Caryn James writes the James on screenS film and television blog for IndieWire and contributes to other

publications including The New York Times Book Review andThe Daily Beast. She is also the author of the novels What Caroline Knew (St. Martins Press, 2006) and Glorie (Penguin Books, 1999). She was previously a film critic, chief television critic and culture critic for The New York Times, where she wrote on a wide range of subjects including media and celebrity culture. She was also an editor at the Times Book Review. As a film commentator she has appeared on shows including Charlie Rose, Today, MSNBC News and CBS Sunday Morning.

Types of children's literature

Children's literature can be divided in many ways. Children's literature by genres A literary genre is a category of literary composition. Genres may be determined by technique, tone, content, or length. Nancy Anderson, associate professor in the College of Education at the University of South Florida in Tampa,[2] has delineated six major categories of children's literature, with some significant subgenres:[6] 1. Picture books, including board books, concept books (teaching an alphabet or counting), pattern books, and wordless books 2. Traditional literature: there are ten characteristics of traditional literature: (1) unknown authorship, (2) conventional introductions and conclusions, (3) vague settings, (4) stereotyped characters, (5) anthropomorphism, (6) cause and effect, (7) happy ending for the hero, (8) magic accepted as normal, (9) brief stories with simple and direct plots, and (10) repetition of action and verbal patterns.[7] The bulk of traditional Literature consists of folktales, which conveys the legends, customs, superstitions, and beliefs of people in past times. This large genre can be further broken down into subgenres:myths, fables, ballads, folk music, legends, and fairy tales.[8]

3. Fiction, including the sub-genres of fantasy and realistic fiction (both contemporary and historical). This genre would also include the school story, a genre unique to children's literature in which the boarding school is a common setting. 4. Non-fiction 5. Biography, including autobiography 6. Poetry and verse. Children's literature by age category Children's literature is an age category opposite adult literature, but it is sub-divided further due to the divergent interests of children age 018.

Picture books appropriate for pre-readers ages 05. Caldecott Medal winners often (but not always) fall within this category. Early Reader Books appropriate for children age 57. These books are often designed to help a child build his or her reading skills. Chapter book appropriate for children ages 711.

Short chapter books, appropriate for children ages 79. Longer chapter books, appropriate for children ages 912. Newbery Medal winners often (but not always) fall within this category.

Young-adult fiction appropriate for children age 1318.

The criteria for these divisions are vague, and books near a borderline may be classified either way. Books for younger children tend to be written in very simple language, use large print, and have many illustrations. Books for older children use increasingly complex language, normal print, and fewer, if any, illustrations. Series Book series are common in all literary genres, and children's literature is no exception. Sometimes the success of a book for children prompts the author to continue the story in a sequel or to launch a series, such as L. Frank Baum's Wizard of Oz. Enid Blyton and R. L. Stine have specialized in open-ended series. Sometimes a series will outlive its author; when Baum died, his publisher hiredRuth Plumly Thompson to write more Oz books. The Nancy Drew series and others were written by several authors using the same pen name.

Children's Literature Types

By Katherine Beckett, eHow Contributor | updated April 14, 2011

Reading with a child will help her enjoy literature.

ost children are exposed to literature from an early age -- being read books and told stories -- and, later, kids will go on to read on their own. These stories help children to understand the world, and the characters help teach them how we behave as people. There are several different types, or genres, of children's literature. Some of these are classified based on age or reading ability, and some based on the child's preference.

Other People Are Reading 1. Picture Books

o

Picture books are for young children or beginning readers. They can either have just pictures, without words -- such as Raymond Briggs' "The Snowman" -- or have pictures with a small amount of text, like in "Where The Wild Things Are" by Maurice Sendak. Picture books often feature repetitive phrases, to help children who are learning to read. They can be any genre, and are classified solely by their format.

