Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Aluminum Applications Power Train
Aluminum Applications Power Train
1 Power train........................................................................................................................ 3 What to see in this section............................................................................................ 3 1.1 Engine ...................................................................................................................... 4 Aluminium engines ....................................................................................................... 4 1.1.1 Piston ................................................................................................................... 6 Pistons for gasoline and Diesel engines ...................................................................... 6 Operating conditions..................................................................................................... 7 Piston materials ............................................................................................................ 9 Design considerations for automotive pistons............................................................ 12 1.1.2 Cylinder block .................................................................................................... 14 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 14 Requirements for aluminium cylinder blocks.............................................................. 15 Competition between aluminium and grey iron .......................................................... 16 Design features .......................................................................................................... 17 Block design variants.................................................................................................. 18 Bolting concepts ......................................................................................................... 20 Open- and Closed-Deck concepts ............................................................................. 21 Pre-cast features and add-on parts............................................................................ 22 Cast-in inserts............................................................................................................. 24 Criteria for alloy selection ........................................................................................... 25 Alloys: Composition and heat treatment..................................................................... 26 Applicable casting processes ..................................................................................... 27 Example: Ford Zetec SE CPS Process ................................................................ 28 Example: PSA 2.0L HPI (HPDC)................................................................................ 29 Example: Lupo Block 1.2L.......................................................................................... 30 1.1.3 Cylinder linings................................................................................................... 31 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 31 Requirements ............................................................................................................. 33 Technologies Overview ........................................................................................... 34 Comparison of liner technologies ............................................................................... 35 Liner solution: Heterogeneous concept Grey iron cast-in .......................................... 36 Liner solution: Monolithic concept (ALUSIL)............................................................. 38 Liner solution: Quasi-Monolithic concept LOKASIL .................................................. 39 Liner solution: Heterogeneous concept SILITEC ..................................................... 41 Liner solution: Heterogeneous concept HYBRID, GOEDEL ................................... 43 Liner solution: Quasi-Monolithic Concept TRIBOSIL............................................... 44 Other liner solutions.................................................................................................... 46 Cylinder surface treatment Honing of hypereutectic AlSi surfaces ......................... 48 1.1.4 Cylinder head..................................................................................................... 49 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 49 Requirements Thermal conductivity vs. strength .................................................... 50 Requirements for aluminium cylinder heads High- and low-cycle fatigue............... 51 Design features .......................................................................................................... 52 Criteria for alloy selection ........................................................................................... 54 Alloy composition and heat treatment ........................................................................ 55 Applicable casting processes ..................................................................................... 56 Example: PSA 2.0L HDI Gravity Die Casting .......................................................... 57 Example: BMW 2.0L DI Gravity Die Casting ........................................................... 58 Example: BMW 2,0l 4-Cylinder Rotacast.............................................................. 59 Example: Isuzu Diesel Rotacast ........................................................................... 60 1.2 Fuel system ............................................................................................................ 61 Aluminium helps to meet targets of HC-emission laws .............................................. 61 Future fuel systems need new materials technologies .............................................. 62 1.2.1 Fuel filler pipe..................................................................................................... 63 Product description..................................................................................................... 63 Example: Volvo V70/S80/S60/XC90 Fuel Filler Pipe ................................................. 64 Example: Porsche 911/Boxster Fuel Filler Pipe ......................................................... 65 1
1.2.2 Fuel tank ............................................................................................................ 66 Technical requirements .............................................................................................. 66 Technical feasibility .................................................................................................... 68 Prototype production .................................................................................................. 70 1.3 Liquid lines ............................................................................................................. 71 Aluminium tubing and connections............................................................................. 71 1.3.1 Applications........................................................................................................ 72 Application requirements ............................................................................................ 72 Tube materials for liquid lines..................................................................................... 73 1.3.2 Connections ....................................................................................................... 74 Screw Connections Fittings ..................................................................................... 74 Hose-to-tube connection ............................................................................................ 76 Special connections Magnetic pulse forming .......................................................... 77 Quick connectors........................................................................................................ 78 Connections by flame brazing .................................................................................... 79 Connections by flame brazing Materials ................................................................. 80 1.3.3 Burst pressure.................................................................................................... 81 Burst pressure of liquid lines ...................................................................................... 81 1.3.4 Bending.............................................................................................................. 82 Bending of liquid lines................................................................................................. 82 1.3.5 Corrosion ........................................................................................................... 83 Corrosion Resistance Long Life Materials............................................................... 83 1.4 Heat shields............................................................................................................ 84 Use of Aluminium Heat Shields .................................................................................. 84 Application Areas........................................................................................................ 86 Choice of Aluminium Thermal Properties................................................................ 87 Choice of Aluminium Material Specification ............................................................ 88 1.4.1 Requirements..................................................................................................... 89 Requirements / Specifications .................................................................................... 89 1.4.2 Design of heat shields........................................................................................ 90 Three basic types of heat shields ............................................................................... 90 Design for heat management: Exhaust system.......................................................... 92 1.4.3 Assembly techniques ......................................................................................... 93 Assembly techniques.................................................................................................. 93 1.5 Drive shaft .............................................................................................................. 94 Aluminium drive shafts ............................................................................................... 94 1.6 Heat exchangers .................................................................................................... 95 General aspects ......................................................................................................... 95 1.6.1 Radiators............................................................................................................ 97 Engine cooling system................................................................................................ 97 Engine cooling system Material requirements and functions .................................. 98 Engine cooling system Air-side corrosion ............................................................... 99 Engine cooling system Water-side corrosion ........................................................ 100 1.6.2 Oil coolers ........................................................................................................ 101 Oil cooler applications .............................................................................................. 101 1.6.3 Air conditioning ................................................................................................ 107 General requirements............................................................................................... 107 Refrigerants .............................................................................................................. 108 Heater core Design considerations ....................................................................... 109 Heater core Production aspects ............................................................................ 110 Evaporator Design aspects ................................................................................... 111 Evaporator Production and environmental aspects .............................................. 112 Condenser Design considerations ........................................................................ 113 Condenser Productions aspects ........................................................................... 114 1.6.4 Charge air coolers............................................................................................ 115 Design and production aspects ................................................................................ 115 Different placements within the car .......................................................................... 116 Air-to-Air solutions .................................................................................................... 117 Air-to-Coolant Cooler................................................................................................ 119 Air-to-Air solutions Manufacturing aspects............................................................ 120 1.6.5 Others .............................................................................................................. 121 Mechanically assembled radiator ............................................................................. 121 2
1 Power train
What to see in this section
The power train includes all assemblies from the energy generating engine through to the power transmitting road wheels. All power train components are subjected to alternating stresses, particularly the engine, which also has to withstand thermal stress. Aluminium, combined with intelligent design and optimum alloy selection, can meet the specific demands in this area. More detailed descriptions of aluminium applications in power train components are presented in the following subchapter: Engine Fuel system Liquid lines Heat shields and Heat exchangers.
