoncs Iound in thc samc cnvironmcnts as thcir
voiccIcss countcrparts, as in:
[babojj /baboj/ 'pig`
[bttdj /bcttd/ 'to uproot`
[bkkrj /bkkr/ 'strcngth`
[bkkgj /bkkg/ 'onc`s back`
[binajoj /binajo/ 'to pound in a mortcr`
[bobonj /bobon/ 'onc`s thigh`
[bbIj /bbI/ 'smokc`
[korabkabj /korabkab/ 'oI a domcstic IouI, to IIap it`s wings togcthcr`
[daIidj /daIid/ 'root`
[ndasoj /ndasu/ 'and whcn, and thcn`
[dcIkj /dcIk/ 'smaII`
[diIaj /diIa/ 'onc`s tonguc`
[dgj /dg/ 'a short pcriod oI timc`
[dogaj /doga/ 'to add morc to`
[indsj /inds/ 'to dcIIccatc`
[kcbcdj /kbd/ 'crookcd, skcwcd`
[marddgj /marddg/ 'rotton, dccaycd`
[padpad/padpad/ 'to shakc oII somcthing cIinging`
[gttkj /gttk/ 'abdomcn`
[gagaj /gaga/ 'to bc abIc to do, to achicvc`
[gcnaj /gcna/ 'awhiIc ago`
[gitj /git/`to stcp on`
[grj /gr/ 'abiIity, charactcr`
[magaj /maga/ 'mango trcc or Iruit`
[bggasj /bggas/ 'ricc`
[iIbj /iIb/ 'saIiva`
[kiIidj /kiIid/ 'sidc`
[ikogj /ikog/ 'taiI`
[dabdabj /dabdab/ 'ignitc`
[boridbidj /boridbid/ 'twist`
[kagpaj /kagpa/ 'chcst`
[bigkasj /bigkas/ 'to scparatc two pcrsons`
Pagc 6 oI 19
Thc phoncmc /s/ is a voiccIcss aIvcoIar Iricativc as in:
[sabatj /sabat/ 'to sampIc Iood`
[sbbadj /sbbad/ 'onc`
[scddpj /scddp/ 'to suck up`
[sidaj /sida/ 'siIky cIoth`
[sskj /ssk/ 'ncxt, adjaccnt`
[sobaj /soba/ 'to travcI uphiII or upstrcam`
[dasaIj /dasaI/ 'to pray, worship`
[sossorj /sossor/ 'spIintcr`
[bosbosj /bosbos/ 'to pour`
[abasj /abas/ 'mcasIcs`
Thc phoncmc /h/ is a voiccIcss gIottaI Iricativc, as in:
[Iohaj /Ioha/ 'a tcar`
[ahoj /aho/ 'cntcr`
[pihitj /pihit/ 'to turn, rotatc`
This phoncmc occurs word initiaI onIy in borrowcd words, as in:
[haponj /hapon/ '1apancsc`
[hosajj /hosaj/ 'IcgaI arbitration`
[howisj /howis/ 'a judgc`
Thc phoncmcs /m/, /n/ and // arc voiccd nasaIs articuIatcd at thc biIabiaI, aIvcoIar and vcIar positions
rcspcctivcIy, as in:
[madatj /madat/ 'bad, cviI`
[mcIj /mcI/ 'oI Iruit, unripc`
[mnnoj /mnno/ 'how`
[mincIoj /mincIo/ 'orphan`
[momoj /momo/ 'Iood particIcs, crumbs`
[mmaj /mma/ 'Iathcr`
[inmj /inm/ 'drink`
[mbj /mb/ 'a rat`
[nanaj /nana/ 'pus`
[naj /na/ 'corrcct, propcr, cnough`
[nidaj /nida/ 'honcycomb`
[nnrj /nnr/ 'to provokc a IandsIidc`
[nonogj /nonog/ 'to conscnt`
[boIanj /boIan/ 'moon`
[baIagnj /baIagn/ 'rattan`
[adanj /adan/ 'onc`s namc`
[iij /ii/ 'saIiva`
[paj /pa/ 'Iinish`
Pagc 7 oI 19
[posoj /poso/ 'hcart`
