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Formation Damage
Formation Damage
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Introduction Skin Analysis Rock Composition & Mineralogy Clay Formation Damage Mechanism & Treatment Strategy Origins of Formation Damage & Remedial Measures Formation damage Diagnosis
6.
7.
Formation Damage
1. Introduction Formation damage is considered as any process that impairs the permeability of reservoir formations such that production or injectivity is decreased.
Formation damage can be recognized by lower than expected productivity and accelerated production decline on affected wells. This is due to a reduced
permeability in the near wellbore vicinity, which has been affected by the
damage mechanism. This area of reduced permeability results in an
additional pressure drop imposed on the producing system, which is proportional to the rate of production.
Formation damage can occur at any time during a well's history from the initial
stimulations, which expose the formation to a foreign fluid, may result in formation damage due to adverse wellbore fluid/formation fluid or wellbore
fluid/formation reactions. While withdrawing fluids from a formation during normal production operations, formation damage may occur due to mechanisms such as fines migration or scaling which result from imposing a
problem must be identified before corrective measures can be taken. In some instances, this may require a systematic study of the entire producing system.
In this regard some questions arise automatically, which need to be addressed if the situation demands. A systematic and comprehensive
approach then can be adopted once the answers of the following questions are correctly evaluated. i) How much formation damage is caused by drilling mud, preflushes and cement slurries? ii) Which fluid phase is the most damaging? iii) Is the degree of damage reason for concern? iv) If so, what can be done to minimize or eliminate formation damage? v) Should fluid designs or procedures be changed? If formation damage is suspected to be the cause of a well's low productivity, there are many techniques available to evaluate a well in order to identify this problem. Once the presence of formation damage is confirmed, additional measures can be taken to assure that a stimulation attempt has a good probability of success. In order to assure that the greatest return on investment is realized, it is essential that a well's productivity be maximized. It is for this reason that effective formation damage identification, evaluation and treatment techniques are considered essential to the working knowledge of the practicing engineer.
Hydraulic Fracturing : Concept to Application
2. Skin analysis
Measurement of the severity of the formation damage or the reduction in the formation permeability compared to the original permeability is expressed in a dimensionless factor called Skin. Positive (+) value of the skin indicates that the formation is damaged and the permeability of the near wellbore formation is less than the original permeability of the reservoir, whereas the negative (-) value of the skin indicates the presence of undamaged and stimulated formation where the permeability of the near wellbore formation is higher than the original permeability of the reservoir. Figure describes the areas of interest in a well with an altered zone near the wellbore. Whereas k rs
h Ks rw K
re
skin effect, reduced permeability and altered zone radius may be extracted. Assuming that psis the pressure at the outer boundary of the altered zone. The undamaged relation is
and if damaged,
obvious relationship
to obtain
which is the sought relationship. This is the well known Hawkins (1956) formula. Hawkins formula leads to one of the best known concepts in production engineering. If ks < k, the well is damaged and s > 0; conversely, if ks > k, then s < 0 and the well is stimulated. For s = 0, the near-wellbore permeability is equal to the original reservoir permeability. Certain well logs may enable calculation of the damaged radius, whereas pressure transient analysis may provide the skin effect and reservoir permeability.
The last term in the right-hand side of equation represents an array of pseudoskin factors, such as phase-dependent and rate-dependent effects that could be altered by hydraulic fracturing treatments. The other three terms are the common skin factors. The first is the skin effect caused by partial completion and slant. It has been well documented by Cinco-Ley et al. (1975a). The second term represents the skin effect resulting from perforations, as described by Harris (1966) and expounded upon by Karakas and Tariq (1988). The third term refers to the damage skin effect. Obviously, it is of extreme importance to quantify the components of the skin effect to evaluate the effectiveness of stimulation treatments. In fact, the pseudoskin effects can overwhelm the skin effect caused by damage. It is not inconceivable to obtain skin effects after matrix stimulation that are extremely large. This may be attributed to the usually irreducible configuration skin factors. Skin effect caused by partial completion and slant It is apparent that this skin effect alone could dwarf the skin effect caused by damage. The skin effect resulting from the partial penetration length may be unavoidable because it typically results from other operational considerations (such as the prevention of gas coning). A deviated well, without damage, should
Hydraulic Fracturing : Concept to Application
have a negative skin effect. Thus, a small skin effect or even one equal to zero obtained from a well test in a highly deviated well may mean
considerable damage. Removal of this damage with appropriate stimulation
could increase the deviated well production (or injection) considerably. Perforation skin effect Karakas and Tariq (1988) developed a procedure to calculate the skin effect caused by perforations. This skin effect is a composite involving the planeflow effect SH, vertical converging effect SV and wellbore effect Swb:
3. Rock Composition & Mineralogy The composition of the rocks and their mineralogy and other properties are
very important in view of the formation damage. The presence of the different specific minerals make the formation rocks damage prone in specific
conditions. Even the formation damage prevention or removal requires the analysis of the formation rock composition and mineralogy. Types of minerals: The minerals of the common sedimentary rocks can be divided into four major groups on the basis of origin. They are as follows:
(i) Detrital minerals - These are the minerals, which survive weathering and transportation. The major detrital minerals are quartz, orthoclase,
solutions because of chemical or biochemical reactions. The major precipitated minerals are calcite and aragonite.
(iv) Authigenic minerals - These are the minerals formed in sediments during and after depositional process. All of the above minerals may
major subgroups:i) SANDSTONE:- Sandstones are composed mainly of sand grains, cemented by silica or calcium carbonate. The sediments are often more than
98 % SiO2. In some sandstones, both detrital quartz and detrital feldspars are
present alongwith significant amounts of Al2O3, K2O, Na2O and CaO. In addition to quartz and one or more feldspars, most of the sandstone contain clay minerals, rock fragments and variety of other minerals also which stuck to the rock matrix. A sandstone formation contains many interconnected pores.
Typical pore diameters range from perhaps 10 to 100 microns. One square inch of Berea sandstone contains over 3000 pores . ii) LIMESTONE : The limestone are composed mainly of carbonate, which
are extraction of calcium and precipitation of CaCO3. The CaCO3 mainly
occurs as, Discrete fragments and particles of either organic or inorganic origin, Microcrystalline material formed from a carbonate mud, Coarsely or finely crystalline cementing material formed by inorganic or biochemical precipitation.
