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Tyco Water Sps Design Manual 2008
Tyco Water Sps Design Manual 2008
Tyco Water Sps Design Manual 2008
Design Manual
Divisional Office
Tyco Water Pty Ltd
ABN 75 087 415 745
1-21 Percival Road Smithfield 2164 PO Box 141 Fairfield New South Wales 1860 Telephone 61 2 9612 2470 Facsimile 61 2 9612 2471 info@tycowater.com www.tycowater.com
Sydney
1-21 Percival Road Smithfield 2164 PO Box 141 Fairfield New South Wales 1860 Telephone 02 9612 2470 Facsimile 02 9612 2471 rmos@tycowater.com
Melbourne
60A Maffra Street Coolaroo 3048 PO Box 42 Dallas Victoria 3047 Telephone 03 9301 9115 Facsimile 03 9309 0577 rmom@tycowater.com
Perth
70 Cleaver Terrace Belmont 6104 PO Box 385 Cloverdale Western Australia 6105 Telephone 08 9346 8555 Facsimile 08 9346 8501 rmop@tycowater.com
CONTENTS
Section 1 Section 2 Section 3 Section 4 Section 5 Section 6 Section 7 Section 8 Section 9 Section 10 Section 11 Section 12 Section 13 Section 14 Section 15 Section 16
Introduction Technical Specifications and Manufacturing Standards Coatings Linings Jointing Systems Design General Considerations Pipe Data Structural Properties of Pipe Fittings Hydraulic Characteristics of Pipe and Fittings Water Hammer Anchorage of Pipelines Structural Design for Buried Pipelines Free Span and Structural Loading Appurtenance Design Typical Installation Conditions
Appendices Appendix A Appendix B Appendix C Appendix D Appendix E Glossary SI Conversion Factors Material Properties References Standards Referenced in Text
Introduction
section
Products are also available for other applications including: slurry pipelines, aggressive fluids, and tubular piling and structural applications.
1.2 History
Throughout Australia and the rest of the world, steel pipelines have long been used in water supply, particularly where high pressures, difficult laying conditions or security of supply, have required the strength and toughness of steel. Tyco Water and its predecessors have traditionally been at the forefront of developments in the water industry. Today, Tyco Waters products and services cover a broad range of industry needs, offering a total solution approach to its Customers. Tyco Waters operations extend across Australia, South East Asia and the Pacific.
1.3 Applications
Tyco Water Steel Pipeline Systems, (TWSPS), offers products for all water industry applications, including: potable water systems, industrial water systems, sewage rising mains and trunk sewers.
10 | S E C T I O N
1
SECTION 1
Introduction
Each pipe is then hydrostatically pressure tested. Water is pumped into the pipe whilst all air is purged out. When the pipe is full of water, the pressure is increased so as to induce a hoop stress in the pipe shell equivalent to 90% of the nominal minimum yield strength (NMYS) of the steel, as required by AS1579. Note that the maximum pressure that can be applied is 8.5 MPa, as dictated by the pressure test equipment. After testing, the pipe is dried and the external surface is blast cleaned to remove all rust and mill scale prior to application of the external corrosion protection system (SINTAKOTE). Note that for SINTAPIPE, the internal surface of the pipe is also blast cleaned at this stage. The pipe is then placed into a preheat oven where the temperature of the steel is raised to processing temperature. It is then picked up and dipped into a fluidised bath containing polyethylene powder. On contact, the powder melts and fuses to the pipes external surface. This pipe is rotated and held in the bath until the required coating thickness is reached. This is the SINTAKOTE fusion bonding process. For SINTAPIPE, the internal lining and external coating operations are carried out simultaneously. For SSJ and B & S pipes, the external coating is set back from the ends of the pipe to allow for field jointing and welding. In the case of SINTAJOINT pipe, the external coating is carried around the ends of the spigot and socket to actually cover part of the internal surface of the pipe at each end. After coating, pipes are cement mortar lined. The pipe is spun at high speed so as to generate a high g force. This centrifugal force compacts the mortar around the inside surface of the pipe whilst removing excess water from the mortar. The process results in a dense and firm lining. For field assembly the lining is set back from the ends as required by AS1281. After the lining operation the pipe is removed from the machine and placed on curing ramps. Each pipe is fitted with plastic end-caps in order to protect against the formation of shrinkage cracks, caused by rapid drying. The SINTAKOTE is checked to ensure that no damage has occurred and that it is free from holes in the coating, known as holidays. The pipe is stored for a minimum period of four days to ensure adequate cure before dispatch. During this period, the plastic end covers are retained to prevent loss of moisture from the lining. The completed SINTAJOINT pipe is rubber ring jointed, with SINTAKOTE applied externally and around the pipe ends, allowing the cement mortar lining to overlap the SINTAKOTE. The pipe is
Preparation of pipe ends at the end trimming station. completely protected with the factory applied SINTAKOTE and cement mortar lining. It requires no field joint coating or lining. Pipes and fittings are manufactured in accordance with the relevant Australian Standard. Each manufacturing facility operates under a certified Quality Assurance system to AS/NZS ISO 9001/9002. Tyco Water can provide other types of coatings and linings, e.g. epoxy paint, seal coatings etc, to suit the clients requirements. Short runs of pipe can also be made using bending rolls to form cans that are then welded together to form specific lengths of pipe. Pipe fittings, such as mitre bends, off-takes, bifurcations etc. are also available. Tyco Water supplies a range of pipe from 114mm to 2500mm OD. The wall thickness ranges from 4mm to 16mm and lengths can be made in 6, 9, 12.2 and 13.5m. Please contact your nearest Regional Marketing Office for further details.
SECTION 1
| 11
12
section
SECTION 2
2.2 SINTAKOTE
AS 4321: Fusion bonded medium density polyethylene coatings and linings for pipes and fittings.
SECTION 2
| 15
Coatings
16
section
SINTAKOTE thickness
SINTAKOTE coating and lining thicknesses conform to AS 4321. See Table 3.2 and Fig. 3.1.
Coating
3.2 SINTAKOTE
SINTAKOTE is a registered trademark. A black polyethylene coating is fusion bonded directly to the steel pipe, hence the coating is also known as Fusion Bonded Polyethylene (FBPE). Properties and performance under various test standards are given in Table 3.1. Features of the coating include: Excellent adhesion High impact and load resistance Excellent chemical resistance High dielectric strength High electrical resistivity Low water absorption Resistance to soil stresses Wide service temperature range - temperatures from minus 40C to plus 70C have no detrimental effect on SINTAKOTE Ability to accept cold bending of the pipe in accordance with AS 2885 without damage to the coating. SINTAKOTE is ideally suited to below ground applications, including installations where pipes must be thrust bored under roads and railways. It is also ideal for sub-sea installations such as the protection of tubular steel wharf piling. SINTAKOTE is supplied in accordance with AS 4321: Fusion-bonded medium-density polyethylene coating and lining for pipes and fittings.
18 | S E C T I O N
3
Joint region
Lining
ion Joint reg
Coating
Lining
Repairs
Minor damage may occur when SINTAKOTE pipe is mishandled. Such damage can be repaired using a particular method suited to the area of the damaged section. Small areas can be repaired by the application of a patch whereas large areas are repaired by the application of tapes or heat shrinkable polyethylene sleeves. Details are given in the SINTAKOTE Steel Pipeline Systems Handling and Installation Reference Manual available from any of our Regional Marketing Offices. Note: Oxygen and acetylene should not be used to heat SINTAKOTE as heating in this way can degrade SINTAKOTE.
SECTION 3
Coatings
Property
Coating Material Colour Service Temperature Range Thermal Stability (100C for 100 days) Bond Strength Tensile Strength at Yield Indentation Hardness Penetration resistance - 23C - 70C
Test standards
AS 4321
AS 4321 AS 4321 AS 4321 AS 4321 ASTM D2240 AS 4321 ASTM C177 AS 4321 AS 4321 AS 4321 (100 days, 23C) IEC 60093 IEC 60243 ASTM G13, 219mm OD coated pipe, av. thickness 1.6mm AS 4321/ASTM G14, 219mm OD coated pipe, 2.3mm thick ASTM D4060 (C17, 1000g, 1000 cycles) AS 4321
-40C to 70C < 35% change in MFI 5-10 N/mm 18 MPa 61 Shore hardness D 0.1mm indentation 0.2mm indentation 0.34 Wm-1 K-1 F50 >100 hrs 940 kg/m3 < 0.1% m/m water absorbed approx. 1019 ohm cm 20kV/mm (on base polymer, without carbon black) No holidays after 10 successive drops
Thermal Conductivity (Compression moulded specimen) Environmental Stress Crack Resistance Density Water Absorption Electrical Volume Resistivity (1000 sec. polarisation, on base polymer) Dielectric Strength (Specimen 3mm thick, on base polymer) Impact Resistance (Limestone drop test) Impact Resistance (Falling tup test) Abrasion Resistance (Tabor) Cathodic Disbondment
Chemical Resistance: SINTAKOTE is resistant to all the normal chemicals, compounds and solutions commonly encountered in water industry applications including muriatic acids, as well as marine organisms and compounds found in aggressive soils. Table 3.1 SINTAKOTE (fusion bonded medium density polyethylene) - Properties & performance Pipe outside diameter (Note 1) 273 (250 DN) >273 508 (500 DN) >508 762 (750 DN) >762 Notes: 1 Nominal pipe sizes are shown in brackets. Minimum thickness Coating 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.3 Lining 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 2 See Figure 3.1 for joint region. 3 RRJ available for 324mm OD. Elastomeric ring joint region (Note 2) (Note 3) 0.8 1.0 1.0
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Cathodic protection
Cathodic protection (CP) is a method of providing secondary corrosion protection to coated pipelines. High-pressure oil and gas pipelines are protected by CP as the danger and costs of leaks are so high that secondary protection is required by statutory authorities. Most water pipelines that utilise SINTAJOINT pipes are not cathodically protected. The choice of cathodic protection for water pipelines is one of strategic importance and cost. When using SINTAJOINT pipe it is likely to be more cost effective not to apply cathodic protection. Normal CP costs include joint bonding cables, anodes, ground-beds, transformer rectifiers and associated installation and maintenance. CP is however, completely compatible with SINTAKOTE. The high electrical resistivity of SINTAKOTE is maintained during its life due to the very low water absorption of SINTAKOTE. Its high resistance to impact and deterioration whilst in service make it the ideal coating choice for critical installations where CP is deemed essential.
Chemical resistance
SINTAKOTE is resistant to all the relevant chemicals, compounds and solutions commonly encountered in water industry applications including muriatic acids, as well as marine organisms and compounds found in aggressive soils.
20 | S E C T I O N
Linings
22
section
4.1 General
Ferrous potable water pipelines will corrode internally if not protected. The rate of corrosion is generally quite low due to the low conductivity, neutral pH and low dissolved oxygen content of potable water. Internal corrosion does not usually lead to pipe failure, but can result in head loss or reduced flow due to an increase in surface roughness caused by the growth of corrosion products. Water quality can also be a problem due to increased concentrations of iron in the water. The predominant lining used for potable water and sewage rising mains is cement mortar lining. For sewage pipelines that are septic and produce sulphuric acid, alternative mortar linings such as Calcium Aluminate (CA), CML or SINTAPIPE can be used (see ref. 19). Note that pipelines can be designed to minimise the generation of sulphuric acid (see ref. 7). Cement mortar linings are used to convey petroleum products from ships and the pipelines are usually left filled with seawater when not in use. Other common applications include bore field collectors and ground water transmission lines. For high saline applications where total dissolved solids exceed 35,000 ppm or aggressive water conveyance, customers should contact Tyco Water Marketing Offices.
Current practice
The centrifugally spun process remains the preferred lining method today as it produces the highest quality lining. It is the method used in all our steel pipe plants. Cement mortar linings provide long-term protection at a low cost and consequently they remain the standard lining for potable water mains.
Lining appearance
When leaving our pipe manufacturing plants the linings may contain superficial hairline cracks. If the pipes are stored for extended periods, say more than two months, especially in hot weather, drying shrinkage can lead to the formation of larger cracks. For potable water pipelines cracks up to 2mm wide should not be repaired as they will close and heal when immersed in water. When the pipes are rewetted, the mortar typically absorbs up to 8% moisture and expands, reducing crack widths by around 50%. Further hydration closes the cracks in a process sometimes referred to as autogenous healing. The mechanism of high pH providing protection and the ability of cement mortar to continue to hydrate and cure during service means that minor cracks in the lining can be tolerated. However, for aggressive conveyants the 2mm maximum crack width may need to be reduced.
SECTION 4
Linings
Performance
The dense mortar produced by our centrifugal lining process offers good chemical resistance to potable waters and can also be used in saline and wastewater applications. Cement mortar lining using Sulphate resistant (SR) and Calcium Aluminate (CA) cements are resistant to the water chemistries shown in Table 4.2. Ordinary potable cement performs similarly to SR cement, except the limit on sulphate concentration is reduced to 600 mg/L. Note that Calcium Aluminate cement should not be used for potable water pipelines. When the water chemistry is outside these limits, please discuss with a Tyco Water Regional Marketing Office. Chemical species Tolerable Concentration for SR Cement 6000 max 300 max Tolerable Concentration for CA Cement no limit no limit no limit 4.0 min no limit no limit 10 max
4.3 SINTAPIPE
SINTAPIPE is a registered trademark. SINTAKOTE is applied to both the outside and the bore of rubber ring jointed steel pipe to make SINTAPIPE. Possible because of innovation in the fusion bonding processes, it provides a wide range of opportunities for steel pipe options for aggressive water applications. SINTAPIPE properties and performance under various test standards are given in Table 3.1.
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Jointing Systems
26
section
5.1 General
Pipes can be supplied with any of the joint configurations described below. A variety of mechanical jointing systems to suit specialist requirements can also be supplied. Jointing systems for fittings can also be specified in these configurations. They are however, subject to geometrical and practical considerations. Clients are advised to contact Tyco Water Regional Marketing Offices to discuss detailed requirements.
SINTAJOINT is available from 324mm to 1829mm outside diameter for pipes and fittings. Each joint provides angular deflection up to approximately 3 depending on diameter. See Graph 5.1. Due to its insulating properties, the joint is ideal for applications where induced current may be a design consideration, for example, within power transmission easements.
5.2 SINTAJOINT
Advantages of rubber ring joints (RRJ) over welded joints include faster laying rates, less field plant and maintenance, and speedier backfilling as this can be done immediately after the joint has been laid and checked. In the case of SINTAJOINT pipe, no joint corrosion protection is necessary. Therefore minimal excavation at joints is required, allowing trenching to proceed without interruption. See Figure 5.1.
test point
SECTION 5
Jointing Systems
Design engineers in particular should be familiar with these practices for consideration in design.
1800
SINTALOCK
Tyco Water's SINTALOCK joint consists of a restrained rubber ring joint and external fillet weld. With no need to enter pipes for welding or lining reinstatement, safety is increased and corrosion protection enhanced. SINTALOCK also eliminates the need for thrust blocks, drastically reducing construction time. SINTALOCK is available for 324-1440mm outside diameter pipe. It will suit pipes containing a wall thickness of 10mm. Each joint provides an angular deflection of up to 1.1. For allowable operating pressures of SINTALOCK, see Table 7.2.
1700
1600
1500
1400
1300
1200
1100
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
This pipe joint is available in sizes 168 to 1422mm OD, in wall thicknesses up to 12mm, with angular deflections of up to 3 available in the smaller diameters. Deflections are based on proprietary calculations and can be obtained from your nearest Tyco Water Regional Marketing Office. Field welding may be carried out internally as well as externally in pipes large enough to provide adequate internal access. Generally, pipes above 813mm OD will allow this. See Figure 5.3.
300
200
100
3.5
2.5
1.5
0.5
SECTION 5
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Permanent deflection
SECTION 5
Jointing Systems
that flat-faced flanges are generally more susceptible to sealing problems and successful sealing is heavily dependent upon assembly technique. Where the required flange sizes are larger than DN 1200 or are outside the normal pressure rating, special flanges must be designed. In this situation o-ring type flanges are recommended as being the best option for medium to high pressure situations.
Butt joint
The plain butt joint may be satisfactorily welded from one side using a root fill and hot-pass method, if required, provided that the joint is NDT inspected in accordance with AS/NZS 1554. Note that pipe ends must be bevelled to achieve a reasonable weld, and the ends of the cement mortar lining must have been prepared. This method is particularly useful for small diameter pipes where internal reinstatement of the cement mortar lining cannot be performed by hand. See Figure 5.6.
Gaskets
Gaskets may be either elastomeric or compressed fibre type. Elastomeric gaskets are only recommended for the Class 16 flanges. Compressed fibre gaskets are recommended for Class 21 and Class 35 flanges. Compressed fibre gaskets can also be used with Class 16 flanges but will require the use of high strength bolts because of the higher initial compression necessary. Table 5.1 details the recommended type of gasket and bolt to be used for various classes of raised face steel flanges. Generally full face gaskets (that incorporate holes for the flange bolts) can be used with raised face flanges as only the raised face area inside the bolt holes is clamped. The full face gasket enables better location of the gasket compared to a ring type gasket. (If rigid compressed fibre type gaskets are used the use of ring type gaskets is normal). For other liquids, temperatures or pressures contact a Tyco Water Regional Marketing Office. Maximum Operating Pressure
MPa
Maximum Temperature
C
Gasket Composition Solid EPDM Rubber 3mm thick Composite fibre 1.5mm thick TEADIT NA1000 C6327 or equivalent
1.6
50
3.5
80
Table 5.1 - Recommended gasket composition for transportation of general domestic liquids including brine and sewage
SECTION 5
32
32 | S E C T I O N
1
section
(ii) the design method includes criteria which are conservative. Greater confidence in the design and its performance is thus justified knowing the formal factors of safety are associated with minimum product performance criteria and conservative design procedures.
Product standards Quality AS/NZS ISO 9001/9002 Delivery period Transport Handling Storage Seasonality
34 | S E C T I O N
SECTION 6
The additional wall thickness specified to overcome this represents a major benefit should a need arise to increase pipeline pressure and boost flow some time after the line has been in service. Integration of the numerous design principles is complicated and requires a systematic approach to optimise the design in terms of performance and cost effectiveness.
A comprehensive design will consider factors of pipeline component supply, construction, operation and maintenance and account for their effect on the viability, benefits and cost of the project.
Several solutions are normally possible and alternatives will need to be assessed financially or economically. Consider demand growth, staging, boosting. Pipeline jointing system RRJ or welded may affect profile, design flexibility and pressure limitation.
Section 6.2 and Table 6.1 Section 6.3 Section 5 and Table 7.1
2) Trial HGL Identify boundary and intermediate HGL limits of operation. Trial possible HGL'S
Normally set by defined existing limitations: free water surface levels, terrain etc. Ignore fittings losses. Flow velocities generally between 1 and 2 m/s Headlosses generally 2 to 7 m/km.
3) Solve for diameter, given flow and headloss or flow, given headloss and diameter or headloss, given flow and diameter. 4) Define maximum pressure Add fittings and appurtenance headlosses. Static head Pump shut off head PRV setting
Identify optimum alternative. For pumped systems match "system curve" with pump characteristics and optimum duty point.
Consider a range of operating conditions. Check HGL always above pipe level.
Fittings losses see Section 10.4 and Table 10.1 Appurtenances see Section 15 Recommended maximum internal pressures see Section 8.2
SECTION 6
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5) Estimate steel wall thickness t = PD/2f Check D/t < 165 for CML pipe, increase it if not 6) Select available pipe Closest bore Closest steel wall thickness 7) Check water hammer P = 2ft/D or t = PD/2f From simple checks to full computer modelling. Increase t, reselect pipe if necessary.
Maximum static working stress [f = 0.72 MYS] D/t <165 for manufacturing, lining and handling considerations. Check availability and lead time of selection with your nearest Tyco Water Regional Marketing Office.
Section 8
Section 7.1
Allowable working pressure. Allowable wall stress [f = 0.90 MYS] Simple water hammer check vs full analysis. Increasing wall thickness increases surge peaks - check design changes Detailed design of selected size.
8) Refine HGL and hammer analyses Finalise hydraulic appurtenance design, fittings etc. Check final HGL and hammer analyses
36 | S E C T I O N
SECTION 6
Consider worst load case for deflection. Usually (dead + live load) pipe empty during construction. If P > Pmax, increase pipe teq and/or soil modulus E.