[dogoj /dogo/ 'to arrivc, rcach`
Thc phoncmc /I/ is a voiccd aIvcoIar IatcraI, as in:
[IaIaj /IaIa/ 'pIan`
[Icmasj /Icmas/ 'to baiI watcr out oI`
[Ibbagj /Ibbag/ 'to swcII`
[maImtj /maImct/ 'wcak`
[Iobogj /Iobog/ 'to waIIow`
[Iibdj /Iibd/ 'to coiI, wrap around`
[aIIidj /aIIid/ 'to avoid`
[IIaj /IIa/ 'a sIavc`
[aboIj /aboI/ 'onc`s kncc`
[toIdaj /toIda/ 'tcnt, awning`
[kIkIj/kIkI/ 'to trcmbIc`
Thc phoncmc /r/ is a voiccd aIvcoIar IIap, as in:
[mararagj /mararag/ 'ycIIow`
[marcntkj /marcntk/ 'smaII`
[rimtj /rimt/ 'to grind IincIy`
[rgrgj/rgrg/ 'a IIamc`
[rggonj /rggon/ 'whiIc`
[robbadj /robbad/ 'onc`s dcsccndants`
[boraj /bora/ 'Iroth`
[sagbrj /sagbr/ 'cut grass`
[kadigrranj /kadigrran/ 'onc`s dcsirc`
Thc phoncmcs /w/ and /j/ arc voiccd nonsyIIabic vocoids (scmivowcIs) articuIatcd at thc biIabiaI and
paIataI positions rcspcctivcIy, as in:
[wakwakj /wakwak/ 'witch`
[wiidj /wiid/ 'bc sad at parting`
[wajigj /wajig/ 'watcr, rivcr`
[sowcj /sowc/ 'to turn asidc`
[downj /down/ 'thcrc is, thcrc arc`
[Iawodj /Iawod/ 'dccp occan, Iar out at sca`
[bwwj /bww/ 'top surIacc`
[jawjawj /jawjaw/ 'scoId`
[bajij /baji/ 'IcmaIc`
[Iajjoj /Iajjo/ 'inIcrtiIc`
[ppojj /ppoj/ 'snakc`
Pagc 8 oI 19
1.2.2. VowcIs
Thc phoncmc /i/ is a voiccd high cIosc Iront unroundcd vocoid, as in:
[isij /isi/ 'urinc`
[bitbitj /bitbit/ 'to dangIc`
[gitj /git/ 'to stcp on`
[kitaj /kita/ 'to mcct, Iind, scc`
[Iimaj /Iima/ 'numcraI Iivc`
[aminj /amin/ 'to consumc`
[nitoj /nito/ 'a IamiIiar spirit`
[pidj /pid/ 'to bring, carry`
[rimtj /rimt/ 'IincIy ground corn`
[sibotj /sibot/ 'a ncttcd picking poIc`
[tiaj /tia/ 'to carry on shouIdcr`
[wiidj /wiid/ 'to bc sad whcn parting`
[wayigj /wayig/ 'watcr`
[dinij /dini/ 'hcrc`
[adij /adi/ 'youngcr sibIing`
Thc phoncmc /c/ has two aIIophoncs. Thc voiccd mid opcn Iront unroundcd vocoid aIIophonc [j occurs
onIy in syIIabIcs cIoscd by voiccIcss stops, [pj, [tj, [kj, or [j, as in:
[tpj /tp/ 'noisc`
[Ippaj Icppaj 'a dry branch oI a coconut trcc`
[btbtj /btbt/ 'IiIt`
[bcrtj /bcrct/ 'corss-cycd`
[kowkj /kowk/ 'squccI`
[pkpkj /pckpck/ 'to pat somonc`
[dappj /dappc/ 'to appIy comprcss to a wound or boiI`
[crj /crc/ 'to sharpcn a bamboo kniIc`
Thc voiccd mid cIosc Iront unroundcd vocoid aIIophonc [cj occurs cIscwhcrc, as in:
[cbj /cb/ 'so that`
[cIIcj /cIIc/ 'to rcjcct, rcIusc`
[gcnaj /gcna/ 'carIicr today`
[kcdoj /kcdo/ 'mcrcy`