As calcite and aragonite are never compositionally pure, small amounts of Mg, Fe, Mn, Ba, Sr etc. may be there. Mg is the most abundant of these, and if MgO exceeds 1 wt%, then mineral dolomite is likely to be present, which are likely in paleozoic and Precambrian rocks.
iii) SHALE : The major minerals of shale are the clay minerals and
quartz. The clay minerals are compacted fine grained particles with grain
size very small and are usually laminated in definite horizontal bedding
and each of them exhibit a different response upon interaction with fluids of
different compositions. The variation in response occurs due to variation in
atomic lattice. i) Silica tetrahedra sheet. In each tetrahedron a silicon atom is equidistant from four oxygens or hydroxyls. The silica tetrahedral groups are
arranged to form a hexagonal network, which is repeated infinitely to from a sheet of composition Si4O6(OH)4. The tetrahedras are arranged so that all
their tips point in the same direction and all their bases are in the same plane.
Silica tetrahedral sheet ii) Alumina octahedral sheet. In this sheet aluminum, iron or
Fig. Bonding between one octahedral sheet and two tetrahedral sheets through shared oxygen atoms TYPES OF CLAY There are four major clays abundant in sandstone. They are as follows: i) Kaolinite : It is 1:1 clay, that is one tetrahedral sheet combines with one octahedral sheet. The silicon tetrahedra and aluminum octahedra sheets are linked by shared oxygens, whereas the lower
surface of the octahedral sheet is composed of hydroxylious. Since the alumina and silica sheets are covalently bonded (a s they share same
fines problem clay and can cause formation damage by fine migration.
Fig. Stacking of two sheet layers to form Kaolinite crystal Hydraulic Fracturing : Concept to Application 8
ii) Montmorillonites:- Montmorillonites (smectites) is 2:1 clay and are composed of layers consisting of two silica tetrahedral sheets surrounding a
central alumina octahedral sheet and are covalently bonded. In the stacking of silica alumina silica sheets, the oxygen layers of each unit are adjacent to
other polar molecules can enter between the unit layers causing the lattice to expand and resulting in swelling. The thickness of the liquid film increases as
the dipole moment of the reacting fluid increases. Therefore, montmorillonite can cause formation damage due to clay swelling and clogging of pore throats
by deflocculated clays.
Fig. Section showing three layers of montmorillonite. Each layer is composed of three sheets separated by water associated with cations. iii) Illite :- The basic structure of illite minerals is similar to Montmorillonite, each layer being composed of two silica tetrahedral sheets with a central octahedral sheet. The unit is same as that for montmorillonite, except some of the silicon are always displaced by aluminum's and the resultant charge deficiency is balanced by potassium ions positioned between the layers. Depending upon the degree to which aluminum has been substituted for silicon and other cations perhaps sodium has replaced potassium - illites, may act like montmorillonites and can show swelling property with water. But, normally it is also referred as a migrational fines problem clay, as it acts as a fish net to catch the moving formation fines to create the permeability blocks. Hydraulic Fracturing : Concept to Application 9
Fig. Illite projecting across pores susceptible to formation damage iv) Chlorite :- Chlorites generally consists of alternate kaolinite like and brucite like layers and there is considerable substitution within the structure. The bonding between layers is partly electrostatic in nature due to substitution and partly due to interaction between adjacent oxygen and hydroxyls. This latter hydrogen bonding mechanism is similar to that found in kaolinite. The main problem this clay presents is that it has often high iron content, so acids and other treatment chemicals should be treated with iron-chelating agents to prevent iron precipitation.
Silica Alumina Silica Fig. Stacking of chlorite layers Occurance Of Clays In Reservoirs The clay minerals of primary importance are those attached to rock mineral surfaces in the rock pore system and are authigenic in nature, that is are formed in rock pore system after sediment deposition by precipitation of clay crystals from pore fluids due to changes in water chemistry brought about by changing temperature, pressure and ground water condition during burial and compaction.
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Fig. Occurance of clay in sandstone The dispersed clays, which occur as a rock filling component, exist in rock pore system as follows : (i) Discrete particle clay : - It develops as pseudohexagonal, platy crystals that are either attached to pore walls or occupy intergranular pores. Kaolinite occur in this fashion in sandstones. Pore lining clay : - It is attached to the pore walls, forming a continuous and thin clay mineral coating clay crystals are oriented either parallel perpendicular to the wall surface. The perpendicularly oriented
crystals may be intergrown to form a continuous clay layer containing abundant micropore spaces. Illite, chlorite and montmorillonites have been
(ii)
lining and discrete clays show relatively larger permeability. The system with pore lining and pore bridging clay have higher connate water
saturation, but relative permeability to oil is almost same in all types of clay
system because the larger quantities of water are held in the very fine pores which do not contribute to the flow. Hydraulic Fracturing : Concept to Application 11
The relative permeability to water at residual oil is small for all systems and
decreases as the system evolves from discrete to pore lining to pore bridging
types.
Fig.: Occurrence of clay on pore surface Damage Probable with clay type Clay type Kaolinite Problem Kaolinite is migratory in nature and may cause fines migration problems. It disperses in fresh water and may cause plugging. Smectite is ion-exchanging mineral and it swells in fresh water. Illite causes fines migration problems and is ion-exchanging. It contains potassium, which can cause fluosilicate precipitation also from spent acid. Mixed layer clay is ion-exchanging and it swells in fresh water. It often contains potassium, which causes fluosilicate precipitation from spent acid. Chlorite is ion-exchanging and is unstable in HCl.
Smectite
Illite
Mixed-Layer Clay
Chlorite
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5. Formation Damage Mechanism & Treatment Strategy The productivity / injectivity of the reservoir may decrease due to many
different reasons. Out of those causes, the formation damage is the most
occurrence or to remove the damage. The different formation damage mechanisms and their treatment strategy are as follows:
a) Fines Migration : Movement of detached particles along with
produced fluid in the porous reservoir may reduce the effective permeability of the reservoir. The particles can bridge across the pore throats in the nearwellbore region causing formation damage and reduce the well productivity. When the damaging particles come from the reservoir rock, they are usually referred to as fines. Migrating fines can be a variety of different materials, including clays (typical size less than 4 m) and silts (silicates or
reduce the drag velocity on the grains. In these conditions the gravel pack or
the fracturing with TSO (tip screen out) properties may be helpful. In the sandstones, blocking due to migrated fines can be treated with acidizing with the deep penetrating acid which can dissolve the fines. The conventional mud acid (HF + HCl) and hydrofluoric acid etc. are generally used as the treatment fluid. In limestone or carbonate reservoirs the HCl is mostly used to remove
the fines and clear the near wellbore damage zone. Because the fines are not
dissolved, but are dispersed in natural fractures or the wormholes that are created, N2 is usually recommended to aid fines removal when the well has a
low bottomhole pressure. b) Swelling clay : The salinity of the fluid in contact with the clay plays
a major role. Some clays are swelling in nature with change in the salinity of
the fluid. Clays may change volume as the salinity of the fluid flowing through
the formation changes. The most common swelling clays are smectite and smectite mixtures. Smectite swells by taking water into its structure. It can
concentration of particles into the rock matrix, which may prove damaging to the reservoir if there is any sudden change in the fluid salinity later on. Hydraulic Fracturing : Concept to Application 13
very important as lower salinity value than required may cause the swelling of these clay particles. Therefore the salinity of the external injected water or liquid should be kept high enough to prevent the swelling. The removal of smectite is usually accomplished with HF or fluoboric acid, depending on the
depth of penetration. The fluoboric acid is suitable for deeper penetration. In the event of very deep clay-swelling problems (more than 2 ft), the best treatment is usually a fracture to bypass the damage, as the matrix treatments
migrating particles such as clays and fines, many foreign particles are introduced into the formation during normal well operations. Drilling,
completion, workover, stimulation, and secondary or tertiary production operations can cause the injection of extraneous particles into the formation.