Section 13.2
12) Determine maximum allowable buckling pressure (qmax) and critical buckling pressure. 13) Calculate design buckling pressure (q) q qmax
Section 13.7
Consider worst load case for buckling. Usually (dead load + vacuum) or (dead + live load). If q > qmax increase pipe teq and/or soil modulus E.
Section 13.7
O P E R AT I O N A L C O N S I D E R AT I O N S
ACTION 15) Grades COMMENTS Consider air entrapment. DESIGN MANUAL REFERENCES Section 6.6
16) Valves
Section 6.7
Anchorage should be considered for all rubber ring jointed pipelines. Include field test pressure anchorage performance.
Section 12.
Secondary protection
Section 3.2
SECTION 6
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years n 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 80 100 1 0.95147 0.90529 0.86135 0.81954 0.77977 0.74192 0.70591 0.67165 0.63905 0.60804 0.57853 0.55045 0.45112 0.36971 2 0.90573 0.82035 0.74301 0.67297 0.60953 0.55207 0.50003 0.45289 0.41020 0.37153 0.33650 0.30478 0.20511 0.13803
% Interest Rate or Discount Rate 3 0.86261 0.74409 0.64186 0.55368 0.47761 0.41199 0.35538 0.30656 0.26444 0.22811 0.19677 0.16973 0.09398 0.05203 4 0.82193 0.67556 0.55526 0.45639 0.37512 0.30832 0.25342 0.20829 0.17120 0.14071 0.11566 0.09506 0.04338 0.01980 5 0.78353 0.61391 0.48102 0.37689 0.29530 0.23138 0.18129 0.14205 0.11130 0.08720 0.06833 0.05354 0.02018 0.00760 6 0.74726 0.55839 0.41727 0.31180 0.23300 0.17411 0.13011 0.09722 0.07265 0.05429 0.04057 0.03031 0.00945 0.00295 7 0.71299 0.50835 0.36245 0.25842 0.18425 0.13137 0.09366 0.06678 0.04761 0.03395 0.02420 0.01726 0.00446 0.00115
years n 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 80 100 1 4.8534 9.4713 13.8651 18.0456 22.0232 25.8077 29.4086 32.8347 36.0945 39.1961 42.1472 44.9550 54.8882 63.0289 2 4.7135 8.9826 12.8493 16.3514 19.5235 22.3965 24.9986 27.3555 29.4902 31.4236 33.1748 34.7609 39.7445 43.0984
% Interest Rate or Discount Rate 3 4.5797 8.5302 11.9379 14.8775 17.4131 19.6004 21.4872 23.1148 24.5187 25.7298 26.7744 27.6756 30.2008 31.5989 4 4.4518 8.1109 11.1184 13.5903 15.6221 17.2920 18.6646 19.7928 20.7200 21.4822 22.1086 22.6235 23.9154 24.5050 5 4.3295 7.7217 10.3797 12.4622 14.0939 15.3725 16.3742 17.1591 17.7741 18.2559 18.6335 18.9293 19.5965 19.8479 6 4.2124 7.3601 9.7122 11.4699 12.7834 13.7648 14.4982 15.0463 15.4558 15.7619 15.9905 16.1614 16.5091 16.6175 7 4.1002 7.0236 9.1079 10.5940 11.6536 12.4090 12.9477 13.3317 13.6055 13.8007 13.9399 14.0392 14.2220 14.2693
SECTION 6
value calculations, and various rates should be used to provide a sensitivity analysis on any project. (See Table 6.4 - Present value of an annuity) The present value of $1 per annum for n years when discounted at interest rate ri per annum is: (1-(1+ri)-n)/ri ri = % interest rate/100 The amount per annum to redeem a loan of $1 at the end of n years and provide interest on the outstanding balance at ri per annum can be determined from the reciprocals of values in this table.
DCF methods
It is generally considered that discounted cash flow (DCF) methods should be used in order to provide a rational basis for evaluating and ranking investment options. These DCF methods take account of both the magnitude and timing of expected cash costs each year in the life of a project. Cash flows are discounted at a predetermined real discount rate. The resulting present worth of the DCF is the basis for comparing alternatives. For diameter selection total present value of alternatives can be obtained by adding present capital cost to net present value of future costs (eg. annual pumping costs, maintenance, scheme replacement). Table 6.2 enables the calculation of present values of future capital cost: Factors for calculating present value of a single sum. The present value of $1 in n years time, when discounted at interest rate ri per annum is: (1+ri )n where ri = % interest rate/100 Table 6.3 enables the calculation of present values of annual operating costs.
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Modulus of elasticity: Est = 207,000 MPa Linear coefficient of thermal expansion: a = 12 x 10-6 mm/mm/C Thermal conductivity: k = 47 W/(mC) Density: p = 7850 kg/m3 Melting temperature: approx 1520 C Poisson ratio: v = 0.27
SECTION 6
Some suggestions to assist in the expulsion of air: If possible give the pipeline a uniform gradient of at least 2 to 3 in 1000 to help air rise. Where practicable avoid too many changes of slope. If the pipeline has several high points, minimum gradient should be 2 to 3 in 1000 in rising sections and 4 to 6 in 1000 in descending sections. On level ground, pipelines should be laid with artificial high points since a level pipeline may develop high points as a result of earth settlement.
On large pipelines, isolating valves may be actuator driven to close on detection of abnormally high flow rates caused by accidental line rupture. Detection devices include pitot-static tubes, orifice plates or venturi meters.
6.7 Valves
Air valves
Air valves and anti-vacuum valves should be located at the high points on the pipeline to release accumulated air, or to allow air to enter should a partial vacuum occur. Supplementary air valves may be installed before stop valves and non-return valves where these are liable to be closed during draining and refilling of the pipeline. Consideration should be given to the placement of air valves at intervals of 500m to 1000m over long ascending lengths of pipeline.
Scour valves
Scour valves are necessary to allow sediment to be flushed out and to enable the pipeline to be drained for maintenance and repair work, particularly on valve equipment. They should be located on invert scour tees at low points and between isolating valves on the pipeline. The location of these valves is often influenced by the need to dispose of the scour water. Their size depends on the maximum time the pipeline may be out of service, and the maximum disposal flow available, for example sewer lines. If sewers are used for disposal, measures should be taken to ensure backflow is prevented. In parallel lines scour valves can be interconnected to allow bottom charging of the empty line. This minimises air entrainment.
Isolating valves
Isolating or sectioning valves are used to isolate sections of a pipeline in an emergency or for maintenance. They should be located at high or low points. High points are generally more accessible, however low point located valves allow shorter pipeline lengths to be drained. In parallel lines with twin isolating valves, cross connections from upstream of the valve on one line to downstream of the valve on the other allow greater flexibility in operation.
SECTION 6
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Pipe Data
42
section
mm mm
Approximate material densities used in these formulae are: Steel: 7850 kg/m3 Cement mortar: 2400 kg/m3 SINTAKOTE: 940 kg/m3
SECTION 7
Pipe Data
OD (mm) 114 168 190 219 240 257 273 290 324 324 324 324 337 337 337 337 356 356 356 356 406 406 406 406 406 419 419 419 419 419 457 457 457 457 457 502 502 502
WT (mm) 4.8 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 4.0 4.5 5.0 6.0 4.0 4.5 5.0 6.0 4.0 4.5 5.0 6.0 4.0 4.5 5.0 6.0 8.0 4.0 4.5 5.0 6.0 8.0 4.0 4.5 5.0 6.0 8.0 4.0 4.5 5.0
Test Pressure (Mpa) (m) 8.5 866 8.5 866 8.5 866 8.5 866 8.5 866 8.5 866 8.5 866 8.5 866 6.7 680 7.5 765 8.3 849 8.5 866 6.4 653 7.2 735 8.0 817 8.5 866 6.1 618 6.8 696 7.6 773 8.5 866 5.3 542 6.0 610 6.7 678 8.0 813 8.5 866 5.2 525 5.8 591 6.4 657 7.7 788 8.5 866 4.7 482 5.3 542 5.9 602 7.1 723 8.5 866 4.3 439 4.8 493 5.4 548
Rated Pressure (Mpa) (m) 6.8 693 6.8 693 6.8 693 6.8 693 6.8 693 6.8 693 6.8 693 6.8 693 5.3 544 6.0 612 6.7 680 6.8 693 5.1 523 5.8 588 6.4 653 6.8 693 4.9 495 5.5 557 6.1 618 6.8 693 4.3 434 4.8 488 5.3 542 6.4 651 6.8 693 4.1 420 4.6 473 5.2 525 6.2 631 6.8 693 3.8 385 4.3 434 4.7 482 5.7 578 6.8 693 3.4 351 3.9 395 4.3 439
SK (mm) 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8
CML (mm) 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12
Bore CML 86 140 162 191 212 229 245 256 292 291 290 288 305 304 303 301 324 323 322 320 374 373 372 370 366 387 386 385 383 379 425 424 423 421 417 470 469 468
Empty Pipe SKCL UCCL kg/m kg/m 19.9 19.4 31.0 30.2 35.3 34.4 41.0 40.0 45.1 44.0 48.5 47.2 51.6 50.3 61.0 59.4 60.8 59.1 64.6 62.9 68.4 66.7 76.0 74.2 63.4 61.6 67.3 65.5 71.3 69.5 79.1 77.3 67.1 65.2 71.2 69.4 75.4 73.5 83.8 81.9 76.8 74.6 81.6 79.4 86.4 84.2 95.9 93.8 114.9 112.8 79.3 77.1 84.3 82.1 89.2 87.0 99.1 96.9 118.7 116.5 86.7 84.3 92.1 89.7 97.6 95.1 108.4 106.0 129.9 127.4 95.5 92.8 101.5 98.8 107.4 104.8
Water Filled Pipe SKCL kg/m 25.8 46.4 55.9 69.6 80.4 89.6 98.7 112.4 127.8 131.1 134.4 141.1 136.4 139.9 143.3 150.2 149.5 153.1 156.8 164.1 186.6 190.8 195.0 203.4 220.1 196.9 201.2 205.6 214.3 231.5 228.5 233.3 238.0 247.5 266.4 268.9 274.1 279.4
Bouyant Weight SKCL kN/m 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 -0.1 -0.1 -0.2 -0.2 -0.2 -0.1 -0.3 -0.2 -0.2 -0.1 -0.3 -0.3 -0.3 -0.2 -0.5 -0.5 -0.4 -0.4 -0.2 -0.6 -0.5 -0.5 -0.4 -0.2 -0.8 -0.7 -0.7 -0.6 -0.4 -1.0 -1.0 -0.9
6m 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.6 0.6 0.6
Tonnes per Pipe, SKCL 9m 12m 13.5m 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.9 1.1 0.8 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.2 0.9 0.9 1.0
1.0 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.4 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.6 1.1 1.2 1.3
1.4 1.5
Table 7.1 Pipe Data Note: 1) See Table 6.5 for associated steel grades and relevant minimum yield strength and minimum tensile strength values. 2) For further sizes please contact your local Tyco Water regional marketing office.
SECTION 7
| 45
Key: OD = Outside diameter of the steel pipe shell. Does not include SINTAKOTE thickness WT = Thickness of steel SK = Thickness of SINTAKOTE external coating CML = Thickness of cement mortar lining SKCL = SINTAKOTE cement mortar lining UCCL = Uncoated cement mortar lining Rated Pressure = Maximum allowable operating internal pressure for SINTAJOINT and welded joint pipelines Test Pressure = Maximum internal pressure each SINTAJOINT and welded joint pipe is tested to during manufacturing
OD (mm) 502 502 508 508 508 508 508 559 559 559 559 559 610 610 610 610 610 648 648 648 648 648 660 660 660 660 660 700 700 700 700 700 700 711 711 711 711 711 762 762 762 762 762
WT Test Pressure Rated Pressure (mm) (Mpa) (m) (Mpa) (m) 6.0 6.5 658 5.2 526 8.0 8.5 866 6.8 693 4.0 4.3 433 3.4 347 4.5 4.8 488 3.8 390 5.0 5.3 542 4.3 433 6.0 6.4 650 5.1 520 8.0 8.5 867 6.8 693 4.0 3.9 394 3.1 315 4.5 4.3 443 3.5 354 5.0 4.8 492 3.9 394 6.0 5.8 591 4.6 473 8.0 7.7 788 6.2 630 4.5 4.0 406 3.2 325 5.0 4.4 451 3.5 361 6.0 5.3 541 4.2 433 8.0 7.1 722 5.7 578 9.5 7.0 714 5.6 572 4.5 3.8 382 3.0 306 5.0 4.2 425 3.3 340 6.0 5.0 510 4.0 408 8.0 6.7 680 5.3 544 9.5 6.6 672 5.3 538 4.5 3.7 375 2.9 300 5.0 4.1 417 3.3 334 6.0 4.9 500 3.9 400 8.0 6.5 667 5.2 534 9.5 6.5 660 5.2 528 4.5 3.5 354 2.8 283 5.0 3.9 393 3.1 315 6.0 4.6 472 3.7 377 8.0 6.2 629 4.9 503 9.5 6.1 623 4.9 498 12.0 7.7 786 6.2 629 5.0 3.8 387 3.0 310 6.0 4.6 465 3.6 372 8.0 6.1 619 4.9 495 9.5 6.0 613 4.8 490 12.0 7.6 774 6.1 619 5.0 3.5 361 2.8 289 6.0 4.3 433 3.4 347 8.0 5.7 578 4.5 462 9.5 5.6 572 4.5 458 12.0 7.1 722 5.7 578
7
SK (mm) 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0
CML (mm) 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12
Bore CML 466 462 476 475 474 472 468 527 526 525 523 519 577 576 574 570 567 615 614 612 608 605 627 626 624 620 617 667 666 664 660 657 652 677 675 671 668 663 728 726 722 719 714
Empty Pipe SKCL UCCL kg/m kg/m 119.4 116.7 143.1 140.4 96.6 93.9 102.7 100.0 108.7 106.1 120.8 118.1 144.8 142.1 106.9 103.6 113.6 110.3 120.3 117.0 133.6 130.3 160.1 156.8 124.2 120.6 131.5 127.9 146.1 142.5 175.1 171.5 196.7 193.1 132.0 128.2 139.8 136.0 155.3 151.5 186.3 182.4 209.3 205.5 134.5 130.6 142.5 138.6 158.3 154.4 189.8 185.9 213.3 209.4 142.8 138.7 151.3 147.1 168.1 163.9 201.5 197.4 226.5 222.4 267.9 263.8 153.7 149.5 170.7 166.6 204.8 200.6 230.1 225.9 272.2 268.0 164.9 160.4 183.2 178.7 219.7 215.2 247.0 242.5 292.2 287.7
Water Filled Pipe SKCL kg/m 289.8 310.6 274.5 279.8 285.1 295.7 316.8 324.9 330.8 336.6 348.3 371.6 385.5 391.9 404.7 430.1 449.1 428.9 435.8 449.4 476.4 496.6 443.1 450.1 463.9 491.5 512.1 492.1 499.4 514.2 543.5 565.3 601.6 513.5 528.4 558.2 580.4 617.3 580.9 597.0 629.0 652.8 692.4
Bouyant Weight SKCL kN/m -0.8 -0.6 -1.1 -1.0 -0.9 -0.8 -0.6 -1.4 -1.3 -1.3 -1.1 -0.9 -1.7 -1.6 -1.5 -1.2 -1.0 -2.0 -1.9 -1.7 -1.4 -1.2 -2.1 -2.0 -1.8 -1.5 -1.3 -2.4 -2.3 -2.2 -1.8 -1.6 -1.2 -2.4 -2.3 -1.9 -1.7 -1.3 -2.9 -2.7 -2.4 -2.1 -1.7
Tonnes per Pipe, SKCL 6m 9m 12m 13.5m 0.7 1.1 1.4 1.6 0.9 1.3 1.7 1.9 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.4 0.7 1.0 1.3 1.5 0.7 1.1 1.4 1.6 0.9 1.3 1.7 2.0 0.6 1.0 1.3 1.4 0.7 1.0 1.4 1.5 0.7 1.1 1.4 1.6 0.8 1.2 1.6 1.8 1.0 1.4 1.9 2.2 0.7 1.1 1.5 1.7 0.8 1.2 1.6 1.8 0.9 1.3 1.8 2.0 1.1 1.6 2.1 2.4 1.2 1.8 2.4 2.7 0.8 1.2 1.6 1.8 0.8 1.3 1.7 1.9 0.9 1.4 1.9 2.1 1.1 1.7 2.2 2.5 1.3 1.9 2.5 2.8 0.8 1.2 1.6 1.8 0.9 1.3 1.7 1.9 0.9 1.4 1.9 2.1 1.1 1.7 2.3 2.6 1.3 1.9 2.6 2.9 0.9 1.3 1.7 1.9 0.9 1.4 1.8 2.0 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.3 1.2 1.8 2.4 2.7 1.4 2.0 2.7 3.1 1.6 2.4 3.2 3.6 0.9 1.4 1.8 2.1 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.3 1.2 1.8 2.5 2.8 1.4 2.1 2.8 3.1 1.6 2.4 3.3 3.7 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.2 1.1 1.6 2.2 2.5 1.3 2.0 2.6 3.0 1.5 2.2 3.0 3.3 1.8 2.6 3.5 3.9
46 | S E C T I O N
SECTION 7
Pipe Data
