Contingency Leadership Theories

A leadership theory is an explanation of some aspect of leadership, which is used to better understand, predict, and control successful leadership. A leadership model is an example for emulation or use in a given situation. Contingency theories attempt to explain the appropriate leadership style based on the leader, followers, and situation. Contingency means it depends. Leadership style is influenced by: styles groups prefer, contextual factors, demands and constraints confronting the leader.

The contingency leadership model

The contingency leadership model (Fiedler) is used to determine if a persons leadership style is task- or relationship-oriented, and if the situation (leadermember relationship, task structure, and position power) matches the leaders style to maximize performance. 1. Determine whether your dominant leadership style is taskoriented or relationship-oriented by completing the least preferred coworker (LPC) scales. 2. Situation favorableness refers to the degree to which a situation enables the leader to exert influence over the followers. The more control, the more favorable the situation. Three variables of Situational favorableness in order of importance: Leadermember relations. This is the most powerful determinant of overall situational favorableness. Is the relationship good (cooperative and friendly) or poor (antagonistic and difficult)? Do the followers trust, respect, accept, and have confidence in the leader? Is there much tension? Leaders with good relations have more influence. The better the relations, the more favorable the situation. Task structure. This is second in potency: Is the task structured or unstructured? Do employees perform repetitive, routine, unambiguous, standard tasks that are easily understood? Leaders in a structured situation have more influence. The more structured the jobs are, the more favorable the situation. Position power. This is the weakest factor: Is position power strong or weak? Does the leader have the power to assign work, reward and punish, hire and fire, give raises and promotions? The leader with position power has more influence. The more power, the more favorable the situation. 3. Determining the appropriate leadership style. If the leadership style does not match the situation, the leader may be ineffective. The leader may need to change the situation by either changing the relationship with followers, the task or the position power variables.

One criticism is of Fiedlers view that the leader should not change his or her style, rather the situation should be changed. The other situational writers in this chapter suggest changing leadership styles, not the situation.

Leadership Continuum Model

Leadership Continuum Model is used to determine which one of seven styles to select, based on ones use of boss-centered versus subordinate-centered leadership, to meet the situation (boss, subordinates, and situation/time) in order to maximize performance. Boss. The leaders personality and behavioral preferred stylebased on experience, expectation, values, background, knowledge, feeling of security, and confidence in the subordinatesis considered in selecting a leadership style. Based on personality and behavior, some leaders tend to be more autocratic and others more participative. Subordinates. The followers preferred style for the leader is based on personality and behavior, as with the leader. Generally, the more willing and able the followers are to participate, the more freedom of participation should be used, and vice versa. Situation (time). The environmental considerations, such as the organizations size, structure, climate, goals, and technology, are considered in selecting a leadership style. Upper-level managers also influence leadership styles. For example, if a middle manager uses an autocratic leadership style, the leader may tend to use it too. The time available is another consideration. It takes more time to make participative decisions. Thus, when there is no time to include followers in decision making, the leader uses an autocratic leadership style. In a follow-up by Tannenba um and Schmidt to their original articles, they recommen ded that (1) the leader become a group member when Picture 1 Tannenbaum and Schmidts Leadership Continuum Model allowing the group to make decisions; (2) the leader clearly state the style being used; (3) the leader not try to trick the followers into thinking they made a decision that was actually made by the leader; and (4) its not the number of decisions the followers make, but their significance that counts.

Note that Tannenbaum and Schmidt developed two major leadership styles, with seven continuum styles, which is a one-dimensional model. The leadership styles part of their model is similar to the University of Michigan Leadership Model in that it is based on two major leadership styles: one focusing on boss-centered behavior (job-centered leadership) and the other focusing on subordinate- centered behavior (employee-centered). One major criticism of this model is that the three factors to consider when selecting a leadership style are very subjective. In other words, determining which style to use, and when, is not clear in the model.

Path-goal leadership model

Path-Goal Leadership Theory and Model: Attempts to explain how leader behavior influences performance and satisfaction of followers. Fits into the framework of contingency leadership variables but does not have a leader trait and behavior variable. Leader is supposed to use the appropriate leadership style, regardless of preferred traits and behavior.

Path-goal leadership model (Robert House) is used to select the leadership style (directive, supportive, participative, or achievement-oriented) appropriate to the situation (subordinate and environment) to maximize both performance and job satisfaction. Note that path-goal leadership theory is based on motivation theories of goal setting and expectancy theory. The leader is responsible for increasing followers motivation to attain personal and organizational goals. Motivation is increased by (1) clarifying the followers path to the rewards that are available, or (2) increasing the rewards that the follower values and desires. Path clarification means that the leader works with followers to help them identify and learn the behaviors that will lead to successful task accomplishment and organizational rewards. 1. Situational Factors Subordinate situational characteristics: o Authoritarianism is the degree to which employees defer to others, and want to be told what to do and how to do the job. o Locus of control is the extent to which employees believe they control goal achievement (internal) or if goal achievement is controlled by others (external). o Ability is the extent of the employees ability to perform tasks to achieve goals. Environment situational factors: o Task structure is the extent of repetitiveness of the job.