1.1
Engine
Aluminium engines
The development of modern engines is marked by great dynamic. Current petrol engines already fulfil the strict emission regulations (CO2 emissions) but they still have to be optimised with regard to fuel consumption. Manufacturers are devising lightweighting concepts for medium-sized cars and are developing high-performance engines to meet customer demands. Modern diesel engines combine high output with low fuel consumption. The main challenges here are to optimise their acoustic behaviour and meet even lower emission limits.
Source: MTZ
Source: MTZ
Source: MTZ
Source: MTZ
Source: MTZ
Examples of current engines with aluminium crankcases: Petrol 1 Ford: 2 BMW: 3 Audi:
Diesel 4 Volkswagen: 3-cyl., 1.2l, 45kW 5 Volvo: 5-cyl., 2.4l, 120kW 6 DaimlerChrysler: V8, 4.0l, 184kW Modern engines must have reduced emissions and lower fuel consumption. We therefore need: Lightweight design Lightweight materials Reduced friction in moving parts Increased specific performance The most important parts to fulfil these goals are: Cylinder Head Engine Block Piston 4
1.1.1 Piston
Operating conditions
Literature: - Rhrle, M. D.: Pistons for Internal Combustion Engines, Verlag Moderne Industrie, 1995 - Junker, H.and Iler, W.J.: Kolben fr hochbelastete Dieselmotoren mit Direkteinspritzung, Technische Information Mahle GmbH Stuttgart Mechanical loads result from pressures in the combustion chamber - up to 75 bar in gasoline engines - up to 110 bar in naturally aspirated Diesel engines - up to 180 bar (and more) for supercharged Diesel engines inertia forces caused by extremely high acceleration during reciprocating motion of pistons at speeds - up to 17 m/sec in automotive gasoline engines and - up to 22 m/sec in racing engines Mechanical loads are superimposed by thermal stresses which are primarily generated by high temperature gradients on the piston top.
Important piston terms Source: M. Rhrle. Mahle, 1995 Thermal loads resulting from combustion are generated by peak gas temperatures in the combustion chamber 1800 - 2600C depending on type of engine, fuel, gas exchange, compression, fuel/gas ratio. Exhaust gases have temperatures between 500 and 800 C. Combustion heat is transferred to the chamber walls and piston top primarily by convection. The heat is dissipated by the water cooling of the chamber walls and by the oil cooling of the piston. A large share of the heat absorbed by the piston top is transferred by the piston ring belt area. The remainder is essentially removed by the oil lubricant impinging on the underside of the piston. Resulting temperature profiles of the piston, see figure.
Operating temperatures in automotive engines under full load Source: M. Rhrle, Mahle GmbH, 1995
Piston materials
Links: - AAM Products 6 Cast alloys and products > Alloys > Typical application areas) Literature: - Aluminium Taschenbuch, 15. Auflage, Dezember 1997, Band 3, Aluminium Verlag Dsseldorf (ISBN 3-87017-243-6) - Rhrle, M. D.: Pistons for Internal Combustion Engines, Verlag Moderne Industrie, 1995 Today almost all automotive pistons are made out of special aluminium piston alloys, see tabled property data on the following pages. The standard piston alloy is an eutectic Al12%Si alloy containing in addition approx. 1% each of Cu, Ni and Mg. Hypereutectic alloys with 18 and 24% Si provide lower thermal expansion and wear, but have lower strength. The majority of pistons are produced by gravity die casting. Forged pistons from eutectic and hypereutectic alloys exhibit higher strength and are used in high performance engines. Pistons with Al2O3 fiber reinforced bottoms are produced by squeeze casting and used mainly in truck diesel engines.
10
Microstructure of a hypereutectic piston alloy Source : M. Rhrle, Mahle GmbH, Stuttgart Microstructures of piston alloys with eutectic (above) and hypereutectic (below) compositions. Magnification approx. 100 times
11
Source: M. Rhrle, Mahle GmbH Pistons with cast-in control elements When used in cast-iron engine blocks the thermal expansion of aluminium pistons is controlled by cast-in steel struts in the pin boss areas. During engine operation undesired thermal expansions are thereby avoided and the advantages of small clearances can be fully utilized.
Source: M. Rhrle, Mahle GmbH Pistons for automotive Diesel engines Automotive Diesel engines with pre-chamber, swirl chamber or direct injection operate under higher gas pressures and temperatures compared with gasoline engines. This increases the loads on the first ring groove, which is strengthened by a Niresist ring carrier in standard 12
designs. The even higher loads in supercharged Diesel engines are reduced by efficient cooling through a cast-in cooling gallery.