Fantasy Fiction
o

Fantasy books are any novel -- or "chapter book," as they are often referred to in children's literature -- that is based on fanciful or unrealistic events. Fantasy is widespread in children's literature. Popular topics include magic or the occult, paranormal events, science fiction, animal-based fantasy or unusual or parallel worlds, such as the world in J.R.R. Tolkien's "The Lord of the Rings" trilogy. Perhaps the most famous children's fantasy books of the late 20th and early 21st centuries are the Harry Potter novels.
Sponsored Links

Best SMB Site - hktdc.com

Source D&B verified suppliers at HKTDC's award-winning eMarketplace
www.hktdc.com

Realistic Fiction

Realistic children's literature can either be set in contemporary times or in the past. As the name suggests, the characters are realistic and the plot line follows something that could actually happen. Realistic fiction can either be mostly for entertainment, featuring mysteries, adventures, sports or humor, or can try to tackle sensitive issues, such as life and death, family problems, cultural diversity or mental or physical illness. Realistic historical fiction uses real events from the past as a basis for the story.

Traditional Literature
o

Traditional literature is the name given to any stories which originated orally and were later written down. These include some fairy tales, folk tales, myths, legends, epics and fables. Traditional literature stories can be found in books, but are the type of story that a parent may tell a child from memory. Some of the best known traditional literature stories include "The Tortoise and the Hare," "Cinderella," "Theseus and the Minotaur" and "Little Red Riding Hood."
Sponsored Links

Verna Aardema (19112001) - Why Mosquitoes Buzz in People's Ears Rafael balos (born 1956) - Grimpow Joan Abelove (born 1945) - Go and Come Back Richard Adams (born 1920) - Watership Down C. S. Adler (born 1932) - Magic of the Glits, Ghost Brother Aesop (6th century BC) - Fables Joan Aiken (19242004) - The Wolves of Willoughby Chase series, Arabel and Mortimer series Yahya Alavi Fard (born 1973) - This is innovation Vivien Alcock (19242003) - The Haunting of Cassie Palmer Louisa May Alcott (18321888) - Little Women Lloyd Alexander (19242007) - The Chronicles of Prydain, Westmark series Joseph Alexander Altsheler (18621919) - The Young Trailers series, the Civil War series David Almond (born 1951) - Skellig, Heaven Eyes, Kit's Wilderness

Hans Christian Andersen (18051875) - The Snow Queen, The Little Mermaid, The Ugly Duckling, The Emperor's New Clothes, The Princess and the Pea, Thumbelina K. A. Applegate (born 1956) - Animorphs, Remnants, Everworld series Victor Appleton - Tom Swift Philip Ardagh - Eddie Dickens series, Unlikely Exploits series Edward Ardizzone (19001979) - Tim All Alone, Tim and the Brave Sea Captain Laura Adams Armer (18741963) - Waterless Mountain William H. Armstrong (19141999) - Sounder Tedd Arnold (born 1949) - No Jumping on the Bed!, Parts Frank Asch (born 1946) - I Can Blink, Happy Birthday Moon Martin Auer (born 1951) - Now, Now, Markus, The Blue Boy Harold Avery (18691943) - The Triple Alliance, Play the Game Avi (born 1937) - Crispin: The Cross of Lead, The True Confessions of Charlotte Doyle Christopher Awdry (born 1940) - The Railway Series Nos. 27-40 Thomas the Tank Engine stories Wilbert Awdry (19111997) - The Railway Series Nos. 1-26 Thomas the Tank Engine stories

[edit]B

Natalie Babbitt (born 1932) - Tuck Everlasting, Knee-Knock Rise, The Search for Delicious Maria Baciu (born 1942) - Ghetuele copilriei Enid Bagnold (18891981) - National Velvet Bob Balaban (born 1945) - McGrowl series R. M. Ballantyne (18251894) - The Coral Island Blue Balliett (born 1955) - Chasing Vermeer, The Wright 3, The Calder Game Lynne Reid Banks (born 1929) - The Indian in the Cupboard series Helen Bannerman (18621946) - Little Black Sambo Clive Barker (born 1952) - The Thief of Always Jill Barklem (born 1951) - Brambly Hedge Steve Barlow - Outernet series Kitty Barne (18831961) - She Shall Have Music, Family Footlights, Visitors from London, Rosina Copper

J. M. Barrie (18601937) - Peter Pan T. A. Barron (born 1952) - The Lost Years of Merlin series Dave Barry (born 1949) - Peter and the Starcatchers series Margaret Stuart Barry (born 1958) - Simon and the Witch Graeme Base (born 1958) - Animalia L. Frank Baum (18561919) - The Wonderful Wizard of Oz series Hans Baumann (19141988) - Sons of the Steppe, I Marched with Hannibal Nina Bawden (born 1925) - Carrie's War, The Witch's Daughter, The