These foreign or external particles may plug the pore spaces, which creates obstruction to the fluid flow and thereby decreases the productivity or
injectivity. Particle damage from injected fluids happens in the near-wellbore area, plugging formation pore throats. Problems include bridging of the pores,
packing of perforations and the loss of large amounts of high solids fluid into natural fractures or propped fracture systems. Prevention is better than Cure The generation of the induced
particle plugging should be avoided as much as possible by using treated and
clear fluid, which is to injected in the formation. The brine filtration systems may be useful to get the cleaner fluid without any external impurities which
can plug the pore spaces. The other objective should be to prevent or improve
the job procedure or activity which may induce particle plugging. Removal of the mud cakes especially in the open hole horizontal wells are very important.
As, it may not allow the whole horizontal section to contribute to production. Generally in the vertical wells the mud cakes may be removed by pressure
drawdown. But in horizontal wells the necessary drawdown is very difficult to achieve on any section other than heel. In these conditions the treatment of
the whole section with help of Coiled Tubing may be beneficial. In case the
formation is damaged by the induced particle, then the studies should be carried out to find out the nature of the particle which has plugged the
formation pores and accordingly proper treating fluid should be injected which can dissolve those particles. Hydraulic fracturing may also be helpful to
deposition in the formation creates a barrier for the transportation of the crude oil to the tubing. Organic damage may occur naturally or through various
intervention practices used in the wells. Asphaltenes are heterocyclic unsaturated macromolecules consisting primarily of carbon, hydrogen, and
minor components such as sulfur, oxygen, nitrogen and various heavy metals. Hydraulic Fracturing : Concept to Application 14
These higher molecular weight components of crude oil are in equilibrium at normal reservoir condition. As crude oil is produced this equilibrium is upset
by a number of factors such as, temperature decline, pressure reduction,
addition of miscible gases and liquids, acidizing, hot oiling and other oilfield
operations. Flocculation of asphaltene in paraffinic crude oils are known to be irreversible. This is the major cause of irrepairable arterial blockage damage
to the flow of petroleum fluids. Due to their large size and their adsorption affinity to solid surfaces flocculated asphaltenes can cause irreversible deposition. The two primary mechanisms for asphaltene flocculation and deposition are depressurizing the oil and mixing of solvents with reservoir oil
during enhanced oil recovery (EOR). Acid treatments are frequently accompanied by the appearance of organic sludge that, if not controlled, plug perforations and reduce production. It is commonly accepted that this organic
Solvent soak time, heat and agitation are important considerations for
treatment. The compatibility of the acid with the crude oil should be checked in order to minimize the chances of occurrence of sludge formation. Proper
oil. Produced oil-field emulsions can be classified into three broad groups: Water-in-oil (W/O) Oil-in-water (O/W) Multiple or complex emulsions
The water-in-oil emulsions consist of water droplets in a continuous oil
phase and the oil-in-water emulsions consist of oil droplets in a watercontinuous phase. In the oil industry water-in-oil emulsions are more common
(most produced oilfield emulsions are of this kind) and therefore the oil-in
water emulsions are sometimes referred to as "reverse" emulsions. Multiple emulsions are more complex and consist of tiny droplets suspended in bigger
droplets which are suspended in a continuous phase. For example, a waterin-oil-in-water (W/O/W) emulsion consists of water droplets suspended in
larger oil droplets which in turn are suspended in a continuous water phase.
In-situ emulsification has been experienced in some of wells and its causing formation damage in the porous media. Emulsification Is believed to be Hydraulic Fracturing : Concept to Application 15
agents are slightly soluble In the oil phase and are attracted to the water
phase causing reductions in interface tension between the water and the oil. This results in a film forming about the dispersed water particle causing the particle to remain isolated and inhibits coalescence into larger particles which
of immobile fluid and decreases the formation permeability. In the high water
cut wells and cyclic steam injection wells the chances of emulsion formation in
much more.
Demulsification is the breaking of a crude oil emulsion into oil and
presence of low shear. f) Scale: Scale is a solid mineral deposit usually formed from produced salt water. Because water constantly dissolves and deposits solids, scale is an endless problem in the petroleum industry. Scale occurs in primary production wells, secondary wells, injection wells, disposal wells, and pipelines that connect wells to tank batteries. Wherever water production occurs, a potential for scale formation exists. Mixing of incompatible waters causes the minerals in solution to form an insoluble precipitate. Some scale, such as calcium carbonate, develops quickly but is relatively easy to treat. Barium sulfate is typically slower to form, but it is more difficult to treat. The effect these scales have on a well depends largely on their location and the amount deposited in the system. Scales can restrict and completely choke production in the tubing, in the flowlines, at the sandface, or in the perforations. Scales can deposit in fractures and formations that are distant from the wellbore.
Figure: SEM micrographs of the porous rock taken near to the core inlet (a) image on the grain scale , (b) zoomed image
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polyphosphates, Phosphonates, Polyacrylic acid and other carboxylic acidcontaining polymers, etc. Different solvents are used for dissolving the
25,000 psi. Bacteria are classified as follows: Aerobic bacteria are bacteria that require oxygen.
Anaerobic bacteria do not need oxygen (in fact, their growth is
Facultative bacteria can grow either with or without oxygen because their metabolism changes to suit the environment. They usually grow about 5 times faster in the presence of oxygen.