[kckcj /kckc/ 'to hop on onc Ioot`
[Iagcnotj /Iagcnot/ 'to do quictIy, carcIuIIy`
[dcIkj /dcIk/ 'smaII`
[mcj /mc/ 'to cook`
[baIcj /baIc/ 'housc`
[kcdj /kcd/ 'wc(cxcI) wiII now`
Pagc 9 oI 19
Thc phoncmc // is a voiccd mid opcn ccntraI unroundcd vocoid, as in:
[bnnsj /bnns/ 'grassy`
[abIj /abI/ 'to wcavc`
[adkj /adk/ 'to smcII, kiss`
[gbbaj /gbba/ 'to razc, dismantIc`
[kbbj /kbb/ 'to tcst ripcncss`
[ndaj /nda/ 'whcrc`
[kannij /kanni/ 'at thc prcscnt timc`
[ssaj /ssa/ 'diIIcrcnt`
[bggasj /bggas/ 'huskcd ricc`
[bIIsj /bIIs/ 'to borrow`
Thc phoncmc /a/ is a voiccd Iow opcn ccntraI unroundcd vocoid, as in:
[dppaj /dppa/ 'onc Iathom`
[maditaj /madita/ 'many`
[ikamj /ikam/ 'a mat`
[babaj /baba/ 'carry on back`
[dakIj /dakI/ 'Iargc`
[gakdj /gakd/ 'onc`s rcIativc or rcIativcs`
[manokj /manok/ 'bird, chickcn`
[knamij /knami/ 'us, our`
[adanj /adan/ 'namc`
[aatj /aat/ 'wait`
[awatj /awat/ 'rcccivc`
[Iaasj /Iaas/ 'a homcIcss pcrson, vagabond`
Thc phoncmc /o/ is a voiccd mid cIosc back roundcd vocoid, as in:
[apogj /apog/ 'Iimc, caIcium oxidc`
[antogj /antog/ 'throw away`
[atoj /ato/ 'Iight back`
[aboj /abo/ 'ashcs`
[dogaj /doga/ 'add morc, incrcasc`
[goIajj /goIaj/ 'vcgctabIcs`
[gimokodj /gimokod/ 'onc`s souI`
[Iaonj /Iaon/ 'aII`
[Iinogj /Iinog/ 'carthquakc`
[tooj /too/ 'vcry`
[oIoj /oIo/ 'hcad`
[bosbosj /bosbos/ 'pour`
Pagc 1O oI 19
Thc phoncmc // is a voiccd Iow cIosc back roundcd vocoid, as in:
[pngj /png/ 'dcsccnd a Iaddar or stairway`
[tktkj /tktk/ 'to pcck hoIcs in Iruit`
[kj /k/ 'you(pIuraI)`
[bbj /bb/ 'carics`
[ddj /dd/ 'dwcII`
[gj /g/ 'indccd, surcIy`
[mmj /mm/ 'mutc`
[nnj /nn/ 'wakc up, gct up`
[Iaj /Ia/ 'a houscIIy`
2. STRESS
Thc anaIysis oI strcss is bascd on a corpus oI morc than 2,6OO Tagabawa words. An additionaI 6OO
words wcrc cxcIudcd Irom anaIysis as bcing borrowcd Irom Spanish, LngIish or Ccbuano Visayan.
Strcss consists oI an incrcasc in intcnsity and a raising oI pitch. Strcss aIso consists oI vowcI Icngth in
opcn (CV) syIIabIcs.
OI thc Tagabawa corpus oI poIysyIIabic words, strcss occurs as IoIIows: on pcnuItimatc syIIabIcs: 92%
(approximatcIy 24OO words) on uItimatc syIIabIcs: 8% (approximatcIy 2OO words) on antcpcnuItimatc syIIabIcs:
Icss than 1/2 oI 1% (8 words)
AIthough strcss is prcdominantIy pcnuItimatc, it is phoncmic, as cvidcnccd by thc IoIIowing minimaIIy
and ncarIy minimaIIy contrastivc pairs oI words.