13
Introduction
Literature: - Khler, E.: Verbrennungsmotoren: Motormechanik, Berechnung und Auslegung des Hubkolbenmotors. Braunschweig, Wiesbaden: Vieweg, 1998. ATZ-MTZ-Fachbuch, ISBN 3528-03108-5 Chapter 4.5 - Menne, R.J. and Rechs, M.: Optimierte Prozesse fr die Groserie (Reduzierte Entwicklungszeiten bei Verbrennungsmotoren). Berlin: Springer, 1999 Using aluminium casting alloys for the production of cylinder blocks has several benefits such as weight savings and a better thermal conductivity compared to grey cast iron. Bearing in mind that most of the cylinder heads are also made from aluminium, compatibility problems between grey cast iron and Al can be overcome by the use of a similar material. However, designing aluminium castings for engine applications requires knowledge about the material and the manufacturing process, which will be described in this chapter. This chapter contains the following aspects, which have to be considered for the application of aluminium blocks. Requirements cylinder blocks Comparison Al/grey iron Design features Alloys and heat treatment Applicable casting processes Examples - Ford Zetec - PSA 2.0L HPI - Smart (HPDC) P. 2 P. 3 PP. 4-9 PP. 10-11 P. 12 P. 13 P. 14 P. 15
14
Fatigue testing Samples from main bearing, R = 0.05; T = 150 C; 50 Hz Source: VAW
15
Production numbers of engine blocks in western Europe (grey iron and Al-cast alloys) Source: VAW AG, Marketing Systems
16
Design features
Links: - AAM Applications 1 Power train > Engine > Cylinder linings Literature: - Menne, R.J. and Rechs, M.: Optimierte Prozesse fr die Groserie (Reduzierte Entwicklungszeiten bei Verbrennungsmotoren). Berlin: Springer, 1999 Chapter 3.1.6 Design features to be considered (bolt expressions are explained in more detail in design considerations underneath) Basic Structure When looking at existing engine block solutions a broad variety of designs can be found. The principal concepts are described by the basic structure of the engine block such as deep-skirt, short-skirt, with and without bed-plate or ladder-frame. Another characteristic is the array of the cylinders. Bolting The connection between block and head can be done either conventionally or by the through-bolt technique. Joint Face Here, the open deck and the closed deck concepts of a cylinder block have to be considered because they are determining the applicable casting process. Add-on parts and pre-cast features Depending on casting process, additions such as water pump housings and flanges can be incorporated into the main casting. Furthermore, bolt bores and oil channels can be directly cast. Cast-in inserts In the case of very high loaded application of an engine block (i.e. direct injection diesel engines), critical areas of the casting can be reinforced by high-strength materials such as grey iron inserts. Running surfaces Due to the non-sufficient tribological properties of cast aluminium, the cylinder bores of an aluminium engine block have to consist of another wear resistant cast-in material or the cast alloy has to be coated, laser-treated or alloyed in order to achieve a wear resistant surface. This will be treated in more detail under "Cylinder linings".
17
Different possibilities of cylinder array Source: Metzner u.a., VW/MTZ Cylinder array For small engines in high volume production the inline array up to 6 cylinders is the most common concept. Due to space restrictions, the V - and now also the W concept - is used for compact engines with 4 or more cylinders.
18
Ladder frame / bearing beam, High pressure die casting Source: Tielkes u.a. Ford/MTZ Design variants bottom-end The simple design consists of a short-skirt block with single crankshaft bearings and a steel sheet oil pan, which leads to low stiffness and bad acoustic behaviour. Higher stiffness can be achieved by using a short-skirt design with a bed plate or a deep-skirt design using a ladder frame. These parts have to be cast separately which leads to higher costs for production and assembly. Concerning assembly, tightness of the whole system against oil leakage is another important factor.
19
Bolting concepts
Literature: - Menne, R.J. and Rechs, M.: Optimierte Prozesse fr die Groserie (Reduzierte Entwicklungszeiten bei Verbrennungsmotoren). Berlin: Springer, 1999 Page 54
V6 gasoline engine block with grey iron bearing caps Conventional bolting In this case, head and grey iron bearings are bolted directly to the block resulting in high stresses in the vicinity of the thread and the bolt head. This concept reaches its limits when considering high loaded direct injection diesel engines.
Volkswagen Lupo Block, 1.2L, trhough-bolt concept Through-Bolt Concept In order to prevent high tensile stresses in the engine block, main bearings and cylinder head can be connected directly by long bolts which penetrate the whole block and head, thus setting them under compressive stress only. Drawback is the more complicated assembly because bearing caps and cylinder head are not any more independent of each other, i.e. the final assembly of bearings and heads has to be carried out at the same time. This problem can be solved by screwing in the through-bolts so that head and bearing caps can be mounted separately while maintaining the load-bearing benefit of the through-bolt.
20
Audi-Block 1.6L, High pressure die casting, open deck concept Source: VAW
21
Oil gallery core for Ford Zetec 1.6L Block Source: VAW
Oil gallery Ford Zetec 1.6L Block Source: VAW Pre-cast features While pre-casting of bolt bores is a standard technique today, the casting of very tiny features such as oil channels is now possible with advanced casting processes e.g. CPS or lost foam.
22
Side view of a Ford Zetec Block with pre-cast water pump housing and oil filter flange Source: VAW Add-on parts By means of high-precision sand cores, a variety of parts and flanges can be incorporated into one single casting. Here, issues like dimensional stability and accuracy of positioning have to be addressed. Higher costs for using an advanced casting process are easily compensated by savings in the area of machining and assembly.
23
Cast-in inserts
Cast iron inserts for bearings Most aluminium cast alloys are not suitable for bearing application for two reasons: Firstly, the wear resistance is not sufficient to withstand the sliding wear of the crankshaft. Secondly, the higher thermal expansion compared to grey iron may lead to an untolerable increase of the gap between crankshaft and bearing which is strongly influencing the required oil pressure. Cast iron inserts are often placed into the part after machining, but they can also be directly cast in resulting in reduced costs for machining and handling.
Ladder frame with casting grey iron bearings, High pressure die casting Source: Porsche Cast iron liners Grey iron cylinder linings can also be considered as cast-in inserts. Again, wear resistance is the main driving force. Problems concerning the bonding between liner and matrix material are discussed in more detail in the chapter "cylinder linings"
24
25
The secondary alloys AlSi8Cu3 and AlSi6Cu4 are similar to the American standard alloys A380.2 and A319 respectively. They are mostly used for engine blocks produced in the gravity casting processes. The as-cast (F) condition and the T4 and T5 heat treatments are commonly used. Almost all high pressure die cast engine blocks are produced with the very common alloy AlSi9Cu3(Fe). Except moderate annealing for reduction of residual stresses usually no further heat treatment can be applied. Engine blocks cast from the alloys AlSi7Mg0,3 and AlSi7Mg achieve very high strength and elongation values at room temperature when a T6 heat treatment is applied. Attention has to be paid to residual stresses resulting from quenching during T6 treatment. Due to limited contents of impurity elements such as Fe, Mn, Cu, and Ni the price is significantly higher compared to the mentioned secondary alloys. Blocks from hypereutectic AlSi alloys (AlSi17Cu4) are usually produced with low pressure die casting and are subsequently T6 treated. The primary alloy is more expensive compared to the standard secondary alloys.