OD (mm) 800 800 800 800 800 813 813 813 813 813 813 914 914 914 914 914 960 960 960 960 972 972 972 972 1016 1016 1016 1035 1035 1035 1067 1067 1067 1085 1085 1085 1125 1125 1125 1200 1200 1200 1219
WT Test Pressure Rated Pressure (mm) (Mpa) (m) (Mpa) (m) 5.0 6.0 8.0 9.5 12.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.5 12.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 8.0 3.4 4.1 5.4 5.3 6.8 3.3 4.0 4.6 5.3 5.3 6.6 3.5 4.1 4.7 4.9 5.9 3.4 4.5 4.7 5.6 3.3 4.4 4.6 5.6 4.3 4.4 5.3 4.2 4.3 5.2 4.0 4.2 5.1 4.0 4.1 5.0 3.8 4.0 4.8 3.6 3.8 4.5 3.5 344 413 550 545 688 339 406 474 542 536 677 361 422 482 502 602 344 459 478 573 340 453 472 566 433 451 542 425 443 532 413 430 516 406 423 507 391 408 489 367 382 459 361 2.7 3.2 4.3 4.3 5.4 2.7 3.2 3.7 4.3 4.2 5.3 2.8 3.3 3.8 3.9 4.7 2.7 3.6 3.8 4.5 2.7 3.6 3.7 4.4 3.4 3.5 4.3 3.3 3.5 4.2 3.2 3.4 4.0 3.2 3.3 4.0 3.1 3.2 3.8 2.9 3.0 3.6 2.8 275 330 440 436 550 271 325 379 433 429 542 289 337 385 402 482 275 367 382 459 272 362 378 453 347 361 433 340 355 425 330 344 413 325 338 406 313 326 391 294 306 367 289
SK (mm) 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3
CML (mm) 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16
Bore CML 758 756 752 749 744 771 769 767 765 762 757 870 868 866 862 858 916 912 908 904 928 924 920 916 968 964 960 987 983 979 1019 1015 1011 1037 1033 1029 1077 1073 1069 1152 1148 1144 1171
Empty Pipe SKCL UCCL kg/m kg/m 197.0 216.2 254.4 283.0 330.4 200.2 219.7 239.2 258.7 287.7 335.9 247.6 269.6 291.5 335.2 378.7 260.3 306.4 352.4 398.2 263.6 310.3 356.9 403.3 324.6 373.4 421.9 330.8 380.5 429.9 341.2 392.4 443.5 347.0 399.2 451.1 360.0 414.1 468.1 384.4 442.2 499.8 390.6 191.5 210.7 249.0 277.6 325.0 194.7 214.2 233.7 253.2 282.2 330.4 241.4 263.4 285.3 329.0 372.5 253.7 299.9 345.9 391.7 257.0 303.7 350.3 396.7 317.7 366.5 415.0 323.8 373.4 422.9 333.9 385.2 436.3 339.7 391.8 443.8 352.4 406.5 460.4 376.3 434.1 491.7 382.3
Water Filled Pipe SKCL kg/m 648.0 664.8 698.4 723.4 764.9 666.8 684.0 701.0 718.1 743.5 785.8 841.7 861.0 880.2 918.5 956.6 918.9 959.3 999.6 1039.7 939.6 980.5 1021.3 1061.9 1060.2 1102.9 1145.4 1095.5 1139.0 1182.3 1156.3 1201.2 1245.9 1191.2 1236.8 1282.3 1270.6 1317.9 1365.1 1426.2 1476.8 1527.2 1467.0
Bouyant Weight SKCL kN/m -3.1 -2.9 -2.5 -2.2 -1.7 -3.2 -3.0 -2.8 -2.6 -2.3 -1.9 -4.1 -3.9 -3.6 -3.2 -2.8 -4.6 -4.2 -3.7 -3.3 -4.8 -4.3 -3.8 -3.4 -4.8 -4.4 -3.9 -5.1 -4.6 -4.1 -5.5 -5.0 -4.5 -5.7 -5.2 -4.7 -6.3 -5.8 -5.2 -7.4 -6.8 -6.3 -7.7
6m 1.2 1.3 1.5 1.7 2.0 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.6 1.7 2.0 1.5 1.6 1.7 2.0 2.3 1.6 1.8 2.1 2.4 1.6 1.9 2.1 2.4 1.9 2.2 2.5 2.0 2.3 2.6 2.0 2.4 2.7 2.1 2.4 2.7 2.2 2.5 2.8 2.3 2.7 3.0 2.3
Tonnes per Pipe, SKCL 9m 12m 13.5m 1.8 1.9 2.3 2.5 3.0 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.3 2.6 3.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 3.0 3.4 2.3 2.8 3.2 3.6 2.4 2.8 3.2 3.6 2.9 3.4 3.8 3.0 3.4 3.9 3.1 3.5 4.0 3.1 3.6 4.1 3.2 3.7 4.2 3.5 4.0 4.5 3.5 2.4 2.6 3.1 3.4 4.0 2.4 2.6 2.9 3.1 3.5 4.0 3.0 3.2 3.5 4.0 4.5 3.1 3.7 4.2 4.8 3.2 3.7 4.3 4.8 3.9 4.5 5.1 4.0 4.6 5.2 4.1 4.7 5.3 4.2 4.8 5.4 4.3 5.0 5.6 4.6 5.3 6.0 4.7 2.7 2.9 3.4 3.8 4.5 2.7 3.0 3.2 3.5 3.9 4.5 3.3 3.6 3.9 4.5 5.1 3.5 4.1 4.8 5.4 3.6 4.2 4.8 5.4 4.4 5.0 5.7 4.5 5.1 5.8 4.6 5.3 6.0 4.7 5.4 6.1 4.9 5.6 6.3 5.2 6.0 6.7 5.3 | 47
SECTION 7
Key: OD = Outside diameter of the steel pipe shell. Does not include SINTAKOTE thickness WT = Thickness of steel SK = Thickness of SINTAKOTE external coating CML = Thickness of cement mortar lining SKCL = SINTAKOTE cement mortar lining UCCL = Uncoated cement mortar lining Rated Pressure = Maximum allowable operating internal pressure for SINTAJOINT and welded joint pipelines Test Pressure = Maximum internal pressure each SINTAJOINT and welded joint pipe is tested to during manufacturing
OD WT Test Pressure Rated Pressure (mm) (mm) (Mpa) (m) (Mpa) (m) 1219 9 3.3 339 2.7 271 1219 10 3.7 376 3.0 301 1219 12 4.4 452 3.5 361 1283 8 3.4 343 2.7 275 1283 10 3.5 358 2.8 286 1283 12 4.2 429 3.4 343 1283 16 5.6 572 4.5 458 1290 8 3.3 341 2.7 273 1290 10 3.5 356 2.8 284 1290 12 4.2 427 3.3 341 1290 16 5.6 569 4.5 455 1404 10 3.2 327 2.6 261 1404 12 3.8 392 3.1 314 1422 10 3.2 323 2.5 258 1422 11 3.5 355 2.8 284 1422 12 3.8 387 3.0 310 1440 10 3.1 319 2.5 255 1440 12 3.8 382 3.0 306 1440 16 5.0 510 4.0 408 1451 10 3.1 316 2.5 253 1451 12 3.7 379 3.0 303 1451 16 5.0 506 4.0 405 1500 10 3.0 306 2.4 245 1500 12 3.6 367 2.9 294 1500 16 4.8 489 3.8 391 1575 10 2.9 291 2.3 233 1575 12 3.4 349 2.7 280 1575 16 4.6 466 3.7 373 1600 10 2.8 287 2.3 229 1600 12 3.4 344 2.7 275 1600 16 4.5 459 3.6 367 1626 10 2.8 282 2.2 226 1626 12 3.3 339 2.7 271 1626 16 4.4 451 3.5 361 1750 12 3.1 315 2.5 252 1750 16 4.1 419 3.3 336 1829 12 3.0 301 2.4 241 1829 16 3.9 401 3.1 321 1981 12 2.7 278 2.2 222 1981 16 3.6 370 2.9 296 2159 12 2.5 255 2.0 204 2159 16 3.3 340 2.7 272
SK (mm) 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3
CML (mm) 16 16 16 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19
Bore CML 1169 1167 1163 1229 1225 1221 1213 1236 1232 1228 1220 1346 1342 1364 1362 1360 1382 1378 1370 1393 1389 1381 1442 1438 1430 1517 1513 1505 1542 1538 1530 1568 1564 1556 1688 1680 1767 1759 1919 1911 2097 2089
Empty Pipe SKCL UCCL kg/m kg/m 420.0 411.7 449.3 441.0 507.9 499.6 439.3 430.6 501.1 492.4 562.7 554.0 685.3 676.6 441.7 432.9 503.9 495.1 565.8 557.1 689.2 680.4 549.1 539.6 616.7 607.2 556.2 546.6 590.5 580.9 624.7 615.1 563.4 553.6 632.7 623.0 770.9 761.1 567.7 557.9 637.7 627.8 776.9 767.0 587.2 577.0 659.5 649.3 803.6 793.4 617.0 606.3 693.0 682.3 844.4 833.7 626.9 616.0 704.1 693.3 858.0 847.2 637.2 626.2 715.7 704.7 872.2 861.2 771.1 759.2 939.8 927.9 806.3 793.9 982.8 970.4 874.1 860.7 1065.6 1052.2 953.5 938.9 1162.6 1147.9
Water Filled Pipe SKCL kg/m 1492.7 1518.4 1569.6 1625.0 1679.1 1733.0 1840.4 1640.9 1695.3 1749.6 1857.6 1971.3 2030.4 2016.7 2046.7 2076.6 2062.7 2123.4 2244.2 2091.0 2152.2 2274.0 2219.5 2282.8 2408.8 2423.5 2490.0 2622.5 2493.4 2561.0 2695.6 2567.2 2635.9 2772.8 3007.8 3155.3 3257.3 3411.7 3764.9 3932.4 4405.5 4588.3
Bouyant Weight SKCL kN/m -7.4 -7.1 -6.5 -8.5 -7.9 -7.2 -6.0 -8.6 -8.0 -7.4 -6.1 -9.9 -9.2 -10.2 -9.9 -9.5 -10.5 -9.9 -8.5 -10.7 -10.1 -8.7 -11.7 -11.0 -9.6 -13.2 -12.4 -10.9 -13.7 -12.9 -11.4 -14.2 -13.5 -11.9 -16.1 -14.5 -18.0 -16.2 -21.8 -19.9 -26.7 -24.6
Tonnes per Pipe, SKCL 6m 9m 12m 13.5m 2.5 3.8 5.0 5.7 2.7 4.0 5.4 6.1 3.0 4.6 6.1 6.9 2.6 4.0 5.3 5.9 3.0 4.5 6.0 6.8 3.4 5.1 6.8 7.6 4.1 6.2 8.2 9.3 2.7 4.0 5.3 6.0 3.0 4.5 6.0 6.8 3.4 5.1 6.8 7.6 4.1 6.2 8.3 9.3 3.3 4.9 6.6 7.4 3.7 5.6 7.4 8.3 3.3 5.0 6.7 7.5 3.5 5.3 7.1 8.0 3.7 5.6 7.5 8.4 3.4 5.1 6.8 7.6 3.8 5.7 7.6 8.5 4.6 6.9 9.3 10.4 3.4 5.1 6.8 7.7 3.8 5.7 7.7 8.6 4.7 7.0 9.3 10.5 3.5 5.3 7.0 7.9 4.0 5.9 7.9 8.9 4.8 7.2 9.6 10.8 3.7 5.6 7.4 8.3 4.2 6.2 8.3 9.4 5.1 7.6 10.1 11.4 3.8 5.6 7.5 8.5 4.2 6.3 8.4 9.5 5.1 7.7 10.3 11.6 3.8 5.7 7.6 8.6 4.3 6.4 8.6 9.7 5.2 7.8 10.5 11.8 4.6 6.9 9.3 10.4 5.6 8.5 11.3 12.7 4.8 7.3 9.7 10.9 5.9 8.8 11.8 13.3 5.2 7.9 10.5 11.8 6.4 9.6 12.8 14.4 5.7 8.6 11.4 12.9 7.0 10.5 14.0 15.7
48 | S E C T I O N
SECTION 7
| 49
SINTALOCK
Pipe OD (mm) 324 324 324 337 337 337 356 356 356 406 406 406 419 419 419 457 457 457 457 502 502 502 502 508 508 508 508 559 559 559 559 610 610 610 610 648 648 648 648 648 Wall Thickness WT (mm) 4.5 5.0 6.0 4.5 5.0 6.0 4.5 5.0 6.0 4.5 5.0 6.0 4.5 5.0 6.0 4.5 5.0 6.0 8.0 4.5 5.0 6.0 8.0 4.5 5.0 6.0 8.0 4.5 5.0 6.0 8.0 4.5 5.0 6.0 8.0 4.5 5.0 6.0 8.0 9.5 Steel Yield (MPa) 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 250 Rated Pressure (MPa) 3.0 3.3 4.0 2.9 3.2 3.8 2.7 3.0 3.6 2.4 2.7 3.2 2.3 2.6 3.1 2.1 2.4 2.8 3.8 1.9 2.2 2.6 3.4 1.9 2.1 2.6 3.4 1.7 1.9 2.3 3.1 1.6 1.8 2.1 2.8 1.5 1.7 2.0 2.7 2.6 Steel Yield (MPa) 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 Rated Pressure (MPa) 3.5 3.9 4.7 3.4 3.7 4.5 3.2 3.5 4.2 2.5 3.1 3.7 2.4 3.0 3.6 2.2 2.8 3.3 2.0 2.2 3.0 2.0 2.2 3.0 1.8 2.0 2.7 1.7 1.8 2.5 1.6 1.7 2.3 Pipe OD (mm) 660 660 660 660 660 700 700 700 700 711 711 711 711 762 762 762 800 800 800 813 813 813 813 813 914 914 914 914 960 960 960 972 972 972 1016 1016 1035 1035 1067 1067 Wall Thickness WT (mm) 4.5 5.0 6.0 8.0 9.5 4.5 5.0 6.0 8.0 5.0 6.0 8.0 9.5 5.0 6.0 8.0 5.0 6.0 8.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.5 6.0 7.0 8.0 10.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 8.0 10.0 8.0 10.0 8.0 10.0 Steel Yield (MPa) 300 300 300 300 250 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 250 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 250 300 300 300 250 300 300 250 300 300 250 300 250 300 250 300 250 Rated Pressure (MPa) 1.5 1.6 2.0 2.6 2.6 1.4 1.5 1.9 2.5 1.5 1.8 2.4 2.4 1.4 1.7 2.3 1.4 1.6 2.2 1.3 1.6 1.9 2.1 2.1 1.4 1.7 1.9 2.0 1.4 1.8 1.9 1.3 1.8 1.9 1.7 1.8 1.7 1.7 1.6 1.7 Steel Yield (MPa) 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 Rated Pressure (MPa) 1.5 1.7 2.3
1.5
1.4
1.4
Table 7.2. SINTALOCK joint rated pressure Note: For further sizes please contact your local Tyco Water regional marketing office.
50 | S E C T I O N
7
SECTION 7
Pipe Data
SINTALOCK
Pipe OD (mm) 1085 1085 1125 1125 1200 1200 1219 1219 1219 Wall Thickness WT (mm) 8.0 10.0 8.0 10.0 8.0 10.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 Steel Yield (MPa) 300 250 300 250 300 250 300 250 250 Rated Pressure (MPa) 1.6 1.7 1.5 1.6 1.4 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.5 Pipe OD (mm) 1283 1283 1290 1290 1404 1422 1422 1440 Wall Thickness WT (mm) 8.0 10.0 8.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 11.0 10.0 Steel Yield (MPa) 300 250 300 250 250 250 250 250 Rated Pressure (MPa) 1.3 1.4 1.3 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.4 1.3
SECTION 7
| 51
52
section
8.1 Standards
A list of applicable Australian Standards used in steel pipe design and specification is included in Section 2.
Rated pressure refers to the maximum hydrostatic pressure at which the pipe or fitting is suitable for sustained operation, including an allowance for transient pressures. The recommended maximum field test pressure is limited to the Manufacturing Proof Test as defined in AS 1579 (90% of MYS). Typically the field test pressure would be 1.25 x maximum working pressure.
Pressure formula
The Barlow formulae given below were used to calculate the maximum test and maximum working pressures respectively, shown in Table 7.1. a) Strength test pressure P = 0.90 (2 MYS x t) = 1.25 P t r Do b) Rated pressure c) Hoop stress Pr = 0.72 (2 MYS x t) Do h = PtDo 2t or = PrDo 2t MPa MPa mm mm MPa MPa
where Pt = field test internal pressures Pr = internal pressure t = steel wall thickness Do = outside diameter of steel shell h = hoop stress MYS = minimum yield strength
The lining has been ignored in the calculation of pressures for CML pipe. The steel shell is assumed to act alone.
Steel strength
The Nominal Minimum Yield Strength (NMYS) values used for the thicknesses given in Table 8.1 are given in Table 6.5. Category Maximum Recommended Steel Hoop Stress (%MYS) Manufacture Proof / Strength Test Pressure, Pt Rated Pressure, Pr 90 72 (MPa) t 8mm 8 < t 16mm 270 216 225 180
Stiffness as a function of D
A common form of calculating ring stiffness, as a function of diameter, SD, is: SD = E I x 10 6 N/m/m Dm3 where SD = ring bending stiffness measured in N/m of deflection per m of pipe N/m/m E = Modulus of elasticity for the steel or composite steel-cement mortar lining MPa t = steel wall thickness mm I = second moment of area of the pipe wall section per unit length of pipe = t3 mm4/mm 12
SECTION 8
% Deflection = / Dm
mm
114 - 2500 114 2500 324 1290
Pipe body
Design Limit Design Limit Design Limit
Joint
Design Limit Design Limit 80% of Design Limit
Note: 1) Field measurements should only be made at positions where at least half a pipe length is buried either side of the measurement position 2) The joint region is 150mm from either side of the pipe joint * Specified Minimum Yield Strength (SMYS) or Nominal Minimum Yield Strength (NMYS) Dm = mean diameter of pipe = D-t D = pipe outside diameter Simplified, this can also be expressed as SD = E x t 3 x 10 6 12 Dm mm mm t T Ecl Est = steel pipe wall thickness = cement lining thickness = Youngs Modulus for cement mortar = Youngs Modulus for steel mm mm = 21,000 GPa = 207,000 GPa
( )
an inverse function of the Dm /t ratio. This is the ring stiffness that is used in the deflection analysis of buried pipes.
Transformed section
Young's Modulus for the composite steel-cement mortar lining is accounted for by transforming the cement mortar lining thickness to the equivalent thickness of steel using the ratio of respective moduli. teq = t + T Ecl Est
This transformation is not meant to account for the cement lined steel shell acting as a monolithic composite. A strict transformation to account for this structural action would assume perfect bonding at the cement-steel interface and integral ring action of the cement mortar lining. The transformed section would be a 'T' shape and have a much greater second moment of area. The simplified teq transformation above results in a conservative estimate of the stiffness contribution by the cement mortar lining. Table 8.3 lists stiffness values as functions of radius and diameter for bare steel shells and composite cement mortar lined steel shells. Dm /t ratios are also listed for reference, included in table 8.3.
( )
mm
mm
SECTION 8
| 55
kPa
This equation ignores the assistance of soil support (see Section 13.6.) Table 8.3 lists critical buckling pressures described above for bare steel shells and composite cement mortar lined steel shells.
mm3 mm mm mm kg/m3
mm mm mm
( ) S 1.11 x 10 ( ) + 0.000151 E
-6 DL
Table 8.3 lists the section properties I and Z described above for bare steel shells.