[a:todj /atod/ 'Iook at` [atodj /atod/ 'stump`
[ka:pij /kapi/ 'hawk` [kapi:j /kapi/ 'coIIcc`
[taga:naj /tagana/ 'prcparc` [taganaj /tagana/ 'orig.pcopIc`
[pa:Iadj /paIad/ 'paIm oI hand` [paIadj /paIad/ 'whiIc`
[a:tij /ati/ 'swcat` [atinj /atin/ 'iI`
[ba:taj /bata/ 'chiId` [batadj /batad/ 'corn`
[ta:baj /taba/ 'hcIp` [tabagj /tabag/ 'somcwhat`
[ndaj /nda/ 'whcrc` [ndaj /nda/ 'didn't`
VowcI Icngth occurs onIy in opcn (CV) strcsscd syIIabIcs. Thcrc arc no word pairs that diIIcr onIy by
vowcI Icngth. Lcngth in pcnuItimatc strcsscd syIIabIcs:
[a:boj /abo/ 'ashcs`
[ma:jaj /maja/ 'riccbird`
[kas:kj /kask/ 'angcr`
Lcngth in uItimatc strcsscd syIIabIcs:
[kani:j /kani/ 'this`
[kapi:j /kapi/ 'coIIcc`
[bac:j /bac/ 'yam tubcr`
[dac:j /dac/ 'cook cassava`
Pagc 11 oI 19
3. DISTRIBUTION
3.1. Distribution oI SyIIabIcs
Thcrc arc Iour syIIabIc pattcrns: CV, CVC, CCV and CCVC. Thc CCV and CCVC syIIabIc pattcrns
occur onIy in borrowcd words (scc scction 3.2.1 bcIow).
Thc IoIIowing tabIcs show thc syIIabIc distribution statistics (scc notc 1). Thcy arc bascd on anaIysis oI a
wordIist oI 23O3 uniquc words cxtractcd Irom a corpus oI 36,4O5 words (1O8 pagcs) oI tcxt.
Onc SyIIabIc Words (88 words = 3.8%)
SyIIabIc TotaI Pcrccnt
CV 18 2O.5%
CVC 68 77.3%
CCV O O.O%
CCVC 2 2.3%
TotaI 88
Two SyIIabIc Words (586 words = 25.4%)
SyIIabIc 1
st
2
nd
TotaI Pcrccnt
CV 388 139 527 45.O%
CVC 196 443 639 54.5%
CCV 2 2 4 O.3%
CCVC O 2 2 O.2%
TotaI 1172
Thrcc SyIIabIc Words (899 words = 39.O%)
SyIIabIc 1
st
2
nd
3
rd
TotaI Pcrccnt
CV 59O 587 216 1393 51.6%
CVC 3O9 277 67O 1256 46.6%
CCV O 27 1 28 1.O%
CCVC O 8 12 2O O.7%
Pagc 12 oI 19
TotaI 2697
Iour SyIIabIc Words (549 words = 23.8%)
SyIIabIc 1
st
2
nd
3
rd
4
th
TotaI Pcrccnt
CV 352 416 416 139 1323 6O.2%
CVC 196 122 128 4O5 851 38.8%
CCV 1 6 5 1 13 O.6%
CCVC O 5 O 4 9 O.4%
TotaI 2196
Iivc SyIIabIc Words (164 words = 7.1%)
SyIIabIc 1
st
2
nd
3
rd
4
th
5
th
TotaI Pcrccnt
CV 81 131 115 117 55 499 6O.9%
CVC 83 29 47 43 1O9 311 37.9%
CCV O 2 1 4 O 7 O.9%
CCVC O 2 1 O O 3 O.4%
TotaI 82O
Six SyIIabIc Words (16 words = O.7%)
SyIIabIc 1
st
2
nd
3
rd
4
th
5
th
6
th
TotaI Pcrccnt
CV 7 15 12 13 12 7 66 68.8%
CVC 9 1 4 3 4 9 3O 31.2%
CCV O O O O O O O O.O%
CCVC O O O O O O O O.O%
TotaI 96
Pagc 13 oI 19
AII Words Combincd
SyIIabIc TotaI Pcrccnt
CV 3832 54.1%
CVC 3163 44.7%
CCV 52 O.7%
CCVC 36 O.5%
TotaI 7O83
TotaI Numbcr oI Words = 23O3
Avcragc Numbcr oI SyIIabIcs pcr Word = 3.1
3.2. Distribution oI Phoncmcs
3.2.1. Consonants
AII consonants occur in syIIabIc onsct position and word initiaI position. Howcvcr, /h/ occurs in word
initiaI position onIy in borrowcd words, as in:
/hapon/ '1apancsc`
/hari/ 'king`
/hirap/ 'diIIicuIt`
/howis/ 'judgc`
Thc sccond consonant oI a compIcx syIIabIc onsct (i.c., C
2
oI C
1
C
2
V or C
1
C
2
VC
3
) is Iimitcd to thc
phoncmcs /I/, /r/, /w/ and /j/, as in:
/kompIijanjo/ 'birthday`
/probIma/ 'probIcm`
/Iitrato/ 'photograph`
/poItri/ 'chickcn cagc`
/pasinsja/ 'Iorgivc`
/swiIdo/ 'wagcs`
AII consonants cxccpt /h/ occur in syIIabIc coda position, with thc IoIIowing rcstriction. Thc onIy
obscrvcd occurrcncc oI // as syIIabIc coda in word mcdiaI position is in thc vcrb stcm /aa/ 'to intcrspcrsc
onc's spccch with mcaningIcss IiIIcrs (such as or ) whiIc dcciding how to continuc`. Othcr than this, thc
consonant // occurs in syIIabIc coda position onIy whcn it is simuItancousIy word IinaI.