The combination of the various microbial populations often result in the precipitation of insoluble metal sulphides, biopolymer and/or hydrogen sulphide production, with loss in production or injection rates. The bacteria most troublesome in the oilfield are sulfate-reducing bacteria, slime formers, iron-oxidizing bacteria and bacteria that attack polymers in fracturing fluids
waterflood. Bacterial growth may take place either on the injection well
sandface or in the formation itself, and the port plugging mechanism maybe caused either by the larger cell population or by the by-products of bacterial
damage within the reservoir would occur in those areas at 300C. The type of
mineral present has a significant effect on plugging characteristics of the rock
formation due to bacteria. Bacteria has affinity with a negative charge toward
any particular mineral and their subsequent accumulation around that mineral in the pore space. Bacteria uses negative charge for attachment to nutrient source, i.e., magnesium, calcium, and iron thereby reducing the permeability
in nearby areas of these minerals. Bactericides are also used commonly to control these bacteria. Ironoxidizing bacteria are aerobic and convert iron from the ferrous (Fe2+) to the ferric (Fe3+) state. To alleviate some of the damaging effects of bacterial colonies, the main objective is to either control the nutrients or eliminate the oxygen. EDTA is mostly used to control the metal nutrients by chelating them,
in this regard.
h) Water Block : Poor gas flow performance following well operations such as drilling, completions and workovers was recently observed in some
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wells in a gas field. Loss of aqueous fluids during these operations causes a ring of high water saturation around the wellbore. This can potentially reduce gas flow into the well, and this phenomenon is called "Waterblocking." Water
blocking is a problem where the in situ water saturation is significantly less than "irreducible" water saturation. Waterblocking is a transient phenomenon. The duration depends on reservoir properties, amount and type of fluid lost,
Figure : Water Blocks: Increasing the water saturation from 20% to 35% decreases the relative oil permeability from 90% to 30%, respectively
Lower permeability reservoirs will have more significant waterblock problems.
This is due to the smaller volumes of gas flow, leading to longer times for the waterblock to clean up. Poor gas production from tight rock following a waterbase fracture treatment is often attributed to water block. In water-wet rock, capillary forces resist brine displacement from the matrix into the fracture. Water block occurs if the drawdown pressure gradient in the formation near the fracture face does not exceed the rock capillary pressure sufficiently for gas to flow. These damage conditions usually occur when: (1) the pore
throats are very small, (2) the injected water in the pores of the rock was untreated (to reduce surface tension), and (3) the bottomhole pressure is low. Clean up of waterblock occurs as gas flows past this high liquid saturated region and removes liquid by displacement and mass transfer. Any
loss in gas well deliverability recovers in two phases. The first phase
corresponds to fluid displacement ("flowback period") and lasts for a few days Hydraulic Fracturing : Concept to Application 19
at most. The second phase is slower and can last several months. Removal of water from gas wells has often been handled with acid and alcohol solutions or acid and mutual solvent solutions. These systems attempt to reduce the
surface tension of the injected water which is trapped in the pores of the rock.
In some cases, treatment of the well to reestablish gas saturation and provide
energy can be accomplished by injecting either gaseous nitrogen or liquid carbon dioxide. Removal of a water block can be accomplished using a
on the solid surface. If a drop of a liquid is placed on the surface of another immiscible liquid or on the surface of a solid that it cannot dissolve, it may spread out into a thin film or it may remain in the form of a drop or a thick lens (Hausler, 1978). If the drop of liquid spreads, it wets the surface; if the drop of liquid does not spread, it does not wet the surface. The surface free energy of
the two phases and the interfacial tension between them determine whether
formation to a particular fluid by as much as 80% to 90%. The wettability and related relative permeability of a formation are determined by the flowingphase quantity and by coatings of natural and injected surfactants and oils. Most of the formation rocks are water wet and the alteration of the wettability
leads to oil wet. When a surface of a pore passage is oil-wet, more of the passage is occupied by the bound oil (thicker monomolecular layer), and less
to remove the oil-wetting hydrocarbon phase and then injecting strongly water wetting surfactants. Again, a surfactant by itself will not work. The oil phase,
which is usually precipitated asphaltenes or paraffins, must first be removed
Reprecipitation requires the retrograde of the process after several months of production.
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analysis of these various activities will allow understanding of the conditions and causes, which may lead to damage. This will help to improve the activities
so as to minimize the chances of occurrence of formation damage. The understanding the formation damage origin is very critical to allow the
formation to produce to its maximum capacity. a) Formation damage during drilling: Drilling is the first well operation, which brings formation in contact with foreign material. This is also the first instance, in the life of a well, of formation damage. The formation is exposed to drill bit and drilling mud. To over come inflow of formation fluids and to lay down a thin, low permeability filter cake on the walls of the hole, the pressure of the drilling mud column must exceed the pore pressure by atleast 200 psi. The horizontal drilling requires more concern for formation damage, as it makes the formation to be exposed to mud for longer period requiring more time drilling within the targeted productive formation than do vertical wells. Underpressured reservoirs are also significantly more susceptible to formation damage.
Pore Plugging
Shallow Matrix Damage Fig.:Drlling damage Formation damage during drilling activity can be characterized by mainly two processes:
Invasion of Mud solids: Mud solids play a major role in the successful and safely completion of the drilling of the well. There objectives are to balance the reservoir pressure thereby preventing the chances of Blow
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out and to create filter cake at the formation face thereby reducing the
filtrate losses in the formation. But these mud solids can progressively fill the porosity of the reservoir rock if forced into the pay zone. Subsequent attempts to start production or injection at moderate or
high flow rates may cause these materials to bridge and severely
decrease the permeability of the near-wellbore area. Such damaging processes are usually limited to the first few inches around the wellbore (an average value of 3 in. is commonly used), but the resultant
likely to be less affected when their connate water is chemically compatible with the filtrate.
Fig.:Formation damage caused by different zones of mud invasion There are several mechanisms by which mud solids or filtrate may reduce well productivity. These are summarized as follows: Hydraulic Fracturing : Concept to Application 22
the generation of waterblock. Water block may be avoided by the use of oil
muds, provided no water is in their filtrates under bottom hole conditions. As use of oil based mud (OBM) is not applicable in all type of reservoir and in
some cases it may be damaging, therefore during water base drilling fluid the
objective should be to minimize the filtrate loss to the pay zone. This can be
dispersion of the clay or other fines from the pore walls by the invading fluid and by subsequent trapping at the pore exits. Swelling of the clay can be
controlled by maintenance of compatible salinity. The salinity of the injected
fluid should be more than the formation fluid. At salinities less than 20 g/l the
clays become unstable (i.e. dispersed). Rate of reduction of salinity should
from the mud: Mud particles can only penetrate the formation during the mud spurt period, before the filter cake is established. Once the filter cake is fully formed, it filters out the finest colloids because of its structure and very low permeability (around 10 3md). The permeability may continue to decrease, but the decrease will be caused not by particles passing through the cake, but
by transport and re-arrangement of particles already carried in by the mud
spurt.
b
Hydraulic Fracturing : Concept to Application 23
Most of the impairment caused by particle invasion is concentrated in the first few millimeters of the rock. The way to control mud particle damage is to minimize the mud spurt by ensuring that enough bridging particles of the right size are present in the mud.
