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Chapter 2

General Geology And Tectonic Settings

GENERAL GEOLOGY AND TECTONIC SETTINGS

Our study area lies in the central Indus Basin of Pakistan. But before discussing that, it is necessary to understand the major geological settings of Pakistan.

1.1 Sedimentary Basins and Tectonic Settings of Pakistan

In terms of genesis and geological history, Pakistan is divided in two main Sedimentary Basins; Indus Basin and Balochistan Basin (Figure 2.2), which evolved through different geological episodes. Another newly identified smaller basin is Kakar- Khorasan Basin also referred as Pishin Basin. This basin came into existence due to interaction of Indian and Eurasian plates and is classified as Median Basin. (Qadri, 1995)

Figure 2.1 Sedimentry basins of Pakistan

Tectonically, Pakistan lies along the part of the Tertiary convergence zone and is involved in the interaction of three lithospheric plates. Its territorial limits straddle the Indian, Arabian and 2

Eurasian plates with their triple junction located to the north west of Karachi. It has a large sedimentary area with proven petroleum potentials (Kazmi & Jan, 1997). Northward movement of the Indian plate accompanied by the anticlockwise rotation, and collision and bulldozing of the Indian plate against the Eurasian were the major tectonic events which gave rise to the local tectonics and influenced sedimentation in the sub basins.

1.2 Central Indus Basin

The Central Indus Basin is separated from Upper Indus Basin by the Sargodha High and Pezu uplift in the north. It is bounded by the Indian shield in the east, marginal zone of the Indian plate in the west. And in south, the Sukkur Rift (a collective name for Jacobabad and Mari Kandhkot Highs) separates it from the Lower Indus Basin. The oblique subduction in the west along the Chaman Transform Fault Zone is producing exceptionally large variety of structures. The Sulaiman Range represents blind thrust front which suggests that all frontal folds of the fold belt are cored by the blind thrusts. The structures are trending east-west roughly perpendicular to the tectonic transport direction.

1.2.1

Structural Style of Central Indus Basin

The basin comprises, from east to west, three main units given as follows (Kadri, 1995): 1. Punjab Platform 2. Sulaiman Depression 3. Sulaiman Fold Belt

1.2.1.1 Punjab Platform

Punjab platform marks the eastern segment of Central Indus Basin and shows no surface outcrop of sedimentary rocks. Tectonically it is a broad monocline dipping gently towards the Sulaiman depression. The dips are gentle in the Punjab platform area with several salt cored anticlines east of the Indus River.

1.2.1.2 Sulaiman Depression

Sulaiman depression is formed as a result of the collision between two plates. The western flank of the depression includes Zindapir, inner folded zone while Mari Bhugti inner Folded Zone lies in the south. On seismic evidence the area shows some buried anticlines which may have been formed at the expense of flow of Eocene shales.
Figure 2.2 Structural subdivisionsof Central Indus Basin (after Kadri, 1995)

1.2.1.3 PUNJAB PLATFORM

This unit marks the eastern segment of Central Indus Basin and shows no surface outcrops of sedimentary rocks. Tectonically, it is a broad monocline dipping gently towards the Sulaiman Depression. The Pre-Cretaceous non-orogenic movements tilted the area eastward during the Paleozoic and westward since Mesozoic resulting from the collision of Indian and Eurasian plates, Punjab Platform is tectonically the least affected area because of its greater distance from collision zone. However, this presents larger stratigraphic variations; Cambrian and Permo-Carbonifer0us(?) strata appear to onlap against the Sargodha High. A number of wells have been drilled on this platform. The stratigraphic sequence established on the basis of these wells revealed some of the most significant stratigraphic pinchouts in Pakistan.

Chapter 3
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Stratigraphy And Petroleum System

STRATIGRAPHY AND PETROLEUM SYSTEM

1.3 Generalized Stratigraphy of the Area
In Central Indus Basin the oldest rocks that are exposed belong to Wulgai formation of Triassic age. The most important lithostratigraphic variations observed in Sulaiman depression and fold belt are in Paleocene/Eocene. This period marks the facies changes from North to South and 5

East to West. The reason for this variation is believed to be the presence of number of basins at that time, created due to the collision of plates and their irregular and non-uniform coalescence. In Sulaiman Fold Belt, continental sandstone, conglomerates and clays of early Pliocene are present at the surface but in the north, rocks ranging up to Cretaceous (Mughal kot, Parh, Goru and Sembar Formations) are present. The oldest formation exposed in the area is Parh limestone of
the Cretaceous age while Siwaliks of Miocene/Paleocene are the youngest exposed strata.