AII consonants occur in word mcdiaI position. Thcrc arc Icw apparcnt rcstrictions on thc potcntiaI
occurrcncc oI bi-syIIabic consonant cIustcrs. Thc phoncmcs /h/ and // ncvcr occur in any consonant cIustcr. AII
consonants cxccpt /h/ and // havc bccn obscrvcd to occur in homorganic (bi-syIIabic) consonant cIustcrs.
Pagc 14 oI 19
Not aII combinations oI hctcrorganic consonant cIustcrs havc bccn obscrvcd. Othcr than thc totaI abscncc
oI cIustcrs incIuding cithcr /h/ or //, thc onIy apparcnt rcstrictions oI possibIc signiIicancc arc thcsc:
(1) No cIustcrs oI /I/, /r/ and /w/ with cach othcr (cxccpt homorganic) in any ordcr;
(2) No cIustcrs oI /m/ /n/ and // with cach othcr (cxccpt homorganic) in any ordcr;
(3) No cIustcrs oI /p/ and /b/ with cach othcr (cxccpt homorganic) in cithcr ordcr; and
(4) No cIustcrs oI /p/ or /b/ with a IoIIowing /g/.
Othcr apparcnt Iacunac arc assumcd to bc duc to thc Iimitcd data rathcr than to inhcrcnt rcstrictions. Ior
cxampIc, aIthough thc nasaI phoncmcs /m/, /n/ and // havc not bccn obscrvcd to IoIIow /t/, // docs IoIIow /d/, as
in /Iadd/ 'crunch`. Likcwisc, aIthough thc nasaI phoncmcs havc not bccn obscrvcd to IoIIow /b/, /n/ docs
IoIIow /p/, as in /napnap/ 'kind oI bamboo`.
Thc phoncmc /w/ in syIIabIc coda position has onIy bccn obscrvcd to occur IoIIowing thc vowcI /a/. Thc
phoncmc /j/ in syIIabIc coda position has onIy bccn obscrvcd to occur IoIIowing thc vowcIs /a/, /o/ and //.
3.2.2. VowcIs
Thc phoncmc // occurs onIy in cIoscd syIIabIcs (CVC). ThcrcIorc it ncvcr occurs cithcr word IinaI or
prcccding a singIc, word-mcdiaI consonant. It ncvcr occurs prcccding //, and ncvcr occurs adjaccnt to (cithcr
prcccding or IoIIowing, i.c. in thc samc syIIabIc with) thc phoncmcs /h/, /w/ and /j/.
Thc IoIIowing chart dispIays aII scqucnccs oI VC in thc corpus oI data.
Charactcr CIustcrs in AII Positions:
(I/I = InitiaI/IinaI; IcIt coIumn/top row)
I/I b d g h k I m n
i 22 42 434 1 83 37 63 149 43
2 27 2 O 21 16 22 27 4
35 3O 2O3 O 65 54 49 2O4 43
a 119 184 266 22 28O 258 121 636 127
o 24 47 67 1 78 1O4 134 121 47
13 45 21 O 34 13 23 36 26
TotaI 215 375 993 24 561 482 412 1173 29O

Pagc 15 oI 19
I/I p r s t w j TotaI
i 29 41 3O 56 1O3 1 6O 1194
3 5 12 1 5 8 7 162
16 O 22 53 52 O O 826
a 13O 183 117 182 212 52 96 2985
o 36 128 46 64 24 88 38 1O47
4 35 18 2 5 6 O 281
TotaI 218 392 245 358 4O1 155 2O1 6495
TotaI Words = 23O3
TotaI Charactcrs = 17438
Long consonants occur onIy in intcrvocaIic word mcdiaI position, and arc intcrprctcd as bi-syIIabic
gcminatc consonant cIustcrs. Thc IoIIowing word pairs iIIustratc contrast bctwccn short and Iong consonants.