Fig. Effect of mud cake To be effective, the primary bridging particles must be not greater than the size of the pore openings and not less than 1/3 that size, and there must be a range of successively smaller particles down to the size of the largest particles in the colloidal fraction. The greater the amount of bridging particles, and the lower the permeability of the rock the quicker the particles will bridge, and the smaller will be the mud spurt. Particle penetration of 2 to 5 cm are observed. The invasion of mud solids can be avoided using underbalance drilling. Underbalance drilling in horizontal wells and in underpressure wells are very useful in avoiding chances of formation damage. The need is felt to get a clean brine in which the presence of unwanted solids should be less. To achieve it the brine filtration system may be proved useful iv) Polymer invasion: During the drilling process many additives are added to the drilling fluid for different purposes. Some of these additives are polymers and they may cause damage in adverse condition if proper care is not taken during selection of the additives and their composition. The damage during drilling process is mainly of shallow depth only. The near wellbore damage is mainly choking of pores with fines or indissoluble mud cake. To remove this kind of damage the acidizing is the most useful technique. Any one of the different kinds of acidization technique such as matrix acidizing , acid washing, acid spotting ,etc. should be used according to the formation rock and degree of damage. In sandstone the mud acid Hydraulic Fracturing : Concept to Application 24
proves to be effective one , as HF present in mud acid dissolves the clay and
silica particles and thereby removes the choking. It also helps to remove the
unremoved mud cake. In carbonate formation the use of HCl proves to be effective. Damage mechanism Particle invasion Swelling and dispersion of indigenous reservoir clays by the mud filtrate Mutual precipitation of soluble salts in the filtrate and formation water Slumping of unconsolidated sands Water block Emulsion block Remedial measures Matrix acidization, Perforation, Hydraulic fracturing Matrix acidization Matrix acidization Sand consolidation techniques, Frac and Pack Surfactant treament, Matrix acidization Surfactant treament, Matrix acidization
b) Formation Damage During Cementing : Cementing is the process of mixing a slurry of cement and water and pumping it down through steel casing
to critical points in the annulus around the casing or in the open hole below the casing string. The cementing activity consists of mainly two injection
processes:
Injection of Washes and spacers - The duration of a cementing job is short compared with the duration of drilling through a pay zone. The
may exacerbates formation damage through either increased fluid loss or incompatibility problems with cement washes and spacers. Injection of cement slurry - The broad particle-size distribution of
cement grains, together with the use of high-efficiency fluid-loss agents, results in limited particle and filtrate invasion of cement slurries. However, there are cases where large permeability impairments can
occur. Calcium ions liberated by cement particles are quickly exchanged on clays near the wellbore, and the resulting modification of the filtrate composition makes it a perfect destabilizing fluid in terms of
dispersing ability. Cement filtrate that comes into contact with connate brines that contain high concentrations of calcium can provoke the precipitation of calcium carbonate, lime or calcium silicate hydrate.
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cement column. A large invasion of free water will most likely take
place, and the resulting water blockage may be significant. Loss of cement to the natural fracture system is a catastrophic problem when using a cased and perforated completion through formations with
carbonate formations, acid fracturing may be beneficial. The different damage mechanisms in cementing operations are as follows :i) Fines migration from the cement slurry into the formation: The fines present in the cement slurry may migrate into the formation during the cementing operation, if sufficient mud cake is not present. These fines can
interface. They are, invasion filtrates which are forced from the liquid cement
into formation during cement pumping and setting shut-in and cement
leachates evolve & diffuse /advect away from the well bore as the set cement equilibrate with aqueous formation pore fluids. These invading cement filtrate
and leachates are the potential source of formation damage. Ca(OH)2 present in the filtrate may allow the precipitation of calcium silicate. Because the
cement slurry always contain additive ,they also play a role in the formation of precipitate particles during cement filtration.
iii) Differential dissolution of reservoir minerals leading to fines migration:
The cement has a very high pH (>12) and a high concentration of divalent ions. The high pH tends to cause clay and fines to be released and to migrate
into pore threats , where they cause damage. The cement filtrate may cause
severe formation damage due to latex deposition in the formation. Because of the limited solubility of SBR latex, the damage could be permanent. Though the chance of damage during cementing operation is very slight, it
should be given proper care. To prevent the possible formation damage
during cementing operation, the presence of sufficient and proper mud cake is
essential. The mud cake helps to keep the cement filtrates away from the formation, which are the major culprit for formation damage. Fluid loss from spacers and cement slurries is reduced when a competent drilling mud filter
26
damaging ,fluid loss additive, such as PVA or HEC ,is used to minimize filtrate leakoff from the cement slurry. The proper selection of the additives is
necessary, as they play major part in further reactions. The use of seawater
should be given care. The chances of damage during the cementing operations are very less, as normally the presence of mud cake during drilling prevents further damage
but lack of care may damage the formation. Normally it is also damaging in
shallow depth only. Damage mechanism Fines migration from the cement slurry into the formation
Precipitation of solids from the
Remedial measures Matrix acidization, Perforation, Hydraulic fracturing Matrix acidization ,Perforation
cement within the formation Precipitation of expansive secondary Matrix acidization minerals following reservoir mineral dissolution
formation was drilled, cemented and perforated. Many forces tend to change the natural virgin permeability of producing formation during initial completion
and /or workover operations. Operations considered to be completion or
workover functions include the following : i) Perforating casing, ii) Under-reaming pay zone for gravel packing, iii) iv) All workover operations in which a producing zone must be killed, All workover or completion operations in which well bore fluids are lost to the formation.