26
Schematic diagram showing the economic relationship between complexity, production volume and casting process Source: VAW 27
Block Ford Zetec SE 1.25L, core package process, VAW alucast GmbH
28
29
30
Introduction
The reduction of friction losses in automotive engines is one of the biggest potentials when looking for possibilities to cut down fuel consumption. In the tribological system "Cylinderpiston-piston ring" the material, the structure and the quality of the running surface in the cylinder bore of an engine block plays a crucial role. Grey iron as a more and more disappearing engine block material provides a good tribological behaviour itself. Switching to cast aluminium alloys which - except for the hypereutectic AlSi-alloys - are not sufficiently wear resistant, and require the development of new liner solutions and tribological systems. This chapter contains the following aspects, which have to be considered for the application of cylinder linings in aluminium engine blocks: Requirements cylinder linings Liner technologies Examples and current developments - Grey iron, cast-in - Hypereutectic engine block - LOKASIL - SILITEC, cast-in (DC V6) - GOEDEL and HYBRID-Liner - Laser alloying (TRIBOSIL) - Others - Honing of hypereutectic AlSi P. 2 P. 4 P. 6 P. 7 P. 8 P. 10 P. 11 P. 12 P. 13 P. 14
31
32
Requirements
Friction and wear The principal task of cylinder linings is to provide an appropriate tribological partner for the moving piston and piston rings in the engine block. Low friction and good wear resistance of the lining material towards the piston ring material are important, the latter being in general grey cast iron, steel, or a coated hybrid solution. Operation without lubrication Usually, an oil film supplied from the oil sump ensures lubrication for the tribological system. However, in case of lack of oil, the oil film has to be maintained to guarantee the engine operation for a certain time period. Thermal conductivity and contact Thermal conductivity and contact A good thermal conductivity is also needed in order to withdraw the combustion heat and to keep the surface temperature low. However, the heat extraction can only work properly, if an optimum contact between the liner and the surrounding casting material is achieved. If no metallic, but only a mechanical bonding can be realised, at least a stable and constant gap is required to avoid loosening of the liner. Wall thickness Regarding the trend towards steadily decreasing interbore spacings (< 5mm), the thickness of cast-in or pressed-in liners be-comes increasingly critical. Consequently, solutions where the bulk material is coated or alloyed come into consideration. Compatibility Another point to look at is the compatibility of the thermal expansion of the liner and the piston material which influences the gap between piston rings and liner and hence the blow-by and the oil consumption of the engine. Further targets in the development of cylinder linings are: low weight, e.g. aluminium based liner solutions or coatings environmentally friendly production process, especially if coatings are applied good recycling capability which can be difficult with cast iron or fibre reinforced liners low cost
33
Technologies Overview
Before the substitution process by aluminium, engine blocks were mainly produced in (monolithic) grey iron which itself provides an excellent tribological behaviour. Transferred to aluminium, this concept only works with relatively costly hypereutectic AlSi alloys which, by means of primary silicon particles, provide a wear resistant surface. An obvious solution was then to use the well-known grey iron as liner material to be castin or pressed-in into an engine block produced from a low-cost casting alloy. In this heterogeneous concept draw-backs are high weight, low thermal conductivity and lacking of compatibility and bonding with the surrounding cast material. These problems are tried to be addressed by use of hypereutectic AlSi-liners or Al-coated grey iron liners. The most convenient solution would be a quasi-monolithic block with a running surface being locally created by coating or alloying. New developments like plasma coating and local enrichment of primary silicon are aiming into this direction. The different technologies will be explained in more detail in the following screens.
34
35
36
Cut through cast-in grey iron liner for Diesel application Source: VAW
37
38
LOKASIL (I + II): preform and composite structure Source: KS Aluminium-Technologie The tribological bore surface is created similarly to the other hypereutectic solutions (ALUSIL, SILITEC) by machining, honing and mechanical recessing of the Al-matrix.
39
6 cyl. Boxer engine with LOKASIL bore surface (Porsche, KS AluminiumTechnologie) Attempts are currently made to achieve good infiltration with the high productive HPDC process as well.
40
Ultrasonic scan showing areas of good (blue) and bad (red) metallic contact (PEAK/DaimlerChrysler)
41
42
Micrograph of the transition zone between thermal sprayed multi-layer and casting alloy (GOEDEL, Federal Mogul)
Outer surface structure (SEM image) of the Al alloy layer of the GOEDEL or HYBRIDLiner (Federal Mogul)
43
Hypereutectic layer with gap-free transition zone towards the matrix alloy (AlSi9Cu3) (VAW)
44
Structure of the laser-alloyed surface after recessing of the matrix by means of honing (VAW)
45
Grey iron liner with rough outer surface (Mahle, picture: Kolbenschmidt)
Micrograph showing metall contact between cast alloy and grey iron liner with rough surface (VAW) NIKASIL, GALNICAL This galvanic coating process of a Ni-SiC-dispersion layer, which requires a very low porosity in the cast surface, is in series production. However, environmental issues due to the presence of nickel and problems with corrosion of the galvanic layer due to sulphur-containing fuels have reduced the application of this process significantly. Surface Layer Nickel matrix 10 % SiC particles Size 1-3 m Hardn. 610 HV Cast alloy AlSi9Cu3 Plasma coating (ROTAPLASMA) The development of this process has proceeded so far that first gasoline engines are now in series production with plasma coated cylinder surfaces. Good results were achieved using Fe as a coating material. Furthermore, FeO and Fe3O4 can be dispersed in the layer acting as a solid lubricant such as graphite in grey iron
46
47
SEM-Micrograph showing the final surface after honing with recessed Al-Matrix and exposed Si particles (Gehring)
Image from white light interference microscope showing the topography of the final cylinder surface (VAW)
48
Opel cylinder head 4 valves, 3 cylinders, gravity die casting Source: VAW
Introduction
In Europe, grey iron cylinder heads has been almost completely replaced by cast aluminium alloys during the past 20 years. In this application, the main advantage of aluminium, besides its lower density, is the excellent thermal conductivity, which allows the combustion heat to be extracted more rapidly compared to grey iron. Compatibility problems with the block become more and more obsolete as the market share of aluminium blocks is steadily growing. As a result of the permanent increase of combustion pressures and temperatures, the potential of the common cylinder head alloys is almost fully exploited, demanding for sophisticated casting processes and newly developed or optimised casting alloys. This chapter contains the following aspects, which have to be considered for the application of Al cylinder heads: Requirements cylinder heads P. 2 Design features P. 4 Used alloys (criteria) P. 6 Alloys and heat treatment P. 7 Applicable casting processes P. 8 Examples - PSA Diesel HDI (grav. die) P. 9 - BMW M47 Diesel (grav. die) P. 10 - BMW gasoline (rotacast) P. 11 - Isuzu Diesel (rotacast) P. 12
Source: VAW
Temperature distribution on the flame deck of a cylinder head Source: Loeprecht, Maassen
50
Fatigue properties at 250 C for different cylinder heads and alloys Source: VAW
51
Design features
Links: AAM Applications 1 Power train > Engine > Cylinder block > Block design variants Engine type Conventional engines with an in-line" array of the cylinders have one cylinder head. Vengines generally need two cylinder heads, which may have identical or differing geometry. Provided that the angle between the two cylinder axis planes is not to big (<= 15) V-engines can also be equipped with only one cylinder head (e.g. VR engines of VW) with the special feature, that the cylinder axis is not perpendicular to the joint face. Number of valves In modern cylinder heads 3, 4 or even 5 valves and possibly 2 spark plugs have to find place in the flame deck resulting in a continuously decreasing space between the valves. In addition, these areas see the highest temperatures and are exposed to thermal fatigue when the engine warms up or cools down. The geometry of the flame deck and the inserted valve seats as well as the surface condition and porosity of the material play a crucial role regarding crack initiation within that area.