[amotj /amot/ 'asscssmcnt` [am:otj /ammot/ 'Iragrant`
[babaj /baba/ 'downstrcam` [bab:aj /babba/ 'mouth`
[baIij /baIi/ 'instcad` [baI:ij /baIIi/ 'rcvcrscd`
[koIagoj /koIago/ 'owI` [koI:agj /koIIag/ 'instcad`
[Iajaj /Iaja/ 'IIy` [Iaj:aj /Iajja/ 'Iic Iacc up`
[pipitj /pipit/ 'whip` [pip:ij /pippi/ 'Iaundcr`
[saIagj /saIag/ 'ncst` [saI:agj /saIIag/ 'dry roast`
[sonodj /sonod/ 'ncxt` [son:odj /sonnod/ 'vcry`
[tabaj /taba/ 'hcIp` [tab:aj /tabba/ 'bIand`
[toIij /toIi/ 'carwax` [toI:ij /toIIi/ 'takc out`
4. PHONEME CONTRASTS
Phoncmic markcrs arc assumcd Ior aII cxampIcs. MinimaI pairs arc shown whcrcvcr known.
Abbrcviations uscd incIudc thc IoIIowing:
adj. adjcctivc
adv. advcrb
aII. aIIix
Ccb. Ccbuano
conj. conjunction
dcmo. dcmonstrativc part.
cxcI. cxcIamation
cxis. cxistcntiaI
Pagc 16 oI 19
int. intcrrogativc
k.o. kind oI
n. noun
ncg. ncgativc
ncut. ncutraI
num. numcraI
ppart. postparticIc
pron. pronoun
tcmp. tcmporaI
v. vcrb
p/b
pakpak n. 'wing` bakbak n. 'buIIIrog`
paIo n. 'hccI` baIo n. 'widow`
apog n. 'Iimc` abog n. (Ccb.) 'dust`
Ippo n. 'coconut` Ibbot n. 'mound`
dapdap n. 'k.o.trcc` dabdab n. 'sct Iirc to`
t/d
tabtab v. 'grazc` dabdab v. 'sct Iirc to`
toktok v. 'pcck` dokdok v. 'pound`
aIat n. 'baskct` alad n. 'Icncc`
k/g
kajo n. 'trcc` gaj v. 'shinc`
ktkt v. 'wcar away` gtgt v. 'cut with kniIc`
abok n. 'piccc` abog n. (Ccb.) 'dust`
knik n. 'you(sg.)` nig n. 'today`
gIottaI/nonc
soIo n. 'Iamp` soIo n. 'IingcrnaiI`
bbo v. 'discmbowcI` bbo v. 'bark`
nda ncg.cxis. 'nonc` nda int. 'whcrc?`
mama v. 'chcw bctcI` mama n. 'maIc`
k/gIottaI
kaIit v. 'IIick` aIit v. 'cntcrtain`
koto n. 'Iicc` oto v. 'stcp up`
kapok n. 'capok` kapo conj. 'Ior cxampIc`
Pagc 17 oI 19
g/gIottaI
gatos n. 'hundrcd` atos v. 'go aIonc`
goIonan n. 'piIIow` oIon n. 'dircction oI hcad`
apog n. 'Iimc` apo n. 'grandrcIation`
h/gIottaI
hapon n. '1apancsc` apon n. 'Iur`
s/t
sapo v. 'rub` tapo n. 'tcsticIc`
asin n. 'saIt` atin conj. 'iI`
pista n. 'Iicsta` pitsa n. 'datc`
boso n. 'divcrsion` boto n. 'immaturc coconut`
bosbos v. 'pour` botbot n. 'basc oI trcc`
n/
knami pron. 'us` kanni tcmp. 'now`
Ian n. 'Iakc` Ia n. 'houscIIy`
bobon n. 'thigh` bobo n. 'ridgcpoIc`
g/
gasgas n. 'scratchmark` aa v. 'hcsitatc in spccch`
dorog v. 'put paraIIcI` doro v. 'praisc, admirc`
I/t
IaIis v. 'disagrcc` taIis v. 'Iack scnsc`
aIin v. 'movc` atin conj. 'iI`
baIon n. 'traiIIood` baton v. 'asccnd`
I/d
Iaja n. 'bamboo` daja n. 'upstrcam`
Iowa n. 'cxtcrior` dowa num. 'two`