In Punjab platform Pre-Cambrian salt range is only penetrated in easterly drilled wells. Permian continental clastics and mixed marine clastics/carbonates were deposited in the east along the Permian paleo-coastline. In the Neogene, the regression led to the deposition of the continental fluvial and alluvial fan sediments.

REGIONAL DISTRIBUTION
The Cretaceous system in Pakistan covers an area of approximately 280,000 sq. km; some 52% of the total prospective sedimentary basin (540,000 sq. km), and extends over a large part of the Lower Indus, Kohat and Potwar basins. The Cretaceous outcrops extend from Waziristan (Kurram Formation) in the north to Cutch in the south, and from jaisalmir arch in the east to as far west as Axial Belt and beyond in the Ras Koh Range of Balochistan Basin. The Early Cretaceous marks the actual separation of Eastern Gonclwanaland (In diaAntarcticaAustralia) from the Westem Gondwanaland (AfricaSouth America). The greater India broke up from Eastern Condwanaland some 120 Ma (Aptian), the time when Sembar/Goru were being de posited. The whole Cretaceous, therefore, represented shallow seas while northern floor of the southern arm of the Tethys was subducting beneath the I1anAfghanistan microcontinent and the northem floor of main Tethys was subducting beneath the Tibetan plateau.

Gonu Forzmation : The sand in Goru is the most important entity in the Lower Indus Basin from petroleum reservoir point of view. The shales of Goru are the most widely distributed of post ]urassic formations. lt extends from Waziristan to as far south as Cutch in India. The thickest Goru sedimentation occurs within the Karachi Embayment. Regionally the thickness increases towards the center of the Karachi Embayment. One of the wells located west of Badin Platform partially penetrated about 2,360 meters of Goru section. ln the Kirthar Fold Belt, the Goru Formation thins gradually to the north while the large part of the Sulaiman Fold Belt also seems to have relatively thin Goru sediments. At least the part of the Kirthar Fold Belt north of 28 N latitude and the Sulaiman Fold Belt
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appear to have been relatively positive areas within Goru time and it appears probable that at this time there was already a restricted high area which divided the Balochistan and the Indus basins.

Figure 3.1 Stratigraphic Column of Central Indus Basin (modified aftr Kadri, 1995)

1.4 Petroleum System

The producing fields (Nandpur, Panjpir etc.) in the Central Indus Basin indicate the presence of a valid petroleum system in the area (courtesy OGDCL).

1.4.1

Source Rocks

Sembar formation is considered the major source in the region with kerogen type II & III having average TOC 0.81 %. Cretaceous Mughalkot Shales and Alozai may also act as source rocks.

1.4.2

Reservoir Rocks
and fractured

Carbonates of Parh & Fort Munro formation and Lower Goru sands could be the primary targets in the subthursted anticlines. Whereas Loralai, Alozai formations blocks of anticlines in the area. carbonates of Chiltan and Lower Goru sands can also act as reservoir rocks in upthrusted

1.4.3

Cap Rocks

Shales within Mughalkot formation can provide seals for Parh & Mughalkot formations. Shales of Sembar can provide seal for fractured Carbonates of Chiltan formation. Shales within Alozai formation can provide seals for Alozai sands / carbonates.

REFERENCES
1. Badley, M. E., (1985), Practical Seismic Interpretation, D. Riedel Publishing Company & International Human Resources Development Cooperation, Dordrecht, Holland. 2. Kadri, I.B., (1995), Petroleum Geology of Pakistan, PPL, Karachi, Pakistan. 3. Kazmi, A.H., & Jan, M.Q., (1997). Geology & Tectonics of Pakistan, Graphic Publishers, Karachi, Pakistan. 4. Mujtaba, M., 2006. Pertroleum Prospects of Punjab Platform, Middle Indus Basin, Pakistan, through personnel communication. 5. Sheriff, R.E., 1999, Encyclopedic Dictionary of Exploration Geophysics, Third Edition: Society of Exploration Geophysicists. 9

6. Telford, W.M., Geldart, L.P., & Sheriff, R.E., 1976, Applied Geophysics, Cambridge University Press. 7. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/seismic_source 8. http://en.wikipedia.org/wikipedia.org/wiki/geophone

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