Perforating process initiates the flow of formation fluid to the wellbore. Perforations are the entry point from the formation to the wellbore, and all flow
in a cased, perforated completion must pass through these tunnels. Generally
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may be plugged with shaped charge debris and solids from perforation fluids. These pulverized, compacted rock and charge debris may block the natural
pore spaces in the formation. The extreme overbalance perforation generates more chances of damage as the invasion of perforation fluid, its filtrate and
solid particles can cause problem such as clay swelling, solid plugging and water blocks, etc.
drilling condition. Definitely the contact area between the formation face and the wellbore fluid is less, but then also the chances and mechanism of
formation damage are as same as during drilling process. The loss of filtrate
and the fluid particle invasion may lean to formation damage and therefore
care should be paid during workover operation to avoid the damage. During
the performance of such operations, many conditions exist that can cause the formation damage of one or more of the forms. The different mechanisms are as follows:
i) Hydration and swelling of clay minerals: During workover/completion jobs the fluid filtrate enters in the formation and if the percentage of clay (mainly montmorillonite) is more then selling of clay minerals may occur. Due
to less salinity of the fluid also the swelling or hydration becomes severe. The hydrated and swelled clay minerals choke the pore spaces.
ii) Movement and plugging by clay size particles in the formation: The solid
particles in form of invaded fines from filtrate or insitu formation fines may be generated during the job and can choke the pore spaces. Due to inefficient
cake formation and extreme overbalance condition, the fines present in the
fluid may enter in the formation and thereby causing damage. Due to change
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in chemical environment of the fluid inside the formation there may be generation of the fines inside the formation.
iii) Emulsion and water blocks due to lost wellbore fluid: If the fluid loss
during the job is not controlled then large amount of the fluid loss can be
accumulated near wellbore in the formation. This accumulation of large volume of water and filtrate may lead to formation of water block. The presence of filtrate may form emulsion if the favorable conditions for emulsion
formation exist. iv) Relative permeability effects: The presence of large volume of water or
filtrate, due to lack of sufficient cake formation, the relative permeability of oil
changes and the wells doesnt produce even after perforation and workover job. v) Precipitation of scales: There are many additives added in the fluid for
different purposes. In adverse conditions the precipitation of scale may be
generated, which causes damage to the formation. The presence of asphaltene, wax and resin may the condition sever and increase the chances
of scale formation. The chemical incompatibility of the fluid with formation rock
and formation fluid also tends to form scales and lead to formation damage.
To save the formation against damage during workover and completion job
many precautions are necessary. The care on every job detail during the
execution of the job is necessary. Depending on the job objectivity and the
type of fluid used, well productivity damage during workover and completion can be minimized by: i) Using chemically compatible fluid, ii) Cleaning the fluids by filtration on the surface, iii) Providing adequate fluid-loss control with agents that bridge on the
surface of the formation and that easily dislodge or dissolve when
v) vi)
vii)
between the wellbore and the formation, Cleaning the injection string of pipe with acid/solvent mixtures and mechanical scrapers, Using bottom hole filters (if necessary, in conjunction with surface filters).
Perforating at efficient overbalance condition or in underbalance
condition. Its normally seen that after perforation the well doesnt produce. The most
likely culprit is formation damage. The different remedial measures depending
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Damage mechanism Hydration and swelling of clay minerals Movement and plugging by clay size particles in the formation Plugging by invading materials from the wellbore fluids Emulsion and water blocks due to lost wellbore fluid Relative permeability effects Precipitation of scales Plugged perforations due to improper perforating conditions
Remedial measures Matrix acidization, Hydraulic fracturing, Clay stabilization Matrix acidization ,Clay stabilization Matrix acidization Surfactant treatment, Matrix acidization Surfactant treatment Acidization Acidization, Perforation
d) Formation Damage During Sand Control operations: Most high permeability unconsolidated and loosely consolidated sandstone formations require sand control measures. The most widely used sand control technique
is gravel pack completions. The gravel packed completions are designed to
allow the soft formations to produce sand free and the productivity of the well
is also maintained. However many gravel packed wells produce sandfree hydrocarbon but suffer reduced productivity as a result of formation damage
in gravel packs are: Improper placement of the gravel pack (perforations remain empty or the annulus between casing and screen is incompletely filled),
allowing perforation filling by formation sand, pack fluidization and subsequent intermixing of sand and gravel in the case of pressure
surges Damage by unbroken gels or formation particles during placement as a result of incomplete perforation cleaning Invasion by loss-control materials (LCM) Thread dope, paint, rust and polymer residues forced between formation sand and the gravel pack during placement Inadequate gravel size, leading to gravel-pack invasion by formation fines during production Screens with slots too large (do not retain gravel) or with slots too narrow that become plugged and reduces production.
30
may occur from formation and well bore. The gravel pack can also gradually
fill the formation sand. Mud solids deposited by the under reaming fluid can also decrease the permeability. If the properties related to filtrate and bridging
agent of the gravel packing fluids is not analyzed carefully, they can be
proved harmful also, similar to the drilling fluid during drilling process. Poor
quality gravel and dirty packing fluids may prove as source of plugging.
ii) Perforation plugging: In gravel pack operation all the perforations are filled with gravels. The migrated fines and smaller sand particle may plug
these perforations in proper bridging effect is not generated in the gravel pack around wellbore. iii) Polymer invasion: Failure to properly prepare gravel pack carrier fluids is a major contributor to formation damage. The two primary areas of concern are microgel plugging and breaker performance. Proper diffusion of
microgels will result in an increased viscosity and ease of filtration. It is
important to remember that polymers are suspended solids. Therefore, too high a level of filtration or utilization of multiple filtration cycles will remove
polymer, which could result in poor performance. Inadequate breaker
performance is a major cause of formation damage. In order to minimize the chances of the formation damage during sand control operation following important points should be carefully analyzed:
i) Gravel size selection is the most important part of success of any gravel pack operation. Proper size of the gravel provides better bridging effect
mechanism.
iii) Prior to gravel packing, the perforations must be completely open in order to effectively place , gravel in the perforation tunnels. Both washing and surging techniques are adequate for removing bulk formation damage existing
in perforations.
iv) The fluid composition used during the job execution should be
compatible with the formation rock and should be capable of handling fluid leakoff property.
The main cause of damage during sand control are plugging due to solids.