bIIs v. 'borrow` bdds adj. 'prcgnant`
kcdo n. 'pity` pakcIo n. 'poison`
I/w
IaIowadan n. 'joints` waIo num. 'cight`
aIat n. 'baskct` awat v. 'rcccivc`
oIa v. 'spiII` owa v. 'rcducc`
Pagc 18 oI 19
I/j
Iawa n. 'body` jawjaw v. 'scoId`
diIa n. 'tonguc` dija v. 'dcpart`
baIo n. 'widow` kajo n. 'trcc`
h/g
baha n. 'chin` baga n. 'Iungs`
h/k
baha n. 'chin` baka v. 'squcczc sugarcanc`
aho v. 'cntcr` akop v. 'scoop with hand`
h/w
maho v. 'cntcr` mawo adj. 'stinky`
Ioha n. 'tcar` Iowa n. 'cxtcrior`
m/n
mma n. 'Iathcr` nna ncg. 'not, dcniaI`
manama n. 'God` manan int. 'why?`
p/m
pamojo v. 'ask (ncut.)` mamojo v. 'ask (Iuturc)`
sIIp v. 'grow` sIIm n. 'morning`
sapo v. 'rub` samok n. 'troubIc`
b/m
basa adj. 'gcncrous` masa v. 'wiII rcad`
sabaw n. (Ccb.) 'soup` sama n. 'rcsiduc`
bkg adj. 'crookcd` mk n. 'cat`
baja v. 'ignorc` maja n. 'riccbird`
I/r
Iokot v. 'hurry` rokot v. 'disarrangc`
Ian n. 'Iakc` rano n. 'sadncss`
IabIab n. 'boar` rabrab v. 'singc`
w/j
iwa v. 'dcpart` ija dcmo. 'that`
Iawa n. 'body` Iajat adj. 'taII`
Iawa v. 'protrudc` Iaja v. 'IIy`
Pagc 19 oI 19
i/c
biko n. 'sticky ricc` bk n. 'coconut shcII`
bitbit v. 'dangIc` btbt v. 'IiIt`
bibig n. 'Iowcr Iip` bb n. 'scashorc`
dogi n. 'thorn` dog int. 'how Iong?`
bIIi v. 'purchasc` bII v. 'Iatiguc`
baIi n. 'vaIuc` baI n. 'housc`
/a
ttp n. 'doubt` ttap v. 'winnow`
-n aII. objcct Iocus -an aII. dircction Iocus
inmmn v. 'drink aII` inmman v. 'drink Irom`
o/
oIi v. 'go homc` Ii v. 'gct wcII`
oot n. 'ricc stcms` cxcI. 'ycs`
sodo v. 'rcst` sd v. 'carry on hcad`
sonnod adv. 'vcry` snnd n. 'hcmp skirt`
Itto v. 'jump ovcr` Itt v. 'appcar`
ko pron. 'my` k pron. 'you(pI)`
5. NOTES
Thc author is gratcIuI to BiII Brown, SIL Indoncsia, Ior thc PhonoIogy TooIs computcr programs that hc
authorcd. Thcy hcIpcd to conIirm thc prior anaIysis, and wcrc thc sourcc oI thc statisticaI tabIcs that arc part oI
this papcr. ScvcraI coIIcagucs, cspcciaIIy Rod CasaIi, rcad thc dcscription in prcIiminary Iorm and oIIcrcd hcIpIuI
suggcstions.
ReIerences
DuBois, CarI D., and Laurctta 1. DuBois. 1988. Morphophoncmic Changcs in Tagabawa. 1991.
UnpubIishcd papcr, in IiIcs oI thc Summcr Institutc oI Linguistics, PhiIippincs.
Mungcr, Scott. 1985. Phoncmic Statcmcnt oI Higaonon. UnpubIishcd papcr, in IiIcs oI thc Summcr
Institutc oI Linguistics, PhiIippincs.
Quakcnbush, Stcvc, and 1amcs Maxcy. 1987. Agutayncn Phoncmic Statcmcnt. UnpubIishcd papcr, in
IiIcs oI thc Summcr Institutc oI Linguistics, PhiIippincs.