MPa
56 | S E C T I O N
SECTION 8
Pipe Dimensions Shell CML OD t T mm mm mm 114 4.8 9 168 5.0 9 190 5.0 9 219 5.0 9 240 5.0 9 257 5.0 9 273 5.0 9 290 5.0 12 324 4.0 12 324 4.5 12 324 5.0 12 324 6.0 12 337 4.0 12 337 4.5 12 337 5.0 12 337 6.0 12 356 4.0 12 356 4.5 12 356 5.0 12 356 6.0 12 406 4.0 12 406 4.5 12 406 5.0 12 406 6.0 12 406 8.0 12 419 4.0 12 419 4.5 12 419 5.0 12 419 6.0 12 419 8.0 12 457 4.0 12 457 4.5 12 457 5.0 12 457 6.0 12 457 8.0 12 502 4.0 12 502 4.5 12 502 5.0 12 502 6.0 12 502 8.0 12 508 4.0 12 508 4.5 12 508 5.0 12
Pipe Shell SK ts mm 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 Dm/t 22.8 32.6 37.0 42.8 47.0 50.4 53.6 57.0 80.0 71.0 63.8 53.0 83.3 73.9 66.4 55.2 88.0 78.1 70.2 58.3 100.5 89.2 80.2 66.7 49.8 103.8 92.1 82.8 68.8 51.4 113.3 100.6 90.4 75.2 56.1 124.5 110.6 99.4 82.7 61.8 126.0 111.9 100.6 Ring Stiffness SD N/m/m 1,465,025 497,893 340,552 220,018 166,148 134,740 112,020 93,146 33,691 48,196 66,424 115,867 29,898 42,761 58,923 102,745 25,313 36,195 49,863 86,904 16,994 24,287 33,440 58,219 140,091 15,446 22,073 30,388 52,892 127,214 11,876 16,966 23,350 40,618 97,571 8,939 12,766 17,564 30,535 73,262 8,623 12,315 16,943 Pcr kPa 15,170 5,156 3,526 2,278 1,720 1,395 1,160 965 349 499 688 1,200 310 443 610 1,064 262 375 516 900 176 251 346 603 1,451 160 229 315 548 1,317 123 176 242 421 1,010 93 132 182 316 759 89 128 175 Beam bending I x 106 Z x 103 4 mm mm3 2 43 8 101 12 131 19 176 25 212 31 244 38 277 45 313 51 318 58 356 64 393 76 467 58 344 65 385 72 426 85 507 68 385 77 431 85 477 101 567 102 502 114 563 127 623 151 742 198 975 112 536 126 600 139 665 166 792 218 1,041 146 639 164 716 181 793 216 945 284 1,244 194 773 217 866 241 960 287 1145 379 1508 201 791 225 888 250 983 teq mm 5.7 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 6.2 5.2 5.7 6.2 7.2 5.2 5.7 6.2 7.2 5.2 5.7 6.2 7.2 5.2 5.7 6.2 7.2 9.2 5.2 5.7 6.2 7.2 9.2 5.2 5.7 6.2 7.2 9.2 5.2 5.7 6.2 7.2 9.2 5.2 5.7 6.2
Composite shell and lining Ring Stiffness Dm/teq SD N/m/m 19.2 2,453,272 27.6 818,055 31.4 559,538 36.3 361,496 39.8 272,987 42.7 221,383 45.4 184,052 46.0 177,595 61.5 74,020 56.1 97,949 51.5 126,646 44.2 200,219 64.0 65,685 58.3 86,904 53.5 112,344 46.0 177,543 67.7 55,612 61.7 73,559 56.6 95,070 48.6 150,170 77.3 37,335 70.4 49,358 64.7 63,757 55.6 100,602 43.3 213,061 79.8 33,936 72.7 44,858 66.8 57,938 57.4 91,398 44.7 193,476 87.1 26,092 79.4 34,479 72.9 44,519 62.6 70,187 48.8 148,393 95.8 19,639 87.3 25,944 80.2 33,488 68.9 52,764 53.7 111,422 96.9 18,946 88.3 25,027 81.1 32,304
Pcr kPa 25,403 8,471 5,794 3,743 2,827 2,292 1,906 1,839 766 1,014 1,311 2,073 680 900 1,163 1,838 576 762 984 1,555 387 511 660 1,042 2,206 351 464 600 946 2,003 270 357 461 727 1,537 203 269 347 546 1,154 196 259 335
| 57
Pipe Dimensions Shell CML OD t T mm mm mm 508 6.0 12 508 8.0 12 559 4.0 12 559 4.5 12 559 5.0 12 559 6.0 12 559 8.0 12 610 4.5 12 610 5.0 12 610 6.0 12 610 8.0 12 610 9.5 12 648 4.5 12 648 5.0 12 648 6.0 12 648 8.0 12 648 9.5 12 660 4.5 12 660 5.0 12 660 6.0 12 660 8.0 12 660 9.5 12 700 4.5 12 700 5.0 12 700 6.0 12 700 8.0 12 700 9.5 12 700 12.0 12 711 5.0 12 711 6.0 12 711 8.0 12 711 9.5 12 711 12.0 12 762 5.0 12 762 6.0 12 762 8.0 12 762 9.5 12 762 12.0 12 800 5.0 16 800 6.0 16 800 8.0 16 800 9.5 16 800 12.0 16 813 5.0 16 58 | S E C T I O N
8
Pipe Shell SK ts mm 1.8 1.8 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 Dm/t 83.7 62.5 138.8 123.2 110.8 92.2 68.9 134.6 121.0 100.7 75.3 63.2 143.0 128.6 107.0 80.0 67.2 145.7 131.0 109.0 81.5 68.5 154.6 139.0 115.7 86.5 72.7 57.3 141.2 117.5 87.9 73.8 58.3 151.4 126.0 94.3 79.2 62.5 159.0 132.3 99.0 83.2 65.7 161.6 Ring Stiffness SD N/m/m 29,453 70,656 6,458 9,220 12,681 22,033 52,796 7,081 9,737 16,910 40,483 68,300 5,899 8,111 14,081 33,691 56,817 5,581 7,673 13,320 31,865 53,730 4,672 6,423 11,147 26,653 44,923 91,531 6,128 10,633 25,421 42,843 87,277 4,971 8,623 20,604 34,709 70,656 4,291 7,444 17,778 29,940 60,919 4,088 Pcr kPa 305 732 67 95 131 228 547 73 101 175 419 707 61 84 146 349 588 58 79 138 330 556 48 67 115 276 465 948 63 110 263 444 904 51 89 213 359 732 44 77 184 310 631 42 Beam bending I x 106 Z x 103 4 mm mm3 298 1,173 393 1,545 268 960 301 1,077 334 1,194 398 1,425 525 1,879 392 1,286 435 1,425 519 1,701 685 2,246 807 2,647 471 1,453 522 1,610 623 1,923 823 2,541 971 2,996 497 1,507 551 1,671 659 1,996 870 2,637 1,026 3,110 594 1,698 659 1,882 787 2,249 1,041 2,973 1,228 3,507 1,534 4,382 691 1,943 825 2,321 1,091 3,069 1,287 3,621 1,609 4,525 851 2,234 1,018 2,671 1,346 3,533 1,589 4,170 1,987 5,215 986 2,465 1,179 2,947 1,560 3,900 1,842 4,605 2,305 5,762 1,035 2,547 teq mm 7.2 9.2 5.2 5.7 6.2 7.2 9.2 5.7 6.2 7.2 9.2 10.7 5.7 6.2 7.2 9.2 10.7 5.7 6.2 7.2 9.2 10.7 5.7 6.2 7.2 9.2 10.7 13.2 6.2 7.2 9.2 10.7 13.2 6.2 7.2 9.2 10.7 13.2 6.6 7.6 9.6 11.1 13.6 6.6
Composite shell and lining Ring Stiffness Dm/teq SD N/m/m 69.7 50,895 54.3 107,459 106.7 14,188 97.3 18,737 89.4 24,179 76.8 38,072 59.9 80,297 106.2 14,390 97.6 18,565 83.9 29,220 65.4 61,569 56.1 97,589 112.9 11,989 103.7 15,464 89.2 24,332 69.6 51,240 59.7 81,182 115.0 11,342 105.6 14,630 90.8 23,017 70.9 48,463 60.8 76,771 122.0 9,496 112.1 12,246 96.4 19,262 75.2 40,535 64.5 64,187 52.1 121,828 113.9 11,683 97.9 18,375 76.4 38,662 65.6 61,215 53.0 116,166 122.1 9,477 105.0 14,901 82.0 31,336 70.3 49,593 56.8 94,043 120.5 9,870 104.5 15,128 82.5 30,720 71.2 47,759 57.9 88,680 122.4 9,401
Pcr kPa 527 1,113 147 194 250 394 831 149 192 303 638 1,011 124 160 252 531 841 117 151 238 502 795 98 127 199 420 665 1,262 121 190 400 634 1,203 98 154 324 514 974 102 157 318 495 918 97
SECTION 8
Pipe Dimensions Shell CML OD t T mm mm mm 813 6.0 16 813 7.0 16 813 8.0 16 813 9.5 16 813 12.0 16 914 6.0 16 914 7.0 16 914 8.0 16 914 10.0 16 914 12.0 16 960 6.0 16 960 8.0 16 960 10.0 16 960 12.0 16 972 6.0 16 972 8.0 16 972 10.0 16 972 12.0 16 1016 8.0 16 1016 10.0 16 1016 12.0 16 1035 8.0 16 1035 10.0 16 1035 12.0 16 1067 8.0 16 1067 10.0 16 1067 12.0 16 1085 8.0 16 1085 10.0 16 1085 12.0 16 1125 8.0 16 1125 10.0 16 1125 12.0 16 1200 8.0 16 1200 10.0 16 1200 12.0 16 1219 8.0 16 1219 9.0 16 1219 10.0 16 1219 12.0 16 1283 8.0 19 1283 10.0 19 1283 12.0 19 1283 16.0 19
Pipe Shell SK ts mm 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 Dm/t 134.5 115.1 100.6 84.6 66.8 151.3 129.6 113.3 90.4 75.2 159.0 119.0 95.0 79.0 161.0 120.5 96.2 80.0 126.0 100.6 83.7 128.4 102.5 85.3 132.4 105.7 87.9 134.6 107.5 89.4 139.6 111.5 92.8 149.0 119.0 99.0 151.4 134.4 120.9 100.6 159.4 127.3 105.9 79.2 Ring Stiffness SD N/m/m 7,090 11,300 16,931 28,510 58,001 4,977 7,930 11,876 23,350 40,618 4,291 10,236 20,120 34,987 4,133 9,859 19,376 33,691 8,623 16,943 29,453 8,154 16,018 27,842 7,437 14,607 25,385 7,070 13,886 24,129 6,337 12,444 21,620 5,215 10,236 17,778 4,973 7,098 9,761 16,952 4,261 8,362 14,518 34,739 Pcr kPa 73 117 175 295 601 52 82 123 242 421 44 106 208 362 43 102 201 349 89 175 305 84 166 288 77 151 263 73 144 250 66 129 224 54 106 184 51 74 101 176 44 87 150 360 Beam bending I x 106 Z x 103 4 mm mm3 1,238 3,045 1,439 3,539 1,638 4,030 1,934 4,758 2,421 5,955 1,763 3,858 2,050 4,486 2,335 5,110 2,900 6,345 3,457 7,564 2,045 4,260 2,709 5,644 3,365 7,011 4,013 8,360 2,123 4,368 2,813 5,788 3,494 7,190 4,167 8,574 3,216 6,331 3,996 7,866 4,767 9,383 3,401 6,573 4,227 8,168 5,043 9,744 3,729 6,990 4,635 8,688 5,531 10,367 3,923 7,231 4,876 8,988 5,819 10,726 4,376 7,780 5,441 9,673 6,494 11,545 5,318 8,864 6,614 11,024 7,897 13,162 5,577 9,149 6,258 10,267 6,936 11,380 8,282 13,588 6,508 10,145 8,097 12,622 9,671 15,075 12,773 19,911 teq mm 7.6 8.6 9.6 11.1 13.6 7.6 8.6 9.6 11.6 13.6 7.6 9.6 11.6 13.6 7.6 9.6 11.6 13.6 9.6 11.6 13.6 9.6 11.6 13.6 9.6 11.6 13.6 9.6 11.6 13.6 9.6 11.6 13.6 9.6 11.6 13.6 9.6 10.6 11.6 13.6 9.9 11.9 13.9 17.9
Composite shell and lining Ring Stiffness Dm/teq SD N/m/m 106.2 14,408 93.7 20,955 83.9 29,256 72.4 45,478 58.9 84,432 119.5 10,115 105.5 14,705 94.4 20,522 77.9 36,447 66.3 59,127 125.5 8,721 99.2 17,689 81.9 31,405 69.7 50,931 127.1 8,400 100.4 17,036 82.9 30,244 70.6 49,045 105.0 14,901 86.7 26,447 73.8 42,875 107.0 14,089 88.4 25,003 75.2 40,530 110.3 12,850 91.1 22,800 77.6 36,953 112.2 12,217 92.7 21,674 78.9 35,124 116.4 10,951 96.1 19,424 81.8 31,472 124.2 9,011 102.6 15,978 87.4 25,880 126.1 8,594 114.2 11,597 104.2 15,236 88.8 24,677 128.8 8,075 107.0 14,091 91.4 22,563 70.8 48,643
Pcr kPa 149 217 303 471 874 105 152 213 377 612 90 183 325 527 87 176 313 508 154 274 444 146 259 420 133 236 383 127 224 364 113 201 326 93 165 268 89 120 158 256 84 146 234 504 | 59
SECTION 8
Pipe Dimensions Shell CML OD t T mm mm mm 1290 8.0 19 1290 10.0 19 1290 12.0 19 1290 16.0 19 1404 10.0 19 1404 12.0 19 1422 10.0 19 1422 11.0 19 1422 12.0 19 1440 10.0 19 1440 12.0 19 1440 16.0 19 1451 10.0 19 1451 12.0 19 1451 16.0 19 1500 10.0 19 1500 12.0 19 1500 16.0 19 1575 10.0 19 1575 12.0 19 1575 16.0 19 1600 10.0 19 1600 12.0 19 1600 16.0 19 1626 10.0 19 1626 12.0 19 1626 16.0 19 1750 12.0 19 1750 16.0 19 1829 12.0 19 1829 16.0 19 1981 12.0 19 1981 16.0 19 2159 12.0 19 2159 16.0 19
Pipe Shell SK ts mm 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 Dm/t 160.3 128.0 106.5 79.6 139.4 116.0 141.2 128.3 117.5 143.0 119.0 89.0 144.1 119.9 89.7 149.0 124.0 92.8 156.5 130.3 97.4 159.0 132.3 99.0 161.6 134.5 100.6 144.8 108.4 151.4 113.3 164.1 122.8 178.9 133.9 Ring Stiffness SD N/m/m 4,192 8,225 14,280 34,170 6,368 11,051 6,128 8,173 10,633 5,899 10,236 24,469 5,765 10,003 23,911 5,215 9,047 21,620 4,500 7,806 18,647 4,291 7,444 17,778 4,088 7,090 16,931 5,678 13,552 4,969 11,856 3,905 9,312 3,012 7,179 Pcr kPa 43 85 148 354 66 114 63 85 110 61 106 253 60 104 248 54 94 224 47 81 193 44 77 184 42 73 175 59 140 51 123 40 96 31 74 Beam bending I x 106 Z x 103 mm4 mm3 6,616 10,257 8,231 12,762 9,831 15,242 12,986 20,133 10,632 15,146 12,704 18,097 11,050 15,541 12,129 17,059 13,203 18,570 11,478 15,941 13,715 19,049 18,134 25,186 11,744 16,188 14,035 19,345 18,557 25,579 12,984 17,312 15,518 20,690 20,524 27,365 15,045 19,104 17,984 22,837 23,796 30,217 15,777 19,722 18,861 23,577 24,959 31,199 16,564 20,374 19,803 24,358 26,208 32,236 24,727 28,259 32,742 37,420 28,254 30,896 37,424 40,923 35,955 36,300 47,648 48,105 46,614 43,181 61,805 57,254 teq mm 9.9 11.9 13.9 17.9 11.9 13.9 11.9 12.9 13.9 11.9 13.9 17.9 11.9 13.9 17.9 11.9 13.9 17.9 11.9 13.9 17.9 11.9 13.9 17.9 11.9 13.9 17.9 13.9 17.9 13.9 17.9 13.9 17.9 13.9 17.9
Composite shell and lining Ring Stiffness Dm/teq SD N/m/m 129.5 7,944 107.6 13,861 91.9 22,194 71.2 47,845 117.1 10,731 100.1 17,176 118.7 10,326 109.4 13,182 101.4 16,526 120.2 9,941 102.7 15,909 79.6 34,262 121.1 9,715 103.5 15,547 80.2 33,481 125.2 8,788 107.1 14,061 82.9 30,272 131.5 7,584 112.4 12,133 87.1 26,110 133.6 7,232 114.2 11,569 88.5 24,893 135.8 6,888 116.1 11,019 89.9 23,707 125.0 8,824 96.9 18,976 130.7 7,723 101.3 16,602 141.7 6,069 109.8 13,039 154.5 4,681 119.7 10,053
Pcr kPa 82 144 230 495 111 178 107 136 171 103 165 355 101 161 347 91 146 313 79 126 270 75 120 258 71 114 245 91 196 80 172 63 135 48 104
60 | S E C T I O N
Fittings
62
section
Mitred Bends
30 min.
d
S d
Tee
U
Angled Branch Figure 9.1 Typical Fittings Y Piece
Table 9.1, Figure 9.1 and Figure 9.2 depict a range of cost effective fitting configurations manufactured by Tyco Water. Whilst these sizes are preferred, Tyco Water can make any size that is required.
D1
Eccentric Reducer
150mm ~4.5 x (D1 D2) 150mm
D2
D1
D2
Typical fitting dimensions are shown in Table 9.1. Changes in pipeline direction can be achieved by the appropriate combination of joint deflection and specified bends.
SECTION 9
Fittings
Technical assistance is readily available on request in connection with any problems relating to pipe specials. Although not illustrated we can also supply plate flanges to suit various specifications. Tee Angle Branch (30 minimum) S mm U mm 250 250 250 250 250 250 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 350 400 400 500 500 500 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 850 1,000 1,100 1,200 1,300 1,400 1,500 1,650 1,800 1,900 2,000 2,100 2,200 2,400 2,600 2,800 3,000 3,200 3,400 3,600 3,800 4,000 4,200 4,400 4,600 4,800
o
Y - Piece (45o) S mm U mm 250 250 250 250 250 250 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 400 400 400 500 500 500 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 825 890 950 1,025 1,100 1,150 1,225 1,300 1,350 1,425 1,500 1,550 1,600 1,750 1,850 2,000 2,150 2,275 2,400 2,550 2,675 2,800 2,950 3,050 3,200 3,325
45 < 90 P mm R2 mm
o o
Q mm 325 350 375 400 425 450 475 525 575 625 675 750 775 825 875 925 975 1,025 1,075 1,125 1,175 1,225 1,275 1,325 1,375 1,425
360 360 380 420 465 485 525 565 610 650 690 710 755 815 900 980 1,065 1,105 1,190 1,270 1,355 1,395 1,500 1,560 1,645 1,725
500 500 550 650 750 800 900 1,000 1,100 1,200 1,300 1,350 1,450 1,600 1,800 2,000 2,200 2,300 2,500 2,700 2,900 3,000 3,250 3,400 3,600 3,800
650 650 700 800 900 950 1,050 1,150 1,250 1,350 1,450 1,500 1,600 1,750 1,950 2,150 2,350 2,450 2,650 2,850 3,050 3,150 3,400 3,550 3,750 3,950
500 500 550 650 750 800 900 1,000 1,100 1,200 1,300 1,350 1,450 1,600 1,800 2,000 2,200 2,300 2,500 2,700 2,900 3,000 3,250 3,400 3,600 3,800
Table 9.1 Fitting configurations manufactured by Tyco Water. Note: 1) Mitred bend radii designed to restrict stress concentration at inside leg to max of 1.25 times hoop stress in pipe. 2) Q may need to be increased when crotch plate reinforcement is used.
SECTION 9
| 65
66
section
10
Bringing water to wine Barossa Valley, South Australia. The flow capacity of a pipeline depends on the head driving the flow, the diameter and length of the pipe, the condition of the interior surface of the pipe and the number and type of fittings in the line. The flow velocity in water supply pipes usually does not exceed 3 m/s and is often below 1.5 m/s. At high flow velocities there is a risk of cavitation occurring at discontinuities in the pipeline, such as bends, joints, tees etc. To avoid this, the recommended maximum flow velocities are: 4 m/s for CML pipelines 6 m/s for FBPE pipelines
10.2 k values
The recommended value of k for cement mortar lined steel pipes is 0.01 to 0.06mm as per Table 2 of AS 2200 (2006) Design charts for water supply and sewerage. Experiments carried out by Tyco Water in collaboration with the Water Research Laboratory - University of NSW, at the State Rivers & Water Supply Commission of Victoria Hydraulic Experimental Station, resulted in a k value of 0.01mm with water at 20C for new cement lined steel pipe. Therefore values of k in the lower range of the variation shown in Table 2 of AS 2200 (2006) should be chosen when determining head losses. For SINTAPIPE, k values are of the order of 0.003 to 0.015mm per AS 2200, but the actual value taken should represent any film that may build up on the surface.
10.3 Flow chart for mild steel cement mortar lined pipe
Pipe flow friction charts provide a convenient graphical means of solving the Colebrook-White formula and are sufficiently accurate for most practical purposes. Recommended values of k for new steel pipelines are: 0.003 mm for SINTAPIPE 0.03 mm for CML pipe and CML seal coated pipe Graphs 10.1 and 10.2 are based on the Colebrook White formula, using k values of 0.003 and 0.03mm, and indicate the hydraulic gradient along a straight run of pipe. Where the number of fittings is high compared with pipe length head losses can be calculated using minor loss coefficients from Table 10.1.
where: v = flow velocity g = acceleration due to gravity d = internal diameter of pipe Sg = hydraulic gradient (head loss/unit length) k = linear measure of roughness = kinematic viscosity of water = 0.11425 x 10-5 at 15 Celsius
68 | S E C T I O N
10
SECTION 10
Type of fittings 1) Entry losses Sharp edged entrance Re-entrant entrance Rounded entrance Bellmouthed entrance Footvalve and strainer 2 )Radiused bends Elbows (R/D - 0.5 approx) 22.5 45 90 Close radius bends (R/D - 1 approx.) 22.5 45 90 Long radius bends (R/D - 2 to 7) 22.5 45 90 Sweeps (R/D - 8 to 50) 22.5 45 90 3) Tees Flow in line Line to branch or branch to line:sharp-edged radiused
KL
Type of fittings 5) Sudden enlargements Inlet dia:Outlet dia.4:5 3:4 2:3 1:2 1:3 1:5 and over 6) Sudden contractions Inlet dia:Outlet dia.5:4 0.20 3:2 2:1 3:1 5:1 and over 7) Tapers Flow to small end = 0 Flow to large end Inlet dia.: Outlet dia. 4:5 3:4 1:2 8) Valves Gate valve - fully open - 25% closed - 50% closed - 75% closed
KL
0.35
1.20 0.80
4) Angle branches Flow in line Line to branch or branch to line:30 angle 45 angle 90 angle Table 10.1 - Pipeline fittings loss coefficients
1.00 0.20
SECTION 10
| 69
Velocity v in metres/second Graph 10.1 Pipe flow and head loss , k = 0.003
70 | S E C T I O N
10
Discharge Q in litres/second
SECTION 10
Velocity v in metres/second Graph 10.2 Pipe flow and head loss , k = 0.03
SECTION 10
Discharge Q in litres/second
SECTION 10
| 73
Mitred bends
Mitred bends are less efficient hydraulically than radiused bends, however they can be readily fabricated to suit specific geometrical needs. Loss coefficients vary markedly with Reynolds number (R) and normally, to a lesser extent, with inlet and outlet arrangements and surface roughness. Figure 10.2
90 Composite bend KL
90 Composite Bend 2 x 45 3 x 30 4 x 22.5 Table 10.3 re /d 1.0 0.45 0.42 0.40 1.5 0.35 0.33 0.31 2.0 0.31 0.27 0.25 3.0 0.35 0.21 0.19 4.0 0.40 0.23 0.19
Single mitres
The coefficients given below are defined at a Reynolds number of 106, with long and hydraulically smooth inlet and outlet pipes. Miller (ref 9, chapter 8) gives correction factors for other inlet:outlet arrangements and roughness. K1 Table 10.2 11
1/4
22
1/2
45 0.30
60 0.50
90 1.15
Other angles
Coefficients for combinations of two single mitres can be derived from: KLE = (KL1 + KL2) x Cbb Where Cbb = headloss coefficient factor for bends KLE = Effective headloss coefficient
0.03
0.07
Figure 10.1
KL1 = headloss coefficient bend 1 KL2 = headloss coefficient bend 2 re/d Cbb Table 10.4 mm mm 1 0.82 2 0.73 3 0.78
Composite mitres
The equivalent circular arc re, needed for re/d values, can be calculated using: re = a cot 90 2 2n
() ( )
10
SECTION 10
50
100
200
500
1000
5000
From Table 7.1 select a 914mm OD x 6mm wall thickness pipe with 16mm thick cement mortar lining. (Actual mean bore = 870mm) From Table 7.1 permissible working head for this pipe is 289 metres. From Graph 10.2 flow velocity is 2.1m/s - well within normal limits.