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Remedial measures Acidization, Clay stabilization , Frac & Pack , Acidization with foam based fluids Acidization Surfactant treatment, Matrix acidization
e) Formation Damage During Production: In production phase, though the formation does not come in contact with any external agent, it may be
damaged due to intrinsic changes only. Major constituent of production are formation rock and formation fluid. Their mechanical and chemical properties
are very important for optimum production without any problem. Any adverse
property can lead to formation damage and may reduce the productivity of the well. Major causes of formation damage during production phase can be
generated by the movement of the formation fines / sands and changes in formation fluid properties. Formations that are capable of releasing parts of the matrix during production or after stimulation pose special treating problems. Although these situations are commonly thought of as sand-control
problems rather than formation damage, the effect of mobile sand and the pressure drop caused by collapsed formation tunnels closely resemble the effect of formation damage. Some reservoirs cannot be produced at high flow
may be created. A major problem is the movement of fines in the formation in response to either flow velocity or changes in the salinity of the flowing fluid. Native silts and clays loosely attached to pore walls can be put into motion by high flow rates, especially when two or more immiscible fluids are produced at
the same time. Depending on their particle size, they can either block pore
throats in the vicinity of their initial location or migrate toward the wellbore. Reduction in the pore pressure during production and sometimes cooling resulting from gas expansion, results in the precipitation of organic or
inorganic materials. Generally, these deposits affect only the production string
and surface equipment. However, they can reduce formation permeability. Seeds, such as high-surface-area clays, promote the deposition of organic
materials (especially asphaltenes) or the precipitation of supersaturated salt solutions. Common scales are calcium carbonate and calcium sulfate. Problems associated with the deposition of elemental sulfur, sodium chloride
produced below the bubble point pressure, free gas is formed, which reduces the relative permeability to oil. Hydraulic Fracturing : Concept to Application 32
The following mechanisms are responsible for damage during production: i) Fines migration: The production rate and rock matrix strength are
important factors in the fine generation during production. The increased production rate, crossing the critical velocity of formation fines generation,
may generate the formation fines and cause pore blocking. Presence of
Kaolinite or fibrous illite clay or some feldspars (nonclays) enhances the chances of fines generation and their movement inside the formation. Brine changes may trigger fines movement. To minimize chances of fines
generation, the production rate or flow rate should be controlled and should not be allowed to cross the critical velocity of formation fines generation. If the formation matrix strength is too low and the formation is weak then proper
sand control technique may be used for controlling the fines movement and
their generation.
ii) Scale deposition: The scale deposition in the formation may cause pore space reduction. Calcium carbonate scale may form at any pressure drop, either in the formation or tubulars. It may form quickly and can sharply limit production, especially at gravel-pack interfaces or near perforations in wells with high drawdown across the perforations. These are more common in earlier stages in some fields when the pressure drop is more severe. Effective and proper inhibitors in sufficient amount should be used in the well to prevent the scale deposition. Scale inhibitor should be used in the wells according to
producing string is common problem, but skin damage from their deposition
may also occur. If Cloud point of oil is near the reservoir temperature, then the chances of formation damage sue to them increases. Pressure drop may also trigger paraffin drop out. It may disappear if well is shut in for several days.
prevented with help of inhibitor squeeze. Treatment with downhole heatgenerating processes also helps if the well is a good producer. The solvent soaks may also be used. The reservoir pressure maintenance helps wax and asphaltene generation. As their generation is controlled by many different mechanism and therefore its prevention is not so easy. But, treatment with aromatic (cyclic ring) solvents such as xylene or toluene and some surfactants
surfactants can also alter the wettability of the formation rock. These can be prevented by using the surfactants only after compatibility studies. Hydraulic Fracturing : Concept to Application 33
drawdown and effective pressure control of the reservoir. vi) Gas breakout: Gas breakout may occur in the wells having downward
coning of preexisting gas cap and increased near wellbore gas saturation. This increase in gas saturation near the wellbore does not allow the oil to produce at its previous rate. This problem arises with drop in reservoir
pressure when pressure decreases below the oil bubble point pressure. It can
be controlled using minimum production drawdown and effective pressure
already present. This emulsion will have higher viscosity compared to both crude oil and water, which will decrease the productivity of the well. Emulsion formation can be minimized with control on the causes of emulsion formation, i.e. formation fines / silts and surfactant which resides at the interface. The remedial measures for the damage occurred during production process are as follows: Damage mechanism Fines migration Scale deposition
Paraffin, Wax & Asphaltene
Remedial measures Deep penetrating acid treatment, Clay stabilization Acidization Surfactant treatment, Solvent treatment Surfactant treatment, Solvent treatment Surfactant treatment Hydraulic fracturing Solvent / Demulsifier treatment
recovery (EOR) methods depends on being able to inject sufficient quantity of injection water into zone of interest and successful implementation of job. The injection well may not produce the desired result due to lack of injectivity
caused by formation damage. The other EOR methods such as steam injection, polymer injection, insitu combustion, carbon dioxide flooding ,etc
may also not give expected result due to formation damage caused by these Hydraulic Fracturing : Concept to Application 34
processes itself if proper care is not taken in the selection of method and execution and implementation of the job. The different mechanisms ,which can affect the result of the water injection and different EOR methods by damaging the formation are as follows:
i) Solid invasion: If gradual reduction in injectivity is observed it may be attributed to plugging of formation face by suspended solids in injection water. These solids can be formation fines and clays, suspended solids, silt or carbonates fines from injection water source, bacteria, corrosion products
clay then the absence of proper salinity can result in clay swelling. iv) Clay deflocculation: Clay deflocculation can also be the cause of
injectivity impairment in formations with no swelling clays, which is due to abrupt contact of with fresh water or sudden salinity changes or shocks or
injectivity. vi) Skim oil entrainment : Oil entrapped in injection water is a major source of potential impaired injectivity, which is due to high saturation of
hydrocarbon liquid entrapped in the porous media around an injector to ensure that a continuous oil phase with finite relative permeability and mobility
is obtained.
vii) Biologically Induced Impairment: Injection water, whatever the
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back into the wellbore. Presence of suspended solids/oil in such situation brings the injectivity down.
ix) Chemical adsorption/ Wettability alterations: The injection water contains chemical additives such as de-emulsifiers and surfactants used to
inhibit emulsion formation or allow the separation of the produced crude oil
from the total fluid stream. In addition it may include corrosion inhibitors, scale
inhibitors, etc. These chemicals are highly polar and may have a tendency for physical adsorption on both sandstones and carbonates. The adsorption of these chemicals may cause : Reductions in permeability. Alterations in wettability (generally to a more oil-wet state).
x) Formation of insoluble scales and Emulsification: Carbonate and sulphate based scales are commonly encountered in water injection operations. Emulsion formation is caused by simultaneous formation of oil and
precipitate which can plug the target zone. The important properties, which should be given care to prevent the damage of the formation during water injection are as follows: i) Total dissolved solids( salinity and type of ions), ii) pH and state of oxidation of the brine, iii) iv) Presence of bacteria, Additives,
potential of the water injection potential the efficient remedial measures are
necessary. The remedial measures for the damages done during water
injection according to the different damage mechanisms are as follows: Damage mechanism Solid invasion Fines migration Clay swelling Clay deflocculation Formation dissolution Skim oil entrainment Biologically Induced Impairment Sand influx Remedial measures Acidization, Hydraulic fracturing Acidization ,Clay stabilization treatment High saline fluid Surfactant tratment, Clay stabilization treatment Acidization, Hydraulic fracturing Surfactant treatment Biocide treatment Sand consolidation treatment 36
Chemical adsorption/ Wettability alterations Formation of insoluble scales and Emulsification Precipitate formation
g) Formation Damage During Stimulation Treatment: The objective of well stimulation is to improve existing well productivity. If the well problem is
accurately diagnosed and the treatment is well designed and executed, the
change in productivity or even a decline. Sometimes lack of proper care leads to further damage after job also.