Flame deck of Opel family 0 cylinder head Source: VAW Gasoline or Diesel The shape of the flame deck depends very much on the type of engine. Gasoline cylinder heads have bowl shaped cavities in the flame deck, whereas DI diesel heads usually have a flat and machined surface which is very beneficial when looking at thermal fatigue crack initiation. 52
Camshaft bearings Seats for the camshaft bearings may be incorporated into the cylinder head casting. For specially designed heads the camshaft bearings may be incorporated as a second produced by high pressure die casting. New developments In order to reduce fuel consumption, current research is concentrated on variable valve actuation (e.g.Valvetronic, BMW, electromechanic valve/FEV) and variable compression (Saab). Some of these solutions may end up in completely different cylinder head designs which can not be foreseen by now.
53
54
The secondary alloys AlSi8Cu3 and AlSi6Cu4 are similar to the American standard alloys A380.2 and A319 respectively. They are widely used for cylinder heads produced in the gravity casting processes. The T4 and T5 conditions are favoured whereas the as-cast (F) condition may cause problems due to insufficient dimensional stability and hardness, the latter being important for machining. The semi-secondary alloys (AlSi7Mg-LM25 and AlSi10Mg) are usually T6-treated and, due to the lower limits for impurity elements, provide higher ductility than secondary alloys. With the more expensive primary alloys (AlSi7Mg, AlSi9Mg), in the T6 condition, high ductility and strength can be achieved simultaneously. For high temperature strength a certain Cu content is beneficial which led to the new alloy AlSi7MgCu0.5 used in some high performance diesel cylinder heads. New alloy developments try to find a compromise between high temperature strength, ductility and good fatigue behaviour while maintaining reasonable costs by tolerating certain levels of impurities.
55
56
57
58
59
60
1.2
Fuel system
61
Current and future limits for HC-emissions of cars and their fuel system
62
Product description
Links: - AAM Applications 1 Power train > Liquid lines > Bending Product Description The aluminium fuel filler tube is an extrusion based tube bent and formed in order to increase the ability to flex and bend without leakage in case of car crash. The advantages of the aluminium tube beside low weight are the tightness for HC emissions as well as the high electrical conductivity, which is important to avoid static electricity and thus sparking. There is no significant cost difference compared to steel pipes. Alloy The alloy used is EN AW 6063, which is a highly extrudable alloy and can be extruded with thin wall. Typical Dimensions Diameter [D]: Wall thickness [WT]: 3670 mm 1.5 mm
Minimum Bend Radius [BRmin] BRmin = 1.5 * D (if WT > = 1/30 D) to avoid wrinkling and sagging; Wall thickness should be above 1.3 mm; Calc. formula (s. link) can be used. Diameter Expansion Up to 100% expansion possible without significant thinning, when material is fed longitudinally. Diameter Reduction > 40% possible. Examples of Aluminium fuel filler pipe are described in the subsequent pages (other applications in European cars are Audi A8 and Mercedes A-class).
63
Process Extruded Main Pipe and Air Pipe, Rotary Draw Bending, Endforming, TIG welding of airventing pipe, Epoxy-powder coating, Leak Testing (use of positive pressure or vacuum), Restrictor mounting by electromagnetic forming
64
Process Extruded Main Pipe and Air Pipe, Rotary Draw Bending, Endforming, Forming of bellows, Mounting (Restrictor mechanically fixed), Leak Testing
65
Technical requirements
As listed in the figure at right the tank shell has to meet several technical requirements beyond the fuel emission limits ("civil law rules"), which set constraints to the choice of materials. With respect to these requirements aluminium offers big potential as a lightweight future zero emission fuel tank material.
Source: VAW AG The specific characteristics of aluminium promise to meet all the requirements for application in passenger car fuel tanks. Development tasks to exploit the advantages of aluminium are: Selection of an adequate alloy - Corrosion stability - Formability Forming technology - Meeting constraints package Joining technology - Tightness - Automation - Reliability The following screens show the results of recent development work outlining some promising approaches.
66
Source: VAW AG
67
Technical feasibility
Corrosion behaviour: Sheet metal alloy AlMg3 annealed (EN-AW 5754-0) Corrosive media - Eurosuper + 3 % water - Biodiesel + 0,3 % water - E22 + 3 % water Test condition liquid phase, half wetted and gas phase Test temperatures: -5C, -25C, -50C Fabrication concept: Test results after 80 days - Layer degradation products of the fuel - No corrosion visible Two shell concept: Joining after forming Application of conventional deep drawing or other sheet metal forming processes. Possibility of mounting of system assemblies, slosh baffles, tubes and system assemblies before joining. Possibility of 3-d shaped flange One shell concept: Forming after joining Suitable for cold/warm hydroforming technologies System assemblies have to be introduced through holes in the tank walls. Mounting technique for pump, tubes, slosh baffles, etc. not evident.