o Formal authority is the extent of the leaders position power. Note that task structure and formal authority are essentially the same as Fiedlers. o Work group is the extent to which coworkers contribute to job satisfaction or the relationship between followers. Note that House identifies work group as a situational variable. However, under the contingency framework, it would be considered a follower variable. 2. Leadership style o Directive leader provides high structure. Directive leadership is appropriate when the followers want authority leadership, have external locus of control, and the follower ability is low. Directive leadership is also appropriate when the environmental task is complex or ambiguous, formal authority is strong, and the work group provides job satisfaction. o Supportive leader provides high consideration. Supportive leadership is appropriate when the followers do not want autocratic leadership, have internal locus of control, and follower ability is high. Supportive leadership is also appropriate when the environmental tasks are simple, formal authority is weak, and the work group does not provide job satisfaction. o Participative leader includes employee input into decision making. Participative leadership is appropriate when followers want to be involved, have internal locus of control, and follower ability is high; when the environmental task is complex, authority is either strong or weak, and job satisfaction from coworkers is either high or low. o Achievement-Oriented leader sets difficult but achievable goals, expects followers to perform at their highest level, and rewards them for doing so. In essence, the leader provides both high directive (structure) and high supportive (consideration) behavior. Achievement-oriented leadership is appropriate when followers are open to autocratic leadership, have external locus of control, and follower ability is high; when the environmental task is simple, authority is strong, and job satisfaction from coworkers is either high or low.

The normative leadership model

The normative leadership model (Victor Vroom, Arthur Jago) has a time-driven and development-driven decision tree that enables the user to select one of five leadership styles (decide, consult individually, consult group, facilitate, and delegate) appropriate for the situation (seven questions/variables) to maximize decisions. It is called a normative model because it provides a sequential set of questions that are rules (norms) to follow to determine the best leadership style for the given situation. To use the normative model, you must have a specific decision to make, have the authority to make the decision, and have specific potential followers to participate in the decision.

Leadership participation styles: o Decide the leader makes the decision alone and announces it, or sells it, to the followers. o Consult individually the leader tells followers individually about the problem, gets information and suggestions, and then makes the decision. o Consult group the leader holds a group meeting and tells followers the problem, gets information and suggestions, and then makes the decision. o Facilitate the leader holds a group meeting and acts as a facilitator to define the problem and the limits within which a decision must be made. The leader seeks participation and concurrence on the decision without pushing his or her own ideas. o Delegate the leader lets the group diagnose the problem and make the decision within stated limits. To determine which of the five leadership styles is the most appropriate for a given situation, answer a series of diagnostic questions based on seven variables: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Decision Significance Importance of Commitment Leader Expertise Likelihood of Commitment Group Support for Objectives Group Expertise Team Competence

Characteristics of time-driven model: Focus The model is concerned with making effective decisions with minimum costs. Time is costly. Value Value is placed on time. No value is placed on follower development. Orientation The model has a short-term horizon.

Characteristics of development-driven model: Focus The model is concerned with making effective decisions with maximum development of followers. Follower development is worth the cost. Value Value is placed on follower development. No value is placed on time. Orientation The model has a long-term horizon. Development takes time.

The contingency leadership model and the normative leadership model are prescriptive models. Prescriptive leadership models tell the user exactly which style to use in a given situation. However, the continuum and path-goal leadership models are descriptive models. Descriptive leadership models identify contingency variables and

leadership styles without specifying which style to use in a given situation. In other words, users of the descriptive model select the appropriate style based more on their own judgment. Look at all the leadership models and you will see what we mean.

Substitutes for leadership

Substitutes for leadership include characteristics of the subordinate, task, and organization that replace the need for a leader or neutralize the leaders behavior. Thus, substitutes for leadership make a leadership style unnecessary or redundant. Neutralizers reduce or limit the effectiveness of a leaders behavior. The theory suggests that: There are factors outside the leaders control. Have a larger impact on outcomes than do leadership actions. Include characteristics of the subordinate, task, and organization that replace the need for a leader. Leaders behavior can be neutralized.

Neutralizers: 1. Characteristics of followers. Ability, knowledge, experience, training. Need for independence. Professional orientation. Indifference toward organizational rewards. 2. Characteristics of the task. Clarity and routine. Invariant methodology. Provision of own feedback concerning accomplishment. Intrinsic satisfaction. This characteristic is similar to Fiedlers and others task behavior. 3. Characteristics of the organization. Formalization (explicit plans, goals, and areas of responsibility). Inflexibility (rigid, unbending rules and procedures). Highly specified and active advisory and staff functions. Closely knit, cohesive work groups. Organizational rewards not within the leaders control. Spatial distance between leader and followers.