Acids have been widely used for increasing or restoring the permeability of formations Acid reactions can produce several side effects that
acid job, i.e. in absence of tubing pickling, the external damaging particles may enter into the formation thereby creating much more problem. If the
tubing rust or iron enters with acid in the formation then it may lead to generation of sludge, which can increase the value of skin. Dirty tubing strings
matrix and matrix cement. Therefore, mineral grains may be liberated and can migrate to plug pores. It may also lead to collapse of the formation.
iii)Reaction and precipitation: The acid reaction with the formation rock minerals are very complex and the secondary & tertiary reaction and
which form in presence of asphaltenes, resins, paraffin waxes, and other high molecular weight hydrocarbons, when pH of the crude oil is reduced by acid contact. v)Emulsion formation: The additives / surfactant present in the acid
formulation may result in formation of emulsion. The presence of formation fluid, acid composition and generated formation fines may enhance the
wet.
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vii)Water Block: Excess injection of the acid volume in the formation fluid during acid treatment may lead to formation of water block near wellbore and cause formation damage.
vii)Iron ion precipitation: Formation damage from ferric hydroxide precipitation is a potential problem in any acidizing treatment. Acid readily dissolves iron scales in pipe and attacks iron containing minerals in the formation under
treatment.
The proper laboratory studies while selecting the acid composition are essential so as to control the occurrence of these mechanisms. Along with acid composition the job execution also plays major role in the success of the
stimulation job.
The different remedial measures for different kind of damage mechanisms
causing damage during acid treatment are as follows: Damage mechanism Fines migration Reaction and precipitation Sludge formation Emulsion formation Remedial measures Clay stabilization,Hydraulic fracturing Hydraulic fracturing, Acidization Solvent treatment Surfactant treatment, Solvent treatment
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7. Formation damage Diagnosis To understand the nature and cause of formation damage, the correct diagnosis of the problem is necessary. It helps to design proper effective treatment to solve the problem. Diagnosis of the formation damage can be done with help of many different procedures and available data. Wel performance curves or production history of specific well can provide
clues to help define the problem. Comparing the actual well performance with
the expected normal production performance for that type of operative reservoir drive mechanism can be very helpful to figure out the cause of production decline. The production trend and the information about activities done on the well gives information, whether production decline is normal reservoir pressure depletion or it is due to formation damage or to mechanical problems in the well bore such as sand production or in effective artificial lift.
The well completion reports or workover reports may also give many helpful
information. SKIN: The value of skin is mostly used measure to quantify the extent and severity of the formation damage. The higher positive value of the skin indicates the higher level of formation damage.
present to the actual pressure drop measured during the test. FE= P (zero skin) / P (actual) PRESSURE TRANSIENT ANALYSIS Transient pressure testing has been used for many years to define various
reservoir characteristics. Several ways to identify, and quantify, formation damage in producing wells are available from analysis of this type of test. The
value of skin or extent of formation damage may be measured with help of Hydraulic Fracturing : Concept to Application 39
pressure transient analyses. There are many tests, which can be utilized.
The choice of test depends upon the practical limitation and suitability. The
different kinds of tests are as follows :i) Drawdown test : In a drawdown test, a well that is static, stable and shut in is opened to flow. But getting initial stable pressure and later const. Flow rate is difficult.
ii)
Build up test: In a build up test, a well which is already flowing (ideally at constant rate) is shut in, and the downhole pressure measured as the pressure build up. The difficulty is to get const. Rate production prior to the shut in and the production is lost while well is shut in. the practical advantage is that the const. Flow rate condition, in the second half, is more easily achieved (since the flow rate is zero).
iii)
Injection test:
drawdown test, except that flow is into the well rather than out of it. It is easier to control the injection rate than production rate. But, the
properties of the injected fluid play a major role if it is different from original reservoir fluid.
40
iv)
Fall off test:- A fall off test measure the pressure decline subsequent to the closure of an injection. It is conceptually identical to a build up. Similar to injection test, in it also the earlier injected fluid plays a major role.
Nodal Analysis Nodal analysis is another tool, which can be used to identify the presence of formation damage and quantify the effect of the damage on the production
rate as well. By definition, nodal analysis is a systematic approach to the
reservoir, wellbore, and surface facilities, is considered. Once a wells optimum producing rate is determined, problem wells,
producing below this rate can be recognized. This reduced productivity can be
a result of many factors, but nodal analysis allows for evaluation of each
component of the producing system separately ad therefore can isolate the
source of the problem. Production logging The production logging proves to be helpful in further defining the cause of
formation damage. The production logs, such as flowmeter and grandiomanometer are normally used to determine the flow profile of the
perforated zone. By analyzing the flow profile, intervals that are contributing little or no fluid can be identified. Laboratory Studies Laboratory studies in view of formation damage are done to understand the
factors responsible for damage, identification of damage mechanisms and
remedial measures. The studies about the rock mineralogy, formation fluid and their compatibility with other fluids and additives help to diagnose the damage and to identify a suitable remedial measure. Hydraulic Fracturing : Concept to Application 41
The different laboratory studies which can be used to identify the nature of the
damage, damage mechanisms and factors responsible for damage are as
follows: X-Ray Diffraction Analysis Objective -Qualitative and semi-quantitative analysis of rock and clay mineralogy Applications -The knowledge of composition of rock and clay mineralogy helps to understand the probable causes of formation damage. -The clay mineralogy can give information about the effect of different fluids, which come in contact with rock. -It helps to decide the acid formulation. Scanning Electron Microscope Analysis Objective -To get a view of framework grains, cements, matrix and porosity. -To get view of distribution of clay particles and other fines within the pore spaces. Applications -To understand the cause of damage -Treatment design Solubility Test Objective -To study solubility of rock formation in different acid formulations -Filterate analysis for Iron content Applications -To decide acid formulation & acid additives -Treatment design Core Wettability Test Objective study Wettability of core samples Application -It helps to decide acid additives. Immersion Test Objective -Study Effect of 2% KCl Kerosene, 15% HCl on formation chips Application -Treatment design -Acid additives Sludge Test Objective -Study for sludge forming tendency of crude oil with treatment acid formulation -Solubility of sludge with different solvents Application Hydraulic Fracturing : Concept to Application 42
-Treatment design -Acid additives Flush Test With Undamaged Core Plug Objective -Develop Acid Response Curve Application -Treatment design Damage Exposure Objective -Exposing restored core plug to specified drilling / completion fluid. -Determine damage permeability Application -Treatment design
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