Source: Allgaier, IFU, Stuttgart, VAW Application of a prototype tool of a series production fuel tank in steel Adapting of deep drawing parameters to aluminium by simulation Prototyping of tank shells with AlMg3 (EN AW-5754-O), thickness 1,2 mm MIG welding of flange Joint configuration: Edge weld One side of fusion flange bordered, other side of flange flat Welding wire: AlMg4,5Mn 1,2 mm Use of low cost shield gas Argon Properties: Alloy AlMg3, thickness 1,2 mm Welding speed up to 3 m/min Bridging of 0,8 mm gaps without adapting Stable welding process
68
69
Prototype production
Pressure test with modified tank of a series production car Bursting pressure (water) 2,5 bar Prototype production of fuel tank: Selection of corrosion resistant alloy: AlMg3, thickness 1,2 mm Deep drawing of shells: - 3-d shaped flange possible - optionally different wall thickness for upper and lower shell Mounting of slosh baffles, tubes and system assemblies MIG-welding of fusion flange: - welding speed up to 3 m/min - simultaneous processing with several robots possible
70
1.3
Liquid lines
71
1.3.1 Applications
Application requirements
General A main selection criteria applied for hydraulic tube products is the pressure level for the specific application. The typical hydraulic system has a feed line / pump side (high pressure, HP) and a return line (low pressure, LP) which may include a cooling loop. For these systems characteristic pressure levels are HP > 100 150 bar and LP < 50 bar. For example, the characteristic pressure levels for power steering systems are HP = 100 150 bar, LP = 30 bar incl. cooling loop. Aluminium High Pressure standard ( > 0.5 bar ) s. EN 12392 Functional requirements Depending on the specific application hydraulic tube products have to meet functional requirements which include : Tolerances (s. EN 754-7, EN 754-8) Burst pressure / Bending Tube connections / fitting Corrosion resistance Tube Connections / Fittings Screw connections Hose connections Quick connections Flame Brazed connections Special connections; Magnetic Pulse Forming
72
73
1.3.2 Connections
Figure 3:Two types of screw connections top: F-bead connection bottom: Tube - O connection, a bead formed tube
74
75
Hose-to-tube connection
Hose to Tube Connections Main solutions for hose to tube connections are Hose crimp shell connection Hose clamp connection Applications Power steering lines Clutch lines Hose Crimp Shell Connections Crimp shell connection is made out of two parts, tube end, fig. 1, and shell, fig. 2. The hose is inserted into the shell, pressed on to the tube end, and the shell is crimped around the tube/hose connection, see fig. 3. Hose Clamp Connection Hose is pressed onto the tube end form and fastened by metal clamps. In fig. 4, tube end form with two locking rings ensures a tight connection between hose and tube.
76
Figure 2 shows a coated tube with a banjo connection. Magnetic pulse forming has produced the tube/banjo connection.
77
Quick connectors
For low pressure connections (< 5 bars), quick connectors offer a flexible way of connecting lines that need to be disconnected during maintenance or repair. Figure 1: This picture shows a typical tube end form prepared for a quick connector.
Figure 2: A Legris quick connector mounted on a coated aluminium tube ready to be connected to a tube end as shown in Figure 1. The tube is released by a simple finger push button.
78
79
80
81
1.3.4 Bending
with BR = Bending radius (mm) OD = Outer diameter (mm) WT = Wall thickness (mm)
82
1.3.5 Corrosion
83
1.4
Heat shields
DC 200 E - heat shield in the engine compartment Until the mid eighties heat shields were mainly used for heat management in the engine compartment, specifically to protect against "hot spots" like exhaust manifolds. They consisted of double aluminium shells with an intermediate rock wool layer.
Ford Focus Catalytic converters, more powerful engines and the closed engine compartment for reduced noise emissions has strongly contributed to promoting the use of heat shields.
84
Audi A4 underbody In addition, car designers have placed the exhaust system closer to the underbody in order to reduce aero-dynamic drag. This has made heat management more difficult: not only are the hot surfaces closer to the underbody, the slipstream also has less cooling effect.
85
Application Areas
Heat sources The exhaust system from the engine exhaust manifold to the tailpipe is the biggest producer of heat and noise after the engine itself. The surfaces of the parts of it that actually carry the exhaust gases can reach 900C. Number and volume of heat shields: Small, low-power vehicles may need only as many as two heat shields, whereas highpowered luxury cars may have up to thirty. About 30000 to 40000 metric tons p.a. of rolled aluminium semis and a substantial tonnage of foil are used today for making automotive heat shields.
Ford Focus
Underbody: The centre and rear underbody have to be protected against heat from front and rear silencers and catalytic converter. Parts such as the lambda probe, petrol and hydraulic lines, electric wiring and the petrol tank itself have to be protected. Engine compartment: Engine compartment heat shields are used for the engine exhaust manifold and the turbocharger. Dashboard: Heat shields for the dashboard often have to dampen noise also. Fireshield: Off-road vehicles are equipped with "fireshields", which are fixed under the exhaust system. These heat shields help avoid igniting dry grass and scrub when driving in grassland or open woodland.
86
87
88
1.4.1 Requirements
Requirements / Specifications
Heat Management Heat shields have to prevent overheating of the car body and sensitive parts and modules. Normal driving conditions: heat shields to protect parts from nearby heat sources with surface temperatures of up to 650C. Misfire conditions: spark plug failure may cause overheating of catalytic converter. Downstream parts of the exhaust system will reach abnormally high temperatures. Crash conditions: in case of rear crash to protect plastic petrol tank against rupture from hot exhaust parts. Noise Management Heat shields can contribute to noise management in the car and to noise emission to the environment (currently max. 74 dB). Space limitation Typically, heat shields can be 15 - 25mm from the underbody, 10 - 15mm from the petrol tank and 25 - 50mm from the exhaust pipe. The form of the edges The form of the edges of aluminium heat shields has to be designed to minimise the risk of injury to people handling them. Anticorrosion requirements Contaminants such as salt water, liquid asphalt, street dirt and mud must not, during the car's lifetime, lead to unacceptable corrosion of the heat shield. The joining technique has to be such that the heat shield does not suffer unacceptable corrosion in service.