Reynolds number
R = vd = vd where v = water velocity d = inside diameter of pipe = kinematic viscosity = dynamic viscosity = density
| 75
Water Hammer
76
section
11
The maximum potential pressure rise will then be generated by the interaction of all possible shock waves. Valve closure in a period greater than Tr reduces the maximum surge.
where t = steel wall thickness P = internal design pressure Do = outside diameter of pipe all = allowable hoop stress
For the case of a steel pipeline of length L metres, undergoing instantaneous valve closure or a valve closure within the reflection period Tr seconds, the resulting pressure rise can be estimated by Joukowsky's formula: h = av g or p = av 1000 where: L = length of pipeline Tr = reflection period = 2L/a h = head rise above normal operating head p = pressure rise above normal operating pressure a = pressure wave velocity (celerity) = 1440 1 d 0.5 1+ 100 t v = velocity of flow g = acceleration due to gravity d = pipe internal diameter t = pipe wall thickness m
( )}
Example
Consider a 610mm OD x 5mm thick- SINTAKOTE (SK) CML RRJpipeline, 2 km in length with a normal operating head of 90m and a flow of 160 l/s. What is the maximum surge pressure that will occur if sudden valve closure occurs.
OD, pipe outside diameter t, steel wall thickness T, cement mortar lining thickness d, inside diameter of lined pipe
= 610 =5 = 12 = 576
mm mm mm mm
Gravity Mains
For gravity mains, water hammer effects arise commonly through rapid valve closure. Valve closure within the reflection period Tr will permit shock waves of closure to be generated prior to the return of the first reflected shock wave to the valve.
78 | S E C T I O N
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= 981.6 m/s
SECTION 11
Water Hammer
Where Q = flow rate v = velocity A = bore area of lined pipe v = 160 x 10 /[( 0.576/2) ]
-3 2
= head under constant flow conditions = velocity under constant flow conditions = pipeline length = time for valve closing or opening = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81
m m/s m s m/s2
This velocity is well within acceptable limits. Pressure rise above normal operating pressure h = av/g = 981.6 x 0.614/9.81 = 61.44 m
Example
For the previous example assume To Ho n = 5 x 2L/a = 90m = 2000 x 0.61/(5 x 4.07 x 9.81 x 90) = 0.0679
Total head on pipe (sum of static and surge pressure) = 90+61.44 P = Total head x g / gamma w P = 151.44 x 9.81 / 1000 Therefore pipe wall hoop stress s = PDo 2t = 90.62 MPa = 1.49 m = 151.44
The maximum pressure rise in this case is 7 metres, significantly less than the 61.44 metres calculated using Joukowsky's equation. The examples above show that a valve in a flowing pipeline should be closed slowly, and particularly for the last 10% of closure, Skeat (ref. 8) recommends the last 10% of valve closure should take at least 10xTr.
s = 1.49 x 610 / (2 x 5)
= 4.07
Pumped mains
For pumped mains water hammer effects can develop through pump start up or stoppage. The pressure rise during pump start up will not exceed the maximum head value on the HQ characteristic curve for the pump. However, the positive surge along the full pipe length will exceed the normal operating hydraulic grade line. This condition should be closely examined for long pipelines and particularly where thinner walled pipe has been selected away from the pumping facilities. The sudden stoppage of pumps, such as caused by power failure, is a common cause of water hammer problems. Potentially more damaging conditions are likely if water column separation occurs. The subsequent rejoining of water columns may cause pressure surges sufficient to damage the pipeline. Where no separation occurs, the maximum positive pressure at the pump delivery point will not exceed twice the normal operating pressure. Typical surge profiles are shown in Figure 11.1. Locations A and B are potential zones of column separation should the maximum negative surge drop below the pipeline.
As the pressure rise computed above is well below the working pressure of steel pipelines, the period for critical closure does not need to be determined. It has been calculated to illustrate the procedure as high velocity/head conditions should always be checked.
Allievi Method
For water hammer caused by slowly opening or closing valves (To > 2L/a) an approximation of the pressure change may be made using a formula similar to Allievi's. This formula assumes that from the time the first reflective wave returns to the valve until it is fully closed, the pressure remains unchanged and that the effective opening area of the valve is changed rectilinearly. H = 1+ n ( n n2+4 ) Ho 2 The plus is associated with the pressure rise in closing the valve, the minus with pressure drop at the time of opening. where n = Lvo (TogHo) m
SECTION 11
| 79
A surge diagram shows the system resistance curve represented as hydraulic levels and velocities. The pressure change per unit velocity change is derived from Joukowsky's formula, namely: h = a v g The pressure change equates to 111 metres for a 1 m/s velocity change in this example. It has been assumed that the pump/motor rotational moment of inertia is insignificant, and no column separation occurs over the pipeline length. The pump stoppage condition is shown in Graph 11.1. Prior to stoppage, the system operating point is at the intersection of the system resistance and pump curve (a). Upon stoppage, both the pressure and flow velocity drop (b). The minimum pressure occurs when the velocity falls to zero (c). The velocity then reverses and the pressure increases (d). The maximum reverse velocity occurs at the intersection with the s
Example
An example has been analysed to demonstrate this method. The following steady state conditions have been assumed: OD, pipe outside diameter t, steel wall thickness T, CML pipe length flow velocity celerity static lift friction headloss pumping head
80 | S E C T I O N
11
= = = = = = = = = =
SECTION 11
Water Hammer
system resistance curve (e). The flow velocity reduces and pressures increase due to the water column coming to rest against the pump's check valve (f). The maximum pressure occurs when the flow comes to rest (g). The cycles of pressure and velocity-change continue until the system flow comes to rest at the static head condition (h). The pump start up condition is shown in Graph 11.2. Prior to pump start, the system operating point is at the static head condition (a). Upon pump start up both the pressures and flow velocities increase (b). The pressure increases to a maximum at the intersection with the pump curve (c). Then there is a drop in pressure but the flow velocities continue to increase (d). The flow velocity continues to increase with pressures fluctuating between the system resistance and pump curve (e). The system eventually settles at the normal operating condition at the intersection of the system resistance curve and pump curve (f).
Surge tower
Consists of an open ended tower. Mainly used in gravity systems, particularly hydroelectric schemes. They can be used in low head pumping systems where the height does not become excessive. They dampen both positive and negative surges.
Air vessel
A pressure vessel containing air and water. They dampen both positive and negative surges. Their use is usually limited by cost.
General recommendation
It is suggested that a detailed surge analysis be undertaken if there is a possibility of column separation or pipe flow velocities exceed 1 m/s in systems where appurtenances may suffer damage under high head.
Computer programmes
A number of companies lease out computer programmes to enable rapid, economical and accurate water hammer analysis. They are ideal in modelling the incorporation of protection devices as described above, due to the inherent hydraulic complexity of these controls. Care should be exercised in using these programmes however, and it is advisable that experienced operators be consulted to ensure realistic modelling.
Further reading
The following references are recommended for further information: Parmakian (ref 14), Streeter (ref 15), Pickford (ref 16), Watters (ref 17), Webb (ref 18).
Flywheel
Effective for pipeline lengths up to about 1000 metres. They dampen the negative surge upon pump stoppage and consequently dampen the associated positive surge.
SECTION 11
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SECTION 11
Water Hammer
| 83
Anchorage of Pipelines
84
section
12
See Section 12.2 for typical thrust block arrangements. Notes: Calculations based on pipe outside diameter, steel OD + 2 x SINTAKOTE thickness. Thrust values rounded to nearest kN. Dividing the above values by the safe bearing load of the surrounding soil will give the area of the thrust block in m2.
Example:
A 1200mm nominal diameter pipe at 45 bend with an internal pressure of 1.0 MPa. Static thrust = 960 Soil allowable bearing pressure = 48 Thus area required = 960/48 = 20.0 kN kN/m2 m2
Vertical thrust
Downward thrusts are transferred to the undisturbed ground by anchor blocks in the same manner as horizontal thrusts. Upwards
See Table 12.1 for values of static thrusts at typical fittings over a range of pipe diameters.
Ts Re Ts Ts Ts Ts
Re =2TsSin 2
Anchor block for horizontal tee Anchor block for horizontal taper
SECTION 12
Anchorage of Pipelines
OD mm Blank end 219 324 610 762 1016 1200 1422 1626 1829 31 71 283 442 785 1,131 1,539 2,011 2,545
Thrust developed per MPa internal pressure kN 90 Bend 44 100 400 625 1,111 1,599 2,177 2,843 3,599 45 Bend 24 54 216 338 601 866 1,178 1,539 1,948 22.5 Bend 12 28 110 172 306 441 601 785 993 11.25 Bend 6 14 55 87 154 222 302 394 499
Sand
48
72
96
Shale
240
Table 12.1 - Static thrust values thrusts are counteracted by the mass of the concrete anchor blocks. See Figure 12.3. Where the water table in the area is likely to reach the level of the anchor block the submerged mass of the block should be used in the calculation to determine the anchor block size.
Table 12.2 - Safe soil bearing pressures Thrust blocks are not required in a welded pipeline since the unbalanced force is transmitted into the pipeline in the form of longitudinal stress. Where a rubber ring joint pipeline is involved, a similar situation can be achieved by providing a number of welded joints on each side of a fitting where a change of direction occurs. To consider this alternative the frictional resistance of the pipeline in the soil must be checked to determine the number of welded joints necessary to produce an effective anchoring embedment length.
Gradient thrust
Pipes laid at a gradient between 1 in 10 and 1 in 6 should be analysed for anchor block requirement. Rubber ring jointed pipes laid on steep slopes require restraint to prevent relative movement of the individual pipes due to the component of the pipe mass and contents acting along the direction of the gradient. See Figure 12.3. Frictional resistance between the pipeline coating and the backfill material counteract a portion of the sliding thrust. Thrust blocks should be designed to take the balance of the force.
Friction Factor
The AWWA (ref 11) states coefficients of friction , between soil and steel pipe coatings are generally in the range 0.25 to 0.40. No data has been published for fusion bonded polyethylene and hence extensive experimental work was carried out by Tyco Water to determine the appropriate range of values. Results can be summarised as follows: Where sand backfill or low clay content contact the coating, a friction coefficient of 0.32 is appropriate. For sand backfill using SINTAKOTE pipe with a factory applied sand coating, a friction coefficient of 0.50 is appropriate. Where clay soils are in contact with the coating, a friction coefficient of 0.16 should be used. Note that clay would not normally be placed directly against the pipe surface. These values should provide a reasonable degree of conservatism in designing the required length of pipeline to be welded to generate adequate restraint.
| 87
SECTION 12
Anchorage of Pipelines
Anchorage length
The length of pipe required to balance these forces can be deduced from L = PA (1-cos) x 10 (2Wd+Ww+Wp)
3
where = soil density (see Table13.1) D = pipe outside diameter H = height of ground surface above top of pipe therefore Wd = weight of soil prism above pipe = 9.81DH/1000 = 9.81 x 1800 x 0.563 x 1.0/1000 = 9.960 Ww = weight of water in pipe = (0.525/2)2 x 9.81 x 1000/1000 = 2.124 Wp = weight of pipe (refer Table 7.1 pipe masses)
kg/m3 m m
where L = pipeline length to be anchored P = internal pressure A = cross sectional area based on pipe OD + coating thickness = angle of deflection of bend
m MPa m
2
kN/m
degrees
kN/m
= soil friction coefficient Wd = weight of backfill Ww = weight of water in pipe Wp = weight of pipe kN/m kN/m kN/m
= 120 x 9.81/1000 = 1.177 kN/m = 0.32 hence L = 2/4 x (0.563)2 x (1-cos90) x 103/[0.32(2 x 9.960+2.124+1.177)] = 67.0 m If each pipe is 12m long, then 5 joints are required to be welded.
kN
Force available at the pipe face = 1.69 x 0.563 x 96 x 0.8 = 73.1 pipe length to be welded is = (2/4 x (0.563)2 x (1-cos90) x 103 -73.1 x sin(90/2) / [0.32 (2 x 9.96 + 2.124 + 1.177)] = 57.3 m kN
= 4 joints to be welded
Note:
When the backfill depth to trench width ratio is > 10, consideration should be given to a reduction in the weight of soil on the pipe. For such an analysis using Marston's theory, designers should consult Spangler and Handy (ref 3) and AS 2566.1.
SECTION 12
| 89
90
section
13
Material
Unified Soil Classification symbol (see Table 13.2) CL, CH, ML, MH CL, CH, ML, MH GM, SM, SC GW, SW, GP, SP
Weight kN/m3 21 19 18 15
GW Well-graded gravels, gravel-sand mixtures, little or no fines GP Poorly graded gravels, gravel sand mixtures, little or no fines
Performance aspects
The performance of the selected pipe is checked principally in two ways: 1. Ring deflection by verifying that the unpressurised pipe under trench backfill, other superimposed distributed loads and traffic loads will not suffer excessive ring deflection. 2. Ring buckling by verifying whether the pipe has adequate shell stability or resistance to buckling to resist local external loads and internal vacuum loads. The combined effects of ring bending stress due to external pressures and hoop stress due to internal pressure are generally not significantly greater than the effects of internal pressure alone. As a result, hoop stress only is normally adequate for determination of wall thickness. In addition it may be necessary to assess axial and beam bending loads. In rubber ring joint pipes correctly placed in a trench, the axial and bending loads are small and not usually taken into account. The following methods of load calculation and performance assessment are recommended for their ease of application and proven track record in practice.
GM Silty gravels, poorly graded gravel-sand-silt mixtures GL SW SP SM SC ML CL MH CH OL OH Pt Clayey gravels, poorly graded gravel-sand-clay mixtures Well-graded sands, gravely sands, little or no fines Poorly graded sands, gravely sands, little or no fines Silty sands, poorly graded-silt mixtures Clayey sands, poorly graded sand-clay mixtures Inorganic silts & very fine sand, silty or clayey fine sands Inorganic clays of low to medium plasticity Inorganic silts, micaceous or diatomaceous fine sandy or silty soils, elastic silts Inorganic clays of high plasticity, fat clays Organic silts and organic silt-clays of low plasticity Organic clays of medium to high plasticity Peat and other highly organic soils
Table 13.2 - Unified Soil Classification Source: Classification of Soils for Engineering Purposes. ASTM Standard D2487-9, ASTM, Philadelphia, Pa. (1969). Compaction and effective combined soil modulus E Depending on the ring deflection and surface settlement considerations of the installation, different levels of compaction can be specified to achieve the necessary effective combined soil modulus E. As a guide, non trafficable installations such as in open field would require compaction to achieve 60% density index in cohesionless materials or 90% dry density ratio in cohesive materials. Trafficable installations such as under road pavement may require compaction to achieve 70% density index in cohesive materials or 95% dry density ratio in cohesive soils.
Load calculation
Calculation of soil loads is based on Marston's theory (ref 6) for flexible pipe. Calculation of traffic wheel load effects is based on work by Boussinesq (ref 10) and the Bridge Design Code Section Two Design Loads Austroads (1992). It is to be noted that the transient loads from internal vacuum and surface live loadings are not usually considered simultaneously. Loads from groundwater and internal vacuum are hydrostatic in nature and do not generally affect pipe ring deflection, but a check should be made to ensure ring buckling stability of the shell.
92 | S E C T I O N
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SECTION 13
Deflection calculation
A variety of methods have been developed for the evaluation of the structural strength of the pipe as well as the external loads acting on the pipe. A popular formula for calculation of pipe ring deflection is that developed by MG Spangler and later modified by Watkins and Spangler at the Iowa State University. Other methods of deflection estimation are available and vary in their degree of sophistication. Some require extensive calculation using computer programmes which require numerous soil parameters to be either estimated or measured in the field for input to the analysis. The degree of sophistication is questionable given the intrinsic variability of soil parameters, the difficulty in their consistent estimation, their often time dependent nature and the propensity for soil-pipe structures to be disturbed during their service life. Generally, the Spangler-Watkins formula is preferred because of its extensive history of successful application, ease of use and understanding.
support, whereas Moores equation is valid only where external soil support is present.
kPa kN/m3 m m
Embankment condition
For embankment condition the settlement ratio is assumed to be zero, that is settlement of the soil columns beside the pipe is assumed equal to the settlement of the soil column above the pipe.
| 93
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0 0.5 0.7 1 2 4 6 8 10
Cover Height (m) Legend: = Single lane = Multiple lanes = HLP 320 loading = HLP 400 loading
SECTION 13
Finished surface
load shall be uniformly distributed at the top of the pipe, over an area similar to the contact area of such load, and with sides equal to 1.45 H greater than the sides of the contact area. See Fig 13.1. Where the surcharge from loads overlap, the total load shall be considered as uniformly distributed over the area defined by the outside limits of the combined areas See Fig 13.1. On the basis of these assumptions, the average intensity of the design live load at the top of the pipe due to multiple wheel or track vehicle loads, including impact effects, is calculated from the following equation: wq = P (L1L2) where = 1.4 0.15H but not less than 1.1 = impact effects P= sum of wheel loads L1 = total wheel footprint width (Graph 13.1) L2 = total wheel footprint length (Graph 13.1) kPa
kN m m
Road vehicles
Unless otherwise specified by the regulatory authority, road vehicle loads shall be taken as given in AUSTROADS Bridge Design Code Section 2 and the average intensity of the design load (wq), for these loadings is shown in Graph 13.1. (This load distribution includes the effect of the tyre footprint) Where the cover (H) is less than 0.4 m, a wheel or track load shall be considered to act at the top of the pipe on an area equal to the contact area of such load. Where the depth of fill over a pipe is 0.4 m or more, a wheel or track
SECTION 13
| 95
Compaction Low <----------------------------> High RD (%) Soil Description Soil Classification 85 90 ID (%) 50 60 70 80 95 100
Standard Penetration Test - Number of Blows 4 Gravel single size Gravel graded Sand and coarse-grained soil with less than 12% fines Coarse-grained soil with more than 12% fines Fine-grained soil (LL<50%) with medium to no plasticity and containing more than 25% coarse-grained particles Fine-grained soil (LL<50%) with medium to no plasticity and containing less than 25% coarse-grained particles : Fine-grained soil (LL>50%) with medium to high plasticity GW GW GP, SW, SP and GM-GL, GC-SC GM, GC, SC, SM and GM-SC, GC-SC CL, ML, ML-CL, CL-CH, ML-MH CI, CL, ML, ML-CL, CL-CH, ML-MH CH, MH and CH-MH 5 3 1 NA NA >4 14 7 5 3 1 1 >14 24 7 7 5 3 3 >24 50 10 10 7 5 5 >50 14 20 14 10 10
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA = Soils in these categories require special engineering analysis to determine required density, moisture content and compaction. RD = Dry density ratio (ref AS 1289, 5.4.1 and 14.2) ID = Density index (ref AS 1289, 5.6.1 and 14.2) Table 13.3 - Embedment (Ee) and native (En) soil moduli
( )
MPa MPa
Ee = embedment soil modulus (ref Table 13.3) En = native soil modulus ( B/De 1 ) f = 1.44 1.154 + 0.444 ( B/De -1) B = Width of the trench at the pipe spring line De = D = Pipe outside diameter
m m
MPa
96 | S E C T I O N
SECTION 13
This limit is recommended to avoid possible repetitive flexing of the pipe to an extent which could cause the cement mortar lining to fray at cracks. It should be noted that a reduction in the deflection can in most cases be achieved by improving the pipe bedding conditions in localities where the pipe will be subject to traffic loads and not necessarily by selecting a pipe with greater wall thickness.
the pipe outside diameter can be used for mild steel cement mortar lined pipes. This limit is to avoid significant cracking of the cement mortar lining. The allowable deflection must also be within acceptable limits of ring bending stress in the steel pipe shell. This limit is determined by: Stress limit = 0.00014 x (SMYS or NMYS) x D/t For low D/t pipes (high stiffness) this deflection limit may be below 4%. In those situations the stress limit will apply. Additionally the limit for RRJ-S pipes is reduced for pipe sizes above 660mm OD. Table 13.4 gives the allowable deflection limits for buried mild steel cement mortar lined pipes. The limits should be used in conjunction with AS/NZS 2566 to determine the suitability of the trench design, compaction, loadings, etc. Limits for pipe diameters outside the range given in Table 13.4 can be provided on request. It should be noted that these design limits are applicable to trench design only, and do not apply to the field inspection of rubber ring jointed pipes. The higher stiffness in the joint region of rubber ring jointed pipes means that there is reduced deflection, and accordingly reduced limits apply.
( )
b all
where b all = allowable ring bending strain = shape factor Df = SD 3.333 x 10-6 + 0.00136 E SD 1.11 x 10-6 + 0.000151 E
( ) ( )
Field inspection
The deflection limits for the field inspection of welded joints are the same as those used for design. However for rubber ring jointed pipes a lower limit applies to the joint area, due to the stiffening affect of the joint, see Table 8.2.
b all = 0.001449 for t 8 = 0.001208 for t > 8 (At 100% MYS, = / E for t 8, MYS = 300 Mpa = 300 /207000 = 0.001449 for t > 8 MYS = 250 MPa = 250 /207000 = 0.001208)
Internal Pressure
The applied internal pressure Pw shall not exceed the maximum allowable pressure Pr , i.e. Pw Pr Pr can be obtained from Table 8.1
Design
The design of buried pipes with respect to trench design, backfill material, compaction, loadings, etc depends on pipe material stiffness, diameter, wall thickness, the allowable deflection limit, etc. Calculations of pipe deflection should be undertaken in accordance with AS/NZS 2566, and compared against the allowable deflection limits. Extensive testing undertaken by Tyco Water Technologies has determined that a maximum safe allowable deflection limit of 4% of
( )
SECTION 13
| 97
SECTION 13
or
kPa kPa
2=
(ii) For H < 0.5m qall where FS = factor of safety = 2.5 unless specified otherwise H = height of ground surface above top of pipe 24 SD x 10-3 1= FS (1-2)
SECTION 13
| 99
SECTION 13
Pipe OD
Wall Thickness
Pipe OD
Wall Thickness
(mm) 324 324 337 337 356 356 406 406 419 419 457 457 508 508 559 559 610 648 648 660 660 700 700 711 711 762 800 813
(%) 2.7 2.3 2.8 2.4 3.0 2.5 3.4 2.8 3.5 2.9 3.8 3.2 4.0 3.6 4.0 3.9 4.0 4.0 3.4 4.0 3.5 4.0 3.7 4.0 3.7 4.0 4.0 4.0
(%) 2.7 2.3 2.8 2.4 3.0 2.5 3.4 2.8 3.5 2.9 3.8 3.2 4.0 3.6 4.0 3.9 4.0 4.0 3.4 4.0 3.5 3.9 3.9 3.9 3.7 3.8 3.7 3.7
(%)
(mm) 914 960 960 1016 1016 1035 1035 1067 1067 1085 1085 1125 1125 1200 1200 1219 1219 1290 1290 1404 1422 1440 1500 1575 1626 1750 1829
(%) 4.0 4.0 3.4 4.0 3.6 4.0 3.6 4.0 3.7 4.0 3.8 4.0 3.9 4.0 3.5 4.0 3.6 4.0 3.8 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0
(%) 3.5 3.4 3.4 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.1 3.1 2.9
(%)
4.0 3.5
2.9
4.0 3.6
2.8
4.0 3.8 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0
Table 13.4 Maximum Allowable Pipe Deflection for Design of SKCL Buried Pipe Key: RRJ-S = Single hardness rubber ring joint RRJ-D = Dual hardness rubber ring joint
SECTION 13
| 101
102
section
14
Sag pockets
Where it is required to completely drain intermittently supported pipelines, care must be taken to avoid sag pockets. To eliminate such pockets, each downstream support level must be lower than the adjacent upstream support by an amount that exceeds the sag of the pipe between the supports. A convenient rule is to ensure the elevation of one end is higher than the other by an amount equal to four times the deflection calculated at the mid span of the pipe. The required gradient, M between supports is thus calculated: M= 4y L
Supports
Above ground pipelines can be supported in a number of ways depending on such factors as pipe size, the span required and economics. Where the pipe itself acts as a structural span, it may be supported on suitably padded saddles which may be fixed on piers attached to hangers or cantilevers.
Saddles
The angle of the contact area of saddles usually varies from 90 to 120, with the latter being a convenient design. For equal load, the larger the contact angle the lower the saddle stresses. Saddle supports cause critical points of stress in the steel pipe wall adjacent to the saddle edges. The critical stresses are practically independent of the width of the saddle and accordingly the saddle width may be determined by the design width of the pier or cantilever. In the case of hangers the saddle width is determined by the choice of materials at the pipe-saddle interface. Should overstress be encountered it is often more economical to increase the wall thickness of the pipe than to provide stiffening rings, especially where diameter of the pipes is 900 mm or less. This thickening may apply to the entire span or for a distance each side of the saddle support of approximately two pipe diameters plus the width of the saddle. Pipes should be held in each saddle by steel hold-down straps bolted to the main structural support.
mm mm
Pipe-saddle interface
Depending on the coating finish specified for the pipe and the frequency of any movement relative to the saddle, the interface may require padding. Where coating damage is inconsequential padding is unnecessary. When coatings are to be protected in installation and against localised stress a neoprene pad is recommended. Where the pipe saddle interface must accommodate sliding, an arrangement of suitable materials must be considered. These include PTFE, teflon and aluminium. In this case the arrangement should ensure that the sliding capacity is maintained, free of possible contamination by grit or dust. Multiple strips in the padding combination may be necessary.
104 | S E C T I O N
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SECTION 14
the analysis conservatively assumes the joint is not absolutely rigid and allows some moment redistribution. This effectively reduces bending moment on the joint and the maximum allowable span. Above ground rubber ring jointed pipe supported by saddles is treated as a simply supported beam and is considered in the next section. Consider a welded joint pipeline. This can be treated as a built-in beam. W C L Ps Figure 14.1 Supported Beam Bending moment at A and B Bending moment at C where w = (M1 +M2 +MW) x 9.81 M1 = unit mass of steel shell = 0.02466 (D t) t M2 = unit mass of cement mortar lining = 0.00755 ( D 2t T)T MW = unit mass of water, pipe full = p (D - 2t -2T)2 4000 where D t T L Ps p = outside diameter of pipe = steel wall thickness = cement mortar lining thickness = span = saddle reaction = density = 1000 kg/m3 (for water) N/m kg/m kg/m kg/m w L2 12 w L2 24 Nm Nm Ps
mm mm mm
Cracking and spalling of Cement Lining in steel pipes occurs when the longitudinal bending stress in the pipe reaches 80 MPa. Therefore a tentative maximum longitudinal bending stress of 80 MPa has been used in the following analysis. This limit can be changed by the designer to suit particular requirements. Correction factors are included to achieve this. By substituting MB = wL2/12 in the bending stress equation for maximum moments at A and B and rearranging we have: L1 =
MA = MB = MC =
1/2
m m
1/2
This equation holds for fully welded pipe, that is a pipe with either a full butt weld or a double weld lap joint. For spans with pipes jointed at supports with only one weld, for example, a single welded lap joint, the above equation is modified to: L2 = 0.08155 ( M +M +MZ )
1 2 W
1/2
to reduce the structural bending load on the single circumferential weld. If the allowable bending stress required is other than 80 MPa, the resultant value of L in the above equations should be multiplied by the appropriate correction factor: For example, if new value of B = 65 MPa then the correction factor = (65/80)1/2 = 0.90 The recommended maximum spans for continuous fully welded (butt welded or double lap welded) and single lap welded cement mortar lined pipe are given in Table 14.1. This table takes into account the total weight of pipes full of water with a density of 1000 kg/m3. Spans have been calculated allowing for a maximum bending stress of 80 MPa. This may be increased if higher bending stresses are allowable on a project. However, it is important that deflection, buckling and other stresses (Poisson, temperature and saddle stresses) also be checked before deciding on the acceptable span. Note: the contribution of CML to the section modulus is conservatively taken to be zero.
mm mm mm m N kg/m3
B = 1000 MB
Z where Z = elastic section modulus of pipe = ( D4 d4 ) 32 D = r2 t D = outside diameter of pipe
MPa
mm
mm3 mm
SECTION 14
| 105
Nm
Hence the span can be calculated by using the equation: 1/2 L3 = 0.0652 Z M1+M2+MW
Figure 14.2 - Pier support for above ground SINTAJOINT pipelines m at supports, the mid span deflection can be determined from: 4 = 5wL 384 E I where = deflection w = [(M1 +M2 +MW) x 9.81]/ 1000 L = span of simply supported pipe E = Youngs modulus for steel = 207,000 I D d Rav t = (D - d ) = Rav t 64
4 4
In this equation the allowable bending stress is taken as 80 MPa. If the allowable stress is other than 80 MPa the resultant value of L3 should be multiplied by the correction factor shown in Section 14.2. The recommended maximum spans for simply supported pipelines are provided in Table 14.1. Once the span is determined, deflection, buckling and Poisson, temperature and saddle stresses should be checked.
= external diameter of the pipe = internal diameter of the pipe = pipe mean radius = (D-t)/2 = pipe wall thickness
In the case of a pipe with single welded lap joints at supports, the mid span deflection is determined from: 4 mm = 3wL 384 E I For a pipe with butt welded or double welded lap joints at supports the mid span deflection is determined from: 4 mm = wL 384 E I Pipe deflection should be kept within 1/360 span.
14.4 Deflection
In the case of a simply supported pipe, for example, a SINTAJOINT
106 | S E C T I O N
14
SECTION 14
The equivalent stress (e) based on Hencky-Mises failure theory is calculated from the resultant longitudinal (L) and circumferential (c) stresses as follows
- hoop stress from internal pressure - localised stress at the tip of the saddle support The equivalent stress (e) based on Hencky-Mises failure theory is calculated from the resultant longitudinal (L) and circumferential (c) stresses as follows
SECTION 14
| 107
108 | S E C T I O N
14
SECTION 14
where E = Youngs modulus for steel = 207,000 = coefficient of linear expansion for steel = 12 x 10-6 MPa mm/mm/C
In the case of axially restrained, that is welded joint pipelines, the internal pressure results in a longitudinal stress due to the Poisson effect. The Poisson stress = h where = Poissons ratio = 0.27
SECTION 14
| 109
Section Dimensions Steel Shell OD t mm mm 114 4.8 168 5.0 190 5.0 219 5.0 240 5.0 257 5.0 273 5.0 290 5.0 324 4.0 324 4.5 324 5.0 324 6.0 337 4.0 337 4.5 337 5.0 337 6.0 356 4.0 356 4.5 356 5.0 356 6.0 406 4.0 406 4.5 406 5.0 406 6.0 406 8.0 419 4.0 419 4.5 419 5.0 419 6.0 419 8.0 457 4.0 457 4.5 457 5.0 457 6.0 457 8.0 502 4.0 502 4.5 502 5.0 502 6.0 502 8.0 508 4.0 508 4.5 CML T mm 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 SK ts mm 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 Steel M1 kg/m 12.9 20.1 22.8 26.4 29.0 31.1 33.0 35.1 31.6 35.5 39.3 47.1 32.8 36.9 40.9 49.0 34.7 39.0 43.3 51.8 39.7 44.6 49.4 59.2 78.5 40.9 46.0 51.0 61.1 81.1 44.7 50.2 55.7 66.7 88.6 49.1 55.2 61.3 73.4 97.5 49.7 55.9
Component Masses CML M2 kg/m 6.5 10.1 11.6 13.6 15.0 16.2 17.3 24.3 27.5 27.5 27.4 27.2 28.7 28.6 28.5 28.4 30.4 30.4 30.3 30.1 35.0 34.9 34.8 34.6 34.2 36.1 36.1 36.0 35.8 35.4 39.6 39.5 39.4 39.2 38.9 43.7 43.6 43.5 43.3 42.9 44.2 44.1 Water Mw kg/m 5.9 15.4 20.6 28.6 35.3 41.2 47.1 51.4 66.9 66.5 66.0 65.1 73.0 72.5 72.1 71.1 82.4 81.9 81.4 80.4 109.8 109.2 108.6 107.5 105.2 117.6 117.0 116.4 115.2 112.8 141.8 141.1 140.5 139.1 136.5 173.4 172.7 171.9 170.5 167.6 177.9 177.1 Total Mass MTOT kg/m 25.3 45.6 55.0 68.6 79.3 88.4 97.4 110.9 126.0 129.4 132.7 139.3 134.6 138.1 141.5 148.5 147.6 151.3 154.9 162.2 184.4 188.7 192.9 201.3 217.9 194.7 199.0 203.4 212.0 229.3 226.1 230.8 235.6 245.1 263.9 266.2 271.5 276.7 287.2 308.0 271.8 277.1
Second moment of area I x 106 mm4 2 8 12 19 25 31 38 45 51 58 64 76 58 65 72 85 68 77 85 101 102 114 127 151 198 112 126 139 166 218 146 164 181 216 284 194 217 241 287 379 201 225
Section Modulus Z x 103 mm3 43 101 131 176 212 244 277 313 318 356 393 467 344 385 426 507 385 431 477 567 502 563 623 742 975 536 600 665 792 1,041 639 716 793 945 1,244 773 866 960 1,145 1,508 791 888
Fully Welded L1 m 12.9 14.7 15.3 15.8 16.2 16.4 16.7 16.6 15.7 16.4 17.0 18.1 15.8 16.5 17.2 18.3 16.0 16.7 17.4 18.5 16.3 17.1 17.8 19.0 20.9 16.4 17.2 17.9 19.1 21.1 16.6 17.4 18.2 19.4 21.5 16.9 17.7 18.4 19.8 21.9 16.9 17.7
Safe Span Single Lap Weld L2 m 11.8 13.5 13.9 14.4 14.8 15.0 15.2 15.2 14.3 15.0 15.5 16.5 14.4 15.1 15.7 16.7 14.6 15.2 15.8 16.9 14.9 15.6 16.2 17.3 19.1 15.0 15.7 16.3 17.5 19.2 15.2 15.9 16.6 17.7 19.6 15.4 16.1 16.8 18.0 20.0 15.4 16.2
Simply Supported L3 m 10.5 12.0 12.4 12.9 13.2 13.4 13.6 13.6 12.8 13.4 13.9 14.8 12.9 13.5 14.0 14.9 13.0 13.6 14.2 15.1 13.3 14.0 14.5 15.5 17.1 13.4 14.0 14.6 15.6 17.2 13.6 14.2 14.8 15.9 17.5 13.8 14.4 15.0 16.1 17.9 13.8 14.5
Table 14.1 - Maximum span for Simply Supported MSCL pipe. (Bending stresses only)
110 | S E C T I O N
14
SECTION 14
Section Dimensions Steel Shell OD t mm mm 508 5.0 508 6.0 508 8.0 559 4.0 559 4.5 559 5.0 559 6.0 559 8.0 610 4.5 610 5.0 610 6.0 610 8.0 610 9.5 648 4.5 648 5.0 648 6.0 648 8.0 648 9.5 660 4.5 660 5.0 660 6.0 660 8.0 660 9.5 700 4.5 700 5.0 700 6.0 700 8.0 700 9.5 700 12.0 711 5.0 711 6.0 711 8.0 711 9.5 711 12.0 762 5.0 762 6.0 762 8.0 762 9.5 762 12.0 800 5.0 800 6.0 800 8.0 800 9.5 CML T mm 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 16 16 16 16 SK ts mm 1.8 1.8 1.8 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 Steel M1 kg/m 62.0 74.3 98.6 54.7 61.5 68.3 81.8 108.7 67.2 74.6 89.4 118.8 140.7 71.4 79.3 95.0 126.3 149.6 72.7 80.8 96.8 128.6 152.4 77.2 85.7 102.7 136.5 161.8 203.6 87.0 104.3 138.7 164.3 206.8 93.3 111.9 148.7 176.3 221.9 98.0 117.5 156.2 185.2
Component Masses CML M2 kg/m 44.0 43.9 43.5 48.8 48.7 48.7 48.5 48.1 53.4 53.3 53.1 52.7 52.5 56.8 56.7 56.5 56.2 55.9 57.9 57.8 57.6 57.3 57.0 61.5 61.4 61.2 60.9 60.6 60.2 62.4 62.2 61.9 61.6 61.2 67.0 66.9 66.5 66.2 65.8 93.5 93.3 92.8 92.4 Water Mw kg/m 176.4 174.9 171.9 218.0 217.2 216.4 214.7 211.4 261.3 260.4 258.6 255.0 252.4 296.9 295.9 294.0 290.2 287.3 308.6 307.6 305.7 301.8 298.8 349.2 348.2 346.1 341.9 338.8 333.7 359.8 357.7 353.4 350.3 345.1 416.0 413.8 409.2 405.8 400.2 451.0 448.7 443.9 440.4 Total Mass MTOT kg/m 282.4 293.0 314.1 321.6 327.5 333.3 345.0 368.3 381.9 388.3 401.1 426.5 445.5 425.1 431.9 445.5 472.6 492.8 439.2 446.2 460.0 487.6 508.2 487.9 495.3 510.0 539.3 561.2 597.5 509.3 524.2 554.0 576.2 613.1 576.4 592.5 624.5 648.3 687.9 642.6 659.4 692.9 718.0
Second moment of area I x 106 mm4 250 298 393 268 301 334 398 525 392 435 519 685 807 471 522 623 823 971 497 551 659 870 1,026 594 659 787 1,041 1,228 1,534 691 825 1,091 1,287 1,609 851 1,018 1,346 1,589 1,987 986 1,179 1,560 1,842
Section Modulus Z x 103 mm3 983 1,173 1,545 960 1,077 1,194 1,425 1,879 1,286 1,425 1,701 2,246 2,647 1,453 1,610 1,923 2,541 2,996 1,507 1,671 1,996 2,637 3,110 1,698 1,882 2,249 2,973 3,507 4,382 1,943 2,321 3,069 3,621 4,525 2,234 2,671 3,533 4,170 5,215 2,465 2,947 3,900 4,605
Fully Welded L1 m 18.5 19.8 21.9 17.1 17.9 18.7 20.1 22.3 18.1 18.9 20.4 22.7 24.1 18.3 19.1 20.6 22.9 24.4 18.3 19.1 20.6 23.0 24.5 18.5 19.3 20.8 23.2 24.7 26.8 19.3 20.8 23.3 24.8 26.9 19.5 21.0 23.5 25.1 27.2 19.4 20.9 23.5 25.1
Safe Span Single Lap Weld L2 m 16.9 18.1 20.0 15.6 16.4 17.1 18.4 20.4 16.6 17.3 18.6 20.7 22.0 16.7 17.4 18.8 20.9 22.3 16.7 17.5 18.8 21.0 22.3 16.8 17.6 19.0 21.2 22.6 24.5 17.6 19.0 21.3 22.6 24.5 17.8 19.2 21.5 22.9 24.9 17.7 19.1 21.4 22.9
Simply Supported L3 m 15.1 16.2 17.9 14.0 14.6 15.3 16.4 18.2 14.8 15.5 16.6 18.5 19.7 14.9 15.6 16.8 18.7 19.9 15.0 15.6 16.8 18.8 20.0 15.1 15.7 17.0 19.0 20.2 21.9 15.8 17.0 19.0 20.2 21.9 15.9 17.1 19.2 20.5 22.2 15.8 17.1 19.2 20.4 | 111
SECTION 14
Section Dimensions Steel Shell OD t mm mm 800 12.0 813 5.0 813 6.0 813 7.0 813 8.0 813 9.5 813 12.0 914 6.0 914 7.0 914 8.0 914 10.0 914 12.0 960 6.0 960 8.0 960 10.0 960 12.0 972 6.0 972 8.0 972 10.0 972 12.0 1016 8.0 1016 10.0 1016 12.0 1035 8.0 1035 10.0 1035 12.0 1067 8.0 1067 10.0 1067 12.0 1085 8.0 1085 10.0 1085 12.0 1125 8.0 1125 10.0 1125 12.0 1200 8.0 1200 10.0 1200 12.0 1219 8.0 1219 9.0 1219 10.0 1219 12.0 1283 8.0 112 | S E C T I O N
14
Component Masses SK ts mm 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 Steel M1 kg/m 233.2 99.6 119.4 139.1 158.8 188.2 237.0 134.3 156.6 178.7 222.9 266.9 141.2 187.8 234.3 280.5 142.9 190.2 237.2 284.1 198.9 248.1 297.1 202.6 252.8 302.7 208.9 260.7 312.2 212.5 265.1 317.5 220.4 275.0 329.4 235.2 293.5 351.6 238.9 268.5 298.1 357.2 251.5 CML M2 kg/m 91.8 95.1 94.8 94.6 94.3 94.0 93.4 107.0 106.8 106.5 106.1 105.6 112.6 112.1 111.6 111.1 114.0 113.6 113.1 112.6 118.9 118.4 117.9 121.2 120.7 120.2 125.0 124.5 124.1 127.2 126.7 126.2 132.0 131.6 131.1 141.1 140.6 140.1 143.4 143.1 142.9 142.4 179.0 Water Mw kg/m 434.5 466.6 464.2 461.8 459.4 455.8 449.8 594.2 591.4 588.7 583.3 577.9 658.7 652.9 647.2 641.5 676.0 670.2 664.4 658.7 735.6 729.5 723.5 764.7 758.5 752.4 815.1 808.7 802.4 844.2 837.7 831.2 910.5 903.8 897.1 1041.8 1034.6 1027.4 1076.4 1072.8 1069.1 1061.8 1185.7 Total Mass MTOT kg/m 759.5 661.3 678.5 695.5 712.6 738.0 780.3 835.5 854.8 874.0 912.3 950.4 912.4 952.8 993.1 1033.2 933.0 973.9 1014.7 1055.3 1053.3 1096.0 1138.5 1088.5 1132.0 1175.3 1149.1 1193.9 1238.6 1183.8 1229.5 1274.9 1262.9 1310.3 1357.5 1418.0 1468.6 1519.0 1458.7 1484.4 1510.1 1561.4 1616.3
CML T mm 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 19
Second moment of area I x 106 mm4 2,305 1,035 1,238 1,439 1,638 1,934 2,421 1,763 2,050 2,335 2,900 3,457 2,045 2,709 3,365 4,013 2,123 2,813 3,494 4,167 3,216 3,996 4,767 3,401 4,227 5,043 3,729 4,635 5,531 3,923 4,876 5,819 4,376 5,441 6,494 5,318 6,614 7,897 5,577 6,258 6,936 8,282 6,508
Section Modulus Z x 103 mm3 5,762 2,547 3,045 3,539 4,030 4,758 5,955 3,858 4,486 5,110 6,345 7,564 4,260 5,644 7,011 8,360 4,368 5,788 7,190 8,574 6,331 7,866 9,383 6,573 8,168 9,744 6,990 8,688 10,367 7,231 8,988 10,726 7,780 9,673 11,545 8,864 11,024 13,162 9,149 10,267 11,380 13,588 10,145
Fully Welded L1 m 27.2 19.4 21.0 22.3 23.5 25.1 27.3 21.3 22.7 23.9 26.1 27.9 21.4 24.1 26.3 28.1 21.4 24.1 26.3 28.2 24.3 26.5 28.4 24.3 26.6 28.5 24.4 26.7 28.6 24.4 26.7 28.7 24.6 26.9 28.8 24.7 27.1 29.1 24.8 26.0 27.2 29.2 24.8
Safe Span Single Lap Weld L2 m 24.9 17.7 19.1 20.4 21.5 22.9 24.9 19.4 20.7 21.8 23.8 25.5 19.5 22.0 24.0 25.7 19.5 22.0 24.0 25.7 22.1 24.2 25.9 22.2 24.3 26.0 22.3 24.4 26.1 22.3 24.4 26.2 22.4 24.5 26.3 22.6 24.7 26.6 22.6 23.7 24.8 26.6 22.6
Simply Supported L3 m 22.2 15.8 17.1 18.2 19.2 20.5 22.3 17.4 18.5 19.5 21.3 22.8 17.4 19.7 21.5 23.0 17.5 19.7 21.5 23.0 19.8 21.6 23.2 19.8 21.7 23.2 19.9 21.8 23.4 20.0 21.8 23.4 20.0 21.9 23.5 20.2 22.1 23.8 20.2 21.2 22.2 23.8 20.2
SECTION 14
Section Dimensions Steel Shell OD t mm mm 1283 10 1283 12 1283 16 1290 8 1290 10 1290 12 1290 16 1404 10 1404 12 1422 10 1422 11 1422 12 1440 10 1440 12 1440 16 1451 10 1451 12 1451 16 1500 10 1500 12 1500 16 1575 10 1575 12 1575 16 1600 10 1600 12 1600 16 1626 10 1626 12 1626 16 1750 12 1750 16 1829 12 1829 16 1981 12 1981 16 2159 12 2159 16 CML T mm 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 SK ts mm 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 Steel M1 kg/m 313.9 376.1 499.9 252.9 315.6 378.2 502.7 343.8 411.9 348.2 382.7 417.2 352.6 422.6 561.9 355.4 425.8 566.2 367.4 440.3 585.5 385.9 462.5 615.1 392.1 469.9 625.0 398.5 477.6 635.2 514.3 684.2 537.7 715.3 582.7 775.3 635.3 845.5
Component Masses CML M2 kg/m 178.5 177.9 176.7 180.0 179.5 178.9 177.7 195.8 195.2 198.4 198.1 197.8 201.0 200.4 199.3 202.6 202.0 200.8 209.6 209.0 207.9 220.3 219.8 218.6 223.9 223.4 222.2 227.7 227.1 225.9 244.9 243.7 256.2 255.1 278.0 276.9 303.5 302.4 Water Mw kg/m 1178.0 1170.3 1155.0 1199.2 1191.5 1183.8 1168.4 1422.2 1413.8 1460.5 1456.2 1451.9 1499.3 1490.6 1473.4 1523.3 1514.5 1497.1 1632.3 1623.3 1605.2 1806.5 1797.0 1778.0 1866.5 1856.9 1837.6 1930.0 1920.2 1900.6 2236.7 2215.6 2451.0 2428.9 2890.8 2866.8 3452.0 3425.7 Total Mass MTOT kg/m 1670.4 1724.3 1831.7 1632.2 1686.6 1740.8 1848.8 1961.8 2020.9 2007.1 2037.1 2067.0 2052.9 2113.6 2234.5 2081.2 2142.3 2264.1 2209.3 2272.6 2398.6 2412.8 2479.3 2611.8 2482.6 2550.1 2684.8 2556.2 2624.9 2761.8 2995.9 3143.5 3244.9 3399.2 3751.5 3918.9 4390.8 4573.6
Second moment of area I x 106 mm4 8,097 9,671 12,773 6,616 8,231 9,831 12,986 10,632 12,704 11,050 12,129 13,203 11,478 13,715 18,134 11,744 14,035 18,557 12,984 15,518 20,524 15,045 17,984 23,796 15,777 18,861 24,959 16,564 19,803 26,208 24,727 32,742 28,254 37,424 35,955 47,648 46,614 61,805
Section Modulus Z x 103 mm3 12,622 15,075 19,911 10,257 12,762 15,242 20,133 15,146 18,097 15,541 17,059 18,570 15,941 19,049 25,186 16,188 19,345 25,579 17,312 20,690 27,365 19,104 22,837 30,217 19,722 23,577 31,199 20,374 24,358 32,236 28,259 37,420 30,896 40,923 36,300 48,105 43,181 57,254
Fully Welded L1 m 27.2 29.2 32.6 24.8 27.2 29.3 32.6 27.5 29.6 27.5 28.6 29.7 27.6 29.7 33.2 27.6 29.7 33.2 27.7 29.8 33.4 27.8 30.0 33.6 27.9 30.1 33.7 27.9 30.1 33.8 30.4 34.1 30.5 34.3 30.8 34.7 31.0 35.0
Safe Span Single Lap Simply Weld Supported L2 L3 m m 24.8 22.2 26.7 23.9 29.8 26.6 22.6 20.2 24.8 22.2 26.7 23.9 29.8 26.6 25.1 22.4 27.0 24.2 25.1 22.5 26.1 23.4 27.1 24.2 25.2 22.5 27.1 24.2 30.3 27.1 25.2 22.5 27.1 24.3 30.4 27.1 25.3 22.6 27.2 24.4 30.5 27.3 25.4 22.7 27.4 24.5 30.7 27.5 25.5 22.8 27.5 24.6 30.8 27.5 25.5 22.8 27.5 24.6 30.9 27.6 27.7 24.8 31.2 27.9 27.9 24.9 31.3 28.0 28.1 25.1 31.6 28.3 28.3 25.3 32.0 28.6
SECTION 14
| 113
Appurtenance Design
114
section
15
d /SIN
15.1 Introduction
Tees, laterals and bifurcations provide a means of dividing or uniting flow in pipelines. These fittings do not have the same resistance to internal pressure as straight pipe of a similar size. Not all appurtenances need reinforcement, because the wall thickness used is generally thicker than that required for pressure considerations. However, if a pipe is operating at or near the design pressure the strength of the fitting should be checked and reinforced if necessary. Generally, reinforcement is made available by the addition of a localised thickening of the pipe, called a collar reinforcement. Other times a thicker wall pipe may be used, called a wrapper plate design, or in the case of bifurcations and tees, crotch plates may be necessary. This section only deals with the design of reinforcements of nozzles having a d/D ratio 0.7 and a PDV value 6000. For ratios of d/D greater than 0.7, refer to AWWA M11 Manual of Water Supply Practices - Steel Pipe A guide for Design and Installation.
2.5ty normal to the main pipe surface but measured from the surface of the reinforcing collar, must be taken into consideration. Consider the following: 2 PDV = 5.7087Pd 6000 2 (D sin ) P = design pressure D = outside diameter of the pipe d = outside diameter of the branch = angle of the nozzle Ty = main pipe wall thickness ty = branch pipe wall thickness M = factor (see Table 15.1) Theoretical wall thickness of the main pipe: Tr = PD 2all Theoretical wall thickness of the branch: tr = Pd 2all Area removed: AR = M Tr (d-2ty ) sin Area available as excess AA = (d-2ty)(Ty Tr ) + 5ty ( ty - tr ) sin Reinforcement area AW = AR AA = 2wT MPa mm mm degrees mm mm
mm
mm
mm2
mm2
mm2
SECTION 15
Appurtenance Design
mm
M factor from Table 15.1 = 0.00025 x 4982 = 1.25 ( Note: if = 60, PDV = 6224 > 6000. Refer to AWWA M11 ) H all d/D Ty ty Tr tr = 2 x 914 / (2 x 6 ) = 152.3 = 0.72 x 300 = 216.0 = 610/914 = 0.67 < 0.7 ( O.K.) =6 =5 = (2 x 914)/(2 x 216) = 4.23 = (2 x 610)/(2 x 216) = 2.82 MPa MPa mm mm mm mm mm2
mm
The overall width W, of the collar should not be less than 1.67d/sin and should not exceed 2.0d/sin, i.e the collar edge width w, should be within 0.333d/sin w 0.5d/sin. Collar edge width in the circumferential direction should not be less than the longitudinal edge width. Nozzles should not be placed on the pipe weld seams. In Fig. 15.1, the area Ty (d-2ty) / sin represents the section of the main pipe removed for the branch opening. The hoop tension due to pressure that would be taken by the area removed must be carried by the total areas represented by 2wT and 5ty (ty tr ), or 2.5ty (ty tr ) on each side of the branch. PDV 4000 6000 < 4000 d/D 0.7 0.7 M factor 0.00025PDV 1.0
Theoretical reinforcement area ( Area removed ) AR = 1.25 x 4.23 x (610-2 x 5)/ sin75 = 3284 Area available as excess AA = (610-10)/sin75 x (6-4.23)+5 x 5(5-2.82) = 1110 Reinforcement area AW = 3284-1110 = 2174 Minimum reinforcement thickness T T = 2174 sin 75 / 610 = 3.44 say 4.0 Reinforcement width w = 2174/(2 x 4) = 271.8 Minimum allowable width wmin = d/(3sin) = 610 / ( 3 x sin 75 ) = 211 mm, therefore use 272 width Overall reinforcement width W = 2w + d / sin = 2 x 272+610/sin75 = 1176 mm from 4mm thick plate.
SECTION 15
mm2 mm2 mm mm
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118
section
16
Location of other services, particularly in urban areas Future change in levels due to road re-grading or other civil works The minimum depth of cover recommended is 0.6m provided none of the other considerations require a greater depth. In rock, the trench should be excavated to ensure that at least 50mm of compacted bedding is achieved under the pipe after it is bedded. Where an unstable sub-grade condition unable to support the pipe is encountered, an additional depth should be excavated and backfilled as discussed below.
Bedding
Bedding provides support to the pipeline enabling it to withstand external loads. The higher the external loading (depth of trench plus any vehicle loading) the greater the degree of care necessary with the backfill in this zone. Any part of the trench excavated below grade unintentionally or because of rocky ground should be backfilled to grade with a thoroughly compacted approved material. In the case of additional depth due to unstable sub-grade the extra depth should be backfilled with crushed stone or other suitable material to achieve a satisfactory trench bottom. For open field loading where traffic and superimposed loading will be low, the bedding angle (total depth of bedding) can be limited to approximately 70. For roadways or heavy traffic and superimposed loads total depth of compacted bedding may need to be increase to the spring line (centre line) of the pipe to increase the bedding angle to 180, maximise support and minimise deflection. See Spangler & Handy (ref 3). In order to prevent damage to SINTAKOTE a compacted zone of 50 mm below the pipe should comprise non-cohesive native soil, imported fill or sand such that the maximum particle size does not exceed 13.2 mm.
Trench width
The trench width should be as narrow as practicable consistent with the need to ensure: Proper laying and jointing of the pipe Application of joint wrapping if relevant Where a change of direction is being made using the lateral deflection permissible at the joints, the trench should be sufficiently wide to allow the joint to be made in line and then the pipe laterally deflected Where the virgin soil does not provide the pipe with the required side support, the trench must be wide enough to allow the selected back-fill to be placed and compacted in such a manner which will adequately spread the load into the surrounding ground Common size backhoe/excavator bucket widths are 300, 450, 600, 750, 900, 1100 and 1200mm. As a guide, the following trench minimum widths are reasonable: OD + 400mm for pipe diameters 450mm OD + 600mm for pipe diameters > 450mm, 900mm OD + 700mm for pipe diameters > 900mm, 1500mm OD + 0.5 x OD mm for pipe diameters > 1500mm, 4000mm
Trench depth
The depth of the trench will depend on a number of factors apart from pipe diameter. Other considerations include: External loadings. Pipes usually have a greater depth of cover when subject to vehicle loading
120 | S E C T I O N
16
SECTION 16
C L
Trench fill
C L Embankment fill
Haunch support
Figure 16.1 - Definition of terms pipe. Whilst the depth of such layers should be established at the commencement of the laying for any particular material to be used, it should not normally exceed 150 mm. Backfilling in layers should proceed until 150 mm above the top of the pipe or as otherwise specified where vehicular traffic is encountered. Backfill provides material to support the pipe and prevent sharp objects imparting high loads onto the pipeline coating. The material used should be non-cohesive native soil with no particles larger than 25mm, or imported sand or gravel of nominal size not larger than 20mm with the maximum size not to exceed 25mm. When select backfill or bedding is used with pipes which are to be cathodically protected, the material should not be too high in electrical resistivity as this will reduce the effectiveness of the protection. Generally, sand or native soil is suitable. Stone and gravel can be too high in resistivity. Hence a graded mix of sand and gravel should be used on cathodically protected lines where imported backfill is required. Compaction should achieve the effective combined soil modulus E. anchorage friction For situations where trench water flow is possible, cross trench dams keyed into trench walls should be constructed to prevent erosion of backfill and bedding.
Trench fill
The trench can then be topped up with convenient fill. Where necessary it should be compacted to achieve the appropriate relative density for pavement support. The extent of compaction depends on the allowable future surface settlement. Under roads, pavements and in certain other areas the load bearing capacity of the ground surface is important and fill must be compacted in layers all the way to the surface. Where the trench is across open land the compaction requirements are not normally so important and the surface can usually be built up to a degree to allow for some future settlement. The material used would normally be the excavated trench material but where a high degree of compaction is needed in poor natural ground, imported material may be required.
Non-cohesive soils
Cohesionless soils are often specified for bedding and side support areas of buried conduits. They offer the advantages of ease of placement and handling minimum compactive effort free draining behaviour minimum settlement non shear stress memory maximum density over a wide moisture content range high shear strength
16.2 Compaction
Compaction increases the density of the soil resulting in greater bearing capacity, stability and reduced permeability and settlement. Void space is reduced and interparticle contact is increased resulting in higher internal friction. Generally, non cohesive soils require less compactive effort to achieve a given density as the interparticle cohesive forces to be overcome in rearranging the soil are a minimum. Vibratory compaction uses equipment which incorporates vibration, normally by means of a rotating eccentric weight. The vibration
SECTION 16
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SECTION 16
jostles adjacent particles and allows their relative movement to settle together in a denser state. The three main factors to be considered in compaction are: soil type moisture content compaction method and energy input
100 90 80 Clay 70
Percent passing
Soil classification
A commonly referred system of soil classification is the United Soil Classification System (USCS). Soils are categorised by this system in 15 groups identified by name and letter symbols. (ref Table 13.2)
60 50 Silt 40 30 20
Gradation
The gradation of a soil is a measure of the size and distribution of the constituent particles. This is assessed by sieving the sample through a series of screens of increasing fineness. The retained material on each screen is expressed as a percentage of total sample weight. These figures, when plotted on a graph show the gradation of the material. Refer to Graph 16.1. A well graded material covers a wide range of particles filled by smaller ones. Higher densities are more easily achieved with well graded materials than uniformly graded materials.
0.0001
0.001
0.01
10
100
Clay
Silt
Gravel
Cobbles
Where: = measured dry soil density r = maximum dry density (adjusted for oversize material, where applicable) as assigned or determined in the compaction test.
kN/m3 kN/m3
Compaction equipment
The most common forms of compaction equipment used in pipeline construction are vibratory plate compactors and vibratory tampers. Their use depends very much on the surface loads to be carried by the installation. This load carrying capacity depends on the structural stiffness of the pipe and the degree of soil bedding and side support compaction achieved. Very dry sand and gravel can be vibrated into place at a density of over 90% providing it contains little or no silt.
min is determined by drying and pulverising the soil to a single grain size and pouring with minimum disturbance into a container of a known volume. The sample is then weighed and min determined. max is determined after compaction with a drop hammer, tamper or vibrator.
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Clean selected aggregate will usually achieve 60% relative density or better by simply dumping around the pipe.
temporary anchors. All outlets should be plugged prior to testing. Air valves should be properly located and checked to ensure they are operational. If permanent air vents are not provided at all high points, the contractor should install corporation cocks at all such points to expel air during filling of the line.