89
Single shell heat shield Sandwich (insulated) Carrier: 0.3 - 1.0 mm thick aluminium Insulation: 2 to 6 layers of 0.03 - 0.05 mm aluminium foils; or ceramic felt or glass fiber mat Cover: 0.03 to 0.1 mm foil or 0.2 to 0.5 mm cover sheet
Sound absorbing heat shield with viscoelastic layer Sandwich (noise absorbing) Carrier with partial perforation, backed up by a Membrane foil, aluminium 0.03 - 0.05 mm thick, followed by Insulation (see description above) or consisting of two-layer sheet metal with viscoelastic core.
90
91
92
Assembly techniques
The assembly technique has to be chosen according to the requirements of stiffness and strength, serviceability and life (corrosion resistance). Apart from using rivets and screws (electrolytically galvanised) the main method of attaching heat shields to the car is by nut and sacrificial washer: The heat shield is fastened with nuts on screw bolts, which are stud-welded to the underbody. A 2 mm thick sacrificial washer of aluminium is built into in the heat shield at the mounting points. This disk is pressed by a spring to the underbody and corrodes away over the car's service life, hence the term "sacrificial". This avoids corrosion of the heat shield where the mounting points contact the underbody (see Fig.). The spring and nut typically have a galvanised surface.
93
1.5
Drive shaft
94
1.6
Heat exchangers
General aspects
Links: - AAM Joining 4 Brazing > Flux and fluxless brazing Brief history As early as 1950, aluminium heat exchangers made moderate inroad to the automobile industry. With the introduction of the vacuum brazing techniques, large scale production of aluminium based heat exchangers began to flourish. Significant growth in the use of aluminium heat exchangers resulted from advantages of the Nocolok brazing process introduced by ALCAN. Introduction of long life alloys by the aluminium producers further aided to improve performance of the aluminium heat exchangers. Large demands for Al heat exchangers resulted primarily from the extensive market growth of automobile air- conditioning. Applications of heat exchangers Aluminium heat exchangers are used in one of the following three main application categories: - Engine and transmission cooling - Air-conditioning - Charge-air and fuel cooling Oil coolers and radiators typically work towards cooling the engine. Evaporator, condenser and heater core are components of an automobile air- conditioning system. Advantages of aluminium in the design of heat exchangers Weight reduction potential Higher thermal conductivity in the brazed condition Good corrosion resistance Good formability Good resistance to temperature and pressure cycle Environmentally friendly Commercial availability of wide range of alloys to meet different design options Brazed heat exchanger design Although a wide variety of designs exist, they invariably fall into one of the following categories: - Tube / fin - Plate-fin - Plate-bar - Extrusion / fin Due to intensifying demands on compactness combined with light weight, heat exchangers are increasingly being produced as modules, e.g. radiator + oil cooler or condenser + oil cooler. Brazing process The following brazing processes are used commercially to manufacture heat exchangers: - Controlled atmosphere brazing - Vacuum brazing - Salt bath brazing - Neitz process - Ni brazing The major fraction of heat exchangers are produced by the Controlled Atmosphere and Vacuum Brazing processes. 95
Aluminium producers / flux producers / furnace builders actively develop the brazing process for better economy and environmental friendliness. Future Prospective Continually increasing demands for air conditioning of automobiles imply an increasing market for aluminium. The need for more environmentally friendly refrigerant also favours the use of aluminium alloys as candidate materials for heat exchanger designs. Although the use of aluminium alloys in automotive heat exchangers has been a success story, it also faces challenges from other materials such as copper/brass and stainless steel.
96
1.6.1 Radiators
97
98
Schematic showing galvanic compatibility with AA3003 based alloys. For LL- alloys Zn and internal clad are optional.
99
Figure (above): Relative corrosivity of the 3 test solutions. Ref. Ando et al., SAE 870180
100
101
Function: Cooling of car engines Coolant: Air Medium to be cooled: Engine oil Service Conditions: Pressure: max. 10 bar Oil side temperature: ~ 60C Air side temperature: ~ 30C Material Requirements: Pressure resistance / Strength / Corrosion resistance Formability Application: Audi, 4 cylinder engine Design Considerations: Tube & fin design Tubes with inner turbulators Compact design Cooler is lacquered Cooler is positioned in the cooling air flow in cars, equipped with an additional fan. Production Aspects: Salt bath brazing Water tank brazed to bottom sheet Tube and header stock is two sides clad with a braze liner; side plate stock is one side clad with a braze liner, fin stock is not clad.
102
Function: Cooling of car engines Coolant: Water based coolant Medium to be cooled: Engine oil Service Conditions: Pressure: 10-15 bar Temperature: -40C to 150C Material Requirements: Pressure resistance / Strength / Corrosion resistance Application: 6 and 8 cylinder V-engines for cars, DaimlerChrysler Design Considerations: Stacked plate design Extremely compact Optics due to visibility with open motor bonnet Production Aspects: Vacuum brazing Plate stock is two sides clad with a braze liner Oil filter housing is made by die casting and is screwed to the cooler Extruded tubes are brazed to the cooler
Photo image of an engine oil cooler with screwed-on oil filter housing Courtesy: Behr Photo: VAW
103
Function: Cooling of car engines Coolant: Water based coolant Medium to be cooled: Engine oil Service Conditions: Pressure: max. 6 bar Oil side temperature: ~ 150C Air side temperature: ~ 115C Material Requirements: Pressure resistance / Strength / Corrosion resistance Application: Ferrari and Maserati, V8 cylinder engine Design Considerations: Plate & bar design Inner turbulators Assembly between V8-cylinder-series Production Aspects: Salt bath brazing Plate stock is two side clad with a braze filler Connections on oil side are welded Sealing for coolant by motor housing and cast plate, welded to the cooler
Photo image of an engine oil cooler with welded oil circuit connection Courtesy: AKG
104
Function: Cooling of driving gear Coolant: Air Medium to be cooled: Gear oil Service Conditions: Pressure: 10-15 bar Temperature: -40 C to 150C Material Requirements: Pressure resistance / Strength / Corrosion resistance Application: Audi, 2.5 L TDI and 2.7 L patrol, 6 cylinder engine Design Considerations: Tube & fin design Flat, compact and lightweight Cooler is positioned in front of radiator in the cooling air flow Production Aspects: Vacuum brazing Tube stock is two side clad with a braze liner; side plate stock is one side clad with a braze liner Header tanks are hydroformed tubes Pressure valve with oil connections is brazed to the header tank
105
Function: Cooling of transmission oil Coolant: Water based coolant Medium to be cooled: Gear oil Service Conditions: Pressure: max. 8 bar Oil side temperature: ~ 120C Coolant side temperature: ~ 85C Material Requirements: Pressure resistance / Strength / Corrosion resistance Application: Audi, 6 cylinder engine, automatic Design Considerations: Drawn cup plate design Inner turbulators Fitting into the radiators water tank Production Aspects: Salt bath brazing, Ni brazing Plate stock is two side clad with a braze liner Oil circuit connection is brazed to the cooler
Photo image of a transmission oil cooler and its assembly in radiator water tank Courtesy: AKG
106
General requirements
Automotive air conditioning is similar to stationary air conditioning in the sense that it also requires the cyclic flow of the refrigerant through an evaporator to absorb the heat and dissipating that in the condenser. Automotive air conditioning face several variables - temperature parameters involved with the evaporator, condenser - variables related to air flow - variable compressor speed arising from - engine speed - air flow through the condenser which is related to the vehicle speed. The last two variables not only contrast the vehicle air conditioning from stationary types but are also very demanding. Space limitations, demands on fuel efficiency and pollution control place stringent requirements on design. A blower unit, heating unit and a cooling unit are the main components of automobile air conditioning system. The blower unit is placed at the upstream end of air flow. The cooling unit is placed in the mid portion of the air flow and the heater unit is positioned at the downstream side of the air flow. The cooling unit in turn consists of an evaporator, compressor, condenser and an expansion valve and the attached control systems. The heating unit primarily consists of a heater core and the associated control mechanisms. Generally, systems blend warm air to cold air or control the hot water supply to the heater core.