Test measurement
Test pressure should be measured at the lowest point of the section under test, or a static head allowance between the lowest point and the point of measurement should be made to ensure that the required test pressure is not exceeded. The field test pressure specified must accommodate the rated pressure of fittings and appurtenances.
Test method
It is recommended that initially the field test be carried out on a small section (200m) of the pipeline laid first to confirm that laying practises are effective. Pressure testing should not be carried out during wet weather. Pump in water until the test pressure is reached. The field test pressure is normally specified in the relevant contract documents. The test pressure should lie between the allowable operating pressure of the pipeline, and no more than 125% of the allowable operating pressure. It is good practise to allow the system time to stabilise at the test pressure before starting the test. This period can be utilised to check and tighten bolted fittings, flanges etc. that show signs of leaking. The test pressure should be maintained for at least 2 hours. During pressure testing all field joints which have not been backfilled shall be clean, dry and accessible for inspection. If the pressure has dropped at the end of the test period the quantity of water (make up volume) required to increase the pressure to the original test pressure should be established.
16
SECTION 16
The test should be repeated a number of times with any make up volume being measured. It is normal for a pressure drop to occur due to; - entrapped air going into solution - water being absorbed into the cement mortar lining - weeping at valve seats, fittings and appurtenances - movement of pipe under pressure - changes in pipe temperature A generally accepted make-up volume rate is; Q = 0.00014 DLH Where Q = make up water rate D = pipe diameter L = test pipeline length H = mean test head litres / hour mm km m
annulus between the welds and tapped for air nozzle attachments. The weld is then daubed with a soap solution and the annulus pressurised to around 100kPa. The welds are then examined for bubbles of escaping air and rectified if necessary. For large pipelines this test can assure the integrity as construction progresses eliminating the time and cost of a major hydrostatic field test.
If the specified make-up volume is exceeded; - ensure all air has been expelled - check all valves for closure and sealing - check all mechanical joints, gibaults and flanges. Bolts should be uniformly tight and full sealing achieved. If subsequent testing results in unacceptable make up volume, the ground above the pipeline should be inspected for signs of obvious leakage. A bar probe may be be used to detect the location of any leaks. If none are apparent the line should be tested in halves with the failing section being subsequently halved until the leak is located. The pressure test shall be considered satisfactory if: - there is no failure of any anchor block, pipe, fitting, valve, joint or any other pipeline or service component - there is no visible leakage, and - the maximum acceptable loss rate is not exceeded
After test
It is important to ensure that proper arrangements are made for the disposal of water from the pipeline after the test, and that all consents which may be required from land owners and occupiers, and from river drainage and water authorities have been obtained.
SECTION 16
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Appendices
126
appendix
ABC D&E
APPENDIX A
Glossary
Symbol
b b all s L sub min max r b p s
Reference
thermal coefficient of linear expansion of steel impact factor for live loads beam deflection predicted bending strain allowable bending strain angular deflection at pipe joint or at mitre cut or pipe bend angle of nozzle to main pipe saddle angle unit weight of trench or embankment fill measured dry soil density assessed unit weight of liquid external to pipe submerged unit weight of trench or embankment fill minimum dry soil density maximum dry soil density maximum soil dry density assigned/determined in compaction test factor of safety for combined external load and internal pressure factor of safety for ring bending strain factor of safety for internal pressure soil/pipe surface friction factor dynamic viscosity of water kinematic viscosity of water ( 0.11425 x 10-5 at 15C ) Poissons ratio ( 0.27 for steel ) measured wet soil density specific gravity of soil particle ( = 2.65 or determined value) bending stress circumferential stress equivalent stress hoop stress temperature stress saddle stress longitudinal stress Leonhardt correction factor pipe deflection design factor head rise above normal operating head pressure rise above operating pressure predicted vertical deflection of pipe in ground allowable vertical deflection of pipe in ground change in temperature pressure wave velocity centre line length on bend mitre cross area of pipe based on OD area available as excess area removed reinforcement area
Unit
12 x 10-6 mm mm/mm/C
degrees degrees degrees kN/m3 kN/m3 kN/m3 kN/m3 kN/m3 kN/m3 kN/m3
kg/m.s m2 /s kg/m3 kg/m3 MPa MPa MPa MPa MPa MPa MPa m or mm m MPa m m C m/s mm m2 mm2 mm2 mm2
b c e h T s L
f h p y y all T a a A AA AR AW
128 | A P P E N D I X
APPENDIX A
Glossary
bedding backfill B&S B C CE CML Cbb Cu CP Cr cover d D, De ,Do Dm DB D/t DCF DN E Ee En E Est Ecl FBPE FS G g H H Ho Hw HL HGL I I ID ID k K k k KL KLE
the layer of material directly under the pipe the material at the sides and the set cover layer above and in contact with the pipe ball and socket joint trench width at pipe crown the element carbon carbon equivalent cement mortar lining headloss coefficient factor for bends the element copper cathodic protection the element chromium the depth of material H, from pipe crown to surface level pipe inside diameter pipe outside diameter pipe mean diameter (D-t) deformed pipe diameter outside diameter to pipe wall thickness ratio discounted cash flow nominal diameter effective combined soil modulus embedment soil modulus native soil modulus modulus of elasticity for the steel or composite steel-cement mortar lining Youngs modulus for steel Youngs modulus for cement mortar lining fusion bonded polyethylene factor of safety gradient acceleration due to gravity height of ground surface above pipe head after valve operation head under constant flow condition height of water surface above the top of the pipe head loss in meters head of water hydraulic grade line second moment of area of the pipe wall per unit length elastic moment of inertia of the pipe inside diameter of pipe Density index of non cohesive soil saddle factor bedding constant thermal conductivity of steel linear measure of bore roughness for the Colebrook-White formula minor loss coefficient minor loss coefficient
m m or mm m or mm m or mm m or mm
47 m
W/(mC)
APPENDIX
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APPENDIX A
Glossary
KL1 KL2 L L L1 L2 M M1 M2 M3 MA MB MC Mn Mo MTOT MW MSCL MTP MYS Ni NPV n n OD P P Pt Pr Pcr PW PWall Ps PE PDV PRV pH qall qall1 qall2 qv Q R Re
130 | A P P E N D I X
minor loss coefficient minor loss coefficient length dimension or length of pipeline pipe span as a beam length of the base of the live load distribution measured perpendicular to the direction of travel of the vehicle at the top of the pipe length of the base of the live load distribution measured parallel to the direction of travel of the vehicle at the top of the pipe factor for design of off-takes unit mass of the steel shell unit mass of the cement mortar lining unit mass of Sintakote bending moment at point A bending moment at point B bending moment at point C the element manganese the element molybdenum total mass of water filled pipe unit mass of water in pipe mild steel cement lined manufacture test pressure minimum yield strength the element nickel nett present value number of years number of individual mitres or a ratio in Allievis equation outside diameter live wheel load, P is the sum of the individual wheel loads internal pressure manufacture proof test or strength test pressure field test pressure or rated pressure critical external pressure required to cause buckling applied internal pressure allowable internal pressure saddle reaction plain ended pipe pressure/diameter value pressure reducing valve(s) -log (H+) allowable buckling pressure allowable buckling pressure based on pipe alone allowable buckling pressure based on pipe/embedment interaction internal vacuum flow rate or discharge radius of bend or outside diameter radius of pipe resultant thrust at pipe bend
APPENDIX A
Glossary
Reynolds number Dry density ratio of cohesive soil rubber ring joint outside radius of pipe equivalent circular arc on composite mitres interest rate re-rounding effect mean radius (= (D-t) / 2 ) hydraulic gradient ring-bending stiffness as a function of radius ring-bending stiffness as a function of diameter critical ring buckling resistance due to out of roundness spherical slip-in joint SINTAKOTE sulphate resistant cement cement mortar lining thickness reinforcement collar minimum thickness reflection period time for valve opening or closing static thrust at blank ends and junctions total quality management the material placed over the backfill steel wall thickness thickness of Sintakote main pipe wall thickness branch wall thickness theoretical main pipe wall thickness theoretical branch wall thickness transformed pipe wall thickness ultra violet superimposed, uniformly distributed dead load at finished surface flow velocity flow velocity under steady state conditions the element vanadium reinforcement collar edge width weight of backfill weight of water in pipe weight of pipe vertical design load pressure at top of pipe due to soil dead loads design load due to superimposed dead load vertical design load due to surface applied live load measured soil moisture content unit weight of pipe (steel, lining and water) pipe deflection as a beam elastic section modulus of pipe
% mm mm
mm mm s s kN
mm mm mm mm mm mm mm kPa m/s m/s mm kN/m kN/m kN/m kPa kPa kPa % N/m mm mm3
APPENDIX
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APPENDIX B
SI Conversion Factors
Quantity
Length
Unit
1in 1ft 1yd 1 fathom 1 chain 1 mile 1 international nautical mile 1 UK nautical mile 1in2 1 ft2 1 yd2 1 UK minim 1 UK fluid drachm 1UK fluid ounce 1 US fluid ounce 1 US liquid pint 1 US dry pint 1 Imperial pint 1 UK gallon 1 US gallon 1 in3 1 ft3 1 yd3 1 in4 1 lb ft2 1 slug ft2 1 grain 1 dram (avoir.) 1 drachm (apoth.) 1 ounce (troy or apoth.) 1 oz (avoir.) 1 lb 1 slug 1 sh cwt (US hundredweight) 1 cwt (UK hundredweight) 1 UK ton 1 short ton 1 lb/yd 1 UK ton/mile 1 UK ton/1000yd 1 oz/in 1 lb/in 1 lb/in 1 oz/ft2 1 lb/ft2 1 lb/in2 1 UK ton/mile2 1lb/ft3 1lb/UK gal 1 lb/US gal
Conversion Factor
25.4 0.3048 0.9144 1.8288 20.1168 1.60934 1.852 1.85318 6.4516 0.092903 0.836127 0.0591938 3.55163 28.4131 29.5735 473.176 550.610 568.261 4.54609 3.78541 16.3871 0.0293168 0.764555 41.6231 0.0421401 1.35582 64.7989 0.00177185 0.00388793 0.0311035 28.3495 0.45359237 14.5939 45.3592 50.8023 1016.05 907.185 0.496055 0.631342 1.11116 1.11612 1.48816 17.8580 0.305152 4.88243 703.070 3.92290x10-4 16.0185 99.7763 119.826 mm m m m m km km km cm2 m2 m2 cm3 cm3 cm3 cm3 cm3 cm3 cm3 dm3 dm3 cm3 m3 m3 cm4 kg m2 kg m2 mg kg kg kg g kg kg kg kg kg kg kg/m kg/m kg/m kg/m kg/m kg/m kg/m2 kg/m2 kg/m2 kg/m2 kg/m3 kg/m3 kg/m3
Area
Volume
Density
132 | A P P E N D I X
APPENDIX B
SI Conversion Factors
Quantity
Density
Unit
1slug/ft3 1ton/yd3 1lb/in3 1in3/lb 1ft3/lb 1in./min 1 ft/min 1ft/s 1mile/h 1UK knot 1International knot 1ft/s2 1lb/h 1UK ton/h 1dyne 1pdl (poundal) 1ozf (ounce) 1lbf 1kgf 1tonf 11bf/ft 1lbf/in 1tonf/ft 1pdl/ft2 1lbf/ft2 1mm Hg 1in H20 1ft H20 1in.Hg 1lbf/in2 1bar 1 std. atmosphere 1tonf/ft2 1 mm H20 1 lbf/ft3 1 lbf/UK gal 1 tonf/yd3 1 lbf/in3 1 ozf in (ounce-force inch) 1 pdl ft 1 lbf in 1 lbf ft 1 ton ft
Conversion Factor
515.379 1328.94 27.6799 36.1273 0.0624280 0.042333 0.00508 0.3048 1.60934 1.85318 1.852 0.3048 1.25998x10-4 0.282235 10-3 0.138255 0.278014 4.44822 9.80665 9.96402 14.5939 175.127 32.6903 1.48816 47.8803 133.322 249.089 2989.07 3386.39 6.89476 105 101.325 107.252 9.8067 157.088 978.471 13.0324 271.447 0.00706155 0.0421401 0.112985 1.35582 3037.03 kg/m3 kg/m3 Mg/m3 cm3/kg m3/kg cm/s m/s m/s km/h km/h km/h m/s2 kg/s kg/s N N N N N kN N/m N/m kN/m N/m2 N/m2 N/m2 N/m2 N/m2 N/m2 kN/m2 N/m2 kN/m2 kN/m2 N/m2(=1g) N/m3 N/m3 kN/m3 kN/m3 Nm Nm Nm Nm Nm
Force (weight)
Specific wt
APPENDIX
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APPENDIX B
SI Conversion Factors
Quantity
Energy or heat or work
Unit
1erg 1horsepower hour 1 therm = 10 cal 1therm = 1 00 000 Btu 1cal 1 Btu 1kWh 1hp= 550 ft lbf/s 1 metric horsepower (ch, PS) 1 Btu/lb deg F 1 cal/g deg C 1Btu/h 1kcal/h 1 cal/s 1 Btu/ft2h 1 kV/in. 1 1b/ft s 1 ft2/s 1 1 Btu/lb 1 cal/g 1 kcal/m3 1 Btu/lbR 1 cal cm/cm2 s deg C 1Btu ft/ft2 h deg F 1ft lbf/lb R 1rad (radian) 1degree 1minute 1second Btu/ft3
Conversion Factor
10-7 2.68452 4.1855 105.506 4.1868 1.05506 3.6 0.745700 735.499 J MJ MJ MJ J kJ MJ kW W
Power
Specific heat
4.1868 0.293071 1.163 4.1868 3.15459 0.039370 1.48816 929.03 37.2589 2.326 4.1868 4.1868 4.1868 41.868 1.73073 0.00538032
kJ/kg K W W W W/m2 kV/mm kg/m s stokes kJ/m3 kJ/kg J/g kJ/m3 kJ/kg K W/m K W/m K kJ/kg K 57.2958 0.0174533 rad = 1.1111 grade 2.90888x10-4 rad = 0.0185 grade 4.84814x10-6 rad = 0.0003 grade 0. 1 04720 rad/s
Intensity of heat flow rate Electric stress Dynamic viscosity Kinematic viscosity Calorific value or specific enthalpy
Velocity of rotation 1rev/min Based on Ramsay and Taylor: SI Metrication: Easy to Use Conversion Tables (Chambers).
= 1.2 US gallon = 1000 litre(=1kl) = 1 Nm = 1 N/mm = 101.325 kPa =10.33m head of water = 1 bar = 760 cm Hg
APPENDIX C
Material Properties
Steel
Modulus of elasticity Linear Coefficient of thermal expansion Thermal conductivity Density Melting range Poisson ratio 207,000 MPa 12x10-6 mm/mm C 47 W/(m C) 7850 kg/m3 1510 1524 C 0.27
Soil
Density Bearing pressures Moduli of soil reaction - E'e and En (see Table 13.1) (see Table 12.2) (see Table 13.3)
SINTAKOTE
Density approx 940 kg/m3
Saline waters
fresh water marginal brackish Saline waters sea water
TDS
(mg/l) < 500 500 to 1000 1000 to 3000 > 3000 35000
APPENDIX
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APPENDIX D
References
1. Luscher, U "Buckling of Soil surrounded tubes" Jour. Soil Mech & Foundations Division ASCE 92:6:213, 215 (Nov 1966) 2. Molin, Jan "Principles of calculation for underground plastic pipes calculation of loads, deflection, strain" International Organization for Standardization ISO Bulletin 2:10:21 (Oct 1971) 3. Spangler MG, Handy RL "Soil Engineering", 4th edition Harper & Row, New York, 1982 4. Clarke NWB "Buried Pipelines - A manual of structural design and installation" MacLaren and Sons, London,1968 5. Compston DG, Cray P, Schofield AN, Shann CD "Design and construction of buried thin-wall pipes" Construction Industry Research and Information Association CIRIA UK Report 78, July 1978 6. Marston, Anson "The theory of external loads on closed conduits in the light of the latest experiments" Proc. Ninth Annual Meeting Highway Res. Board. Dec 1929
10. Boussinesq, J "Application des Potentiels a l Etude de l Equilibre et du Mouvement des Solids Elastiques Gauthier-Villars, Paris, 1885 11. AWWA Manual of water supply practices M11 "Steel pipes a guide for design and installation" 12. Schorer, H "Design of large pipelines" Trans. ASCE, 88:1011 (1933) 13. Ligon, JB and Mayer, GR "Coefficient of friction for pipe coating materials" Pipe Line Industry 42 (2) PP 51-54, Feb 1975 14. Parmakian, J "Water Hammer Analysis" Dover, New York, 1963 15. Streeter, VL and Wylie, EB "Fluid Transients" McGraw-Hill, New York, 1978 16. Pickford, J "Analysis of Water Surge" Gordon and Breach, New York, 1969 17. Watters, GZ
7. Melbourne and Metropolitan Board of Works "Modern Analysis and Control of Unsteady Flow in Pipelines" "Hydrogen Sulphide Control Manual" Anne Arbor, Michigan, 1980 Technological Standing Committee on Hydrogen Sulphide 18. Webb, TH Corrosion in Sewerage Works. Dec 1989 8. Skeat, WO (Ed) Institution of Water Engineers "Manual of British Water Engineering Practice", Third Edition Heffer & Sons, Cambridge, 1961 9. Miller DS "Internal flow systems". Second ed. BHRA, 1990 "Water Hammer Control in Pipelines 1981" James Hardie, Sydney, 1981 19. WSAA Technical Notes TN6 "Guidelines for the use of cement mortar linings in sewerage applications"
136 | A P P E N D I X
APPENDIX E
AS 1281 AS 1289 E1.2 AS 1289 E3 AS 1289.5.4.1 AS 1289.5.6.1 AS/NZS 1554 AS 1579 AS/NZS 1594 AS 1646 AS 2129 AS 2200 AS/NZ S2566.1 AS 2885 AS/NZS 3678 AS 4087 AS 4321 AS 4799
Cement Mortar Lining of Steel Pipes and Fittings Method of Testing Soil for Engineering Purposes determination of dry density / moisture content relation of soil using standard compaction. Method of Testing Soil for Engineering Purposes determination of the field dry density of a soil Method of Testing Soil for Engineering Purposes dry density moisture variation and moisture ratio Method of Testing Soil for Engineering Purposes density index method for a cohesionless material Structural Steel Welding Arc Welded Steel Pipes and Fittings for Water and Waste-Water Hot Rolled Steel Flat Products Elastomeric Seals for Waterworks Purposes Flanges for Pipes, Valves and Fittings Design Charts for Water Supply and Sewerage Buried Flexible Pipelines Structural Design Pipelines Gas and Liquid Petroleum Structural Steel Hot-rolled Plates, Floor-plates and Slabs Metallic Flanges for Water-works Purposes Fusion bonded Medium density Polyethylene Coatings and Linings for Pipes and Fittings Installation of Underground Utility Services and Pipelines Within Railway Boundaries
AS/NZS ISO 9001 Model for Quality Assurance ASTM C177 ASTM D2240 ASTM D2487.9 ASTM D4060 ASTM G8 ASTM G13 ASTM G14 IEC 60093 IEC 60243 Standard Test Method for Steady State Heat Flux Measurements and Thermal Transmission Properties by means of the Guarded-Hot-Plate Apparatus Standard Test Method for Rubber Property durometer hardness Classification of Soils for Engineering Purposes Standard Test Method for Abrasion Resistance of Organic Coatings by the Tauber Abraser Standard Test Methods for Cathodic Disbondment of Pipeline Coatings Standard Test Method for Impact Resistance of Pipeline Coatings (Limestone drop test) Standard Test Method for Impact Resistance of Pipeline Coatings (Falling weight test) Methods of Test for Volume Resistivity and Surface Resistivity of Solid Electrical Insulating Materials Electrical Strength of Insulating Materials test methods tests at power frequencies
APPENDIX
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Divisional Office
Tyco Water Pty Ltd ABN 75 087 415 745 1-21 Percival Road Smithfield New South Wales 2164 PO Box 141 Fairfield NSW 1860 Telephone 61 2 9612 2470 Facsimile 61 2 9612 2471 info@tycowater.com www.tycowater.com
TWSPS/6/08