107
Refrigerants
Refrigerant flow / Overview The refrigerant enters the evaporator in the sub-cooled liquid state, picks up the heat from the air and becomes vapour. The vapour is compressed by the compressor and the compressed vapour enters into the condenser where the vapour to liquid phase transformation occurs. The outside air picks up the heat from the vapour in the condenser. The liquid refrigerant passes through an expansion valve before it enters in the evaporator. Refrigerant R12 and R134a are the two refrigerants which are used in automobile air conditioning. R12 is a chlorofluorocarbon (CFC). Although it has several unique properties such as low toxicity, non-inflammability, non-corrosive etc, its instability in combination with its chlorine content is being linked to ozone layer depletion. R134a does not contain chlorine and therefore has no ozone depletion potential and consequently is an environmentally acceptable alternative to R12. New refrigerants for AC/HVAC system based on CO2 is under development. The use of this refrigerant calls for new designs with an operating pressure of ~320 bars and at a temperature of ~180C
108
109
Digital image of a Heater core Model : Ford Transit Photo Courtesy : Visteon, France
110
111
Digital image of a drawn cup plate evaporator Model : Ford Mondeo Photo Courtesy : Visteon, France
112
113
114
115
Figure 2: A box type CAC fitted in the wheel housing or beside the radiator. Ambient air supply is good, but inlet and outlet ducts are long, pressure drops are high.
Figure 3: A full face CAC is located in front of the radiator and takes full advantage of the dynamic and forced ventilation. Thermal efficiency is generally high, but duct to engine would be long. A common drawback for this location is the overcrowded front space occupied by radiator, CAC, condenser and electric fans.
116
Air-to-Air solutions
Links: - AAM Products 3 Automotive tubes Aluminium solutions Competitive aspects of aluminium in automotive heat exchangers are the combination of specific weight and thermal properties in comparison to copper or steel solutions. Efficient production systems for high volume and high performing products are established. A potential disadvantage with aluminium has been corrosion resistance and strength at elevated temperatures. These aspects are well addressed during the recent years in various R&D programs which have brought several new high performing alloys to the market. All-aluminium CAC for light weight design and optimised heat transfer. All-aluminium CAC represent a fully recyclable solution. Most critical location for failure are the tube to header joints. Critical for the CAC tube life is the response to a combination of axial compression and bending stresses due to cyclic temperatures. The phenomenon of lateral thermal expansion is called "thermal breathing". This term is a descriptive one in that it describes the tendency of the core to "belly up" in the centre with the tube ends pinned to the header, increasing with tube length and number of tubes. Design solutions must reduce stress build-up at the joints. Figure 1: Charge Air Cooler, air-to-air, a full face type configuration. Controlled Atmosphere brazed cores with plastic end-tanks and acrylic gaskets. CAC depth typically would be close to 30 mm for cars.
Figure 2: Charge air coolers, air-to-air, a box type configuration. Vacuum brazed core with plastic endtanks and acrylic gaskets. CAC depth is typically in the range of 4085 mm.
117
118
Air-to-Coolant Cooler
Design aspects The charge air cooling can be done with a liquid coolant, circulating first through an auxiliary "low temperature" (LT) radiator and then through a water-to-air cooler. An adequate cooling of the liquid (below 45C) can be obtained in the LT radiator by means of a sufficient low coolant flow rate. Air-to-water cooler may be chosen when there is a lack of space in front of the engine compartment or /and when it offers the possibility to cool other fluids as engine oil, power steering fluid etc. with the same loop. For this solution two heat exchangers are needed, one for the air-to-water cooling and one for the water-to-air cooling. The air-to-coolant cooling would be a small radiator, standard design concept, located either next to the main radiator or in front of the radiator. The coolant-to-air heat exchanger is based on conventional cores for water cooling enveloped by a housing for controlled air flow. This type of heat exchanger is often an integrated part of the engine air intake manifold, but could also be a remotely mounted unit. Some concepts are illustrated in Figures 1 and 2.
Figure 1: Air-to-coolant heat exchanger mounted in the air intake manifold. The core design is based on conventional tube-fin configurations applied in automotive heat exchangers.
Figure 2: Air-to-coolant heat exchanger mounted remotely. Conventional core design, water cooled tubes are passing through a fin pack for cooling the charged air, the core is enveloped by a housing. Coolant traverses may be single pass or a multi pass arrangement.
119
Figure 2: as before, but extruded tube, width 28 - 34 mm, height 5 - 8 mm, enhancement optional, increased wall thickness optional (heavy duty). Extruded tube give flexibility in performance and strength.
Figure 3: Inserted fins into standard tube design is one way of improving cooler efficiency significantly.
120
1.6.5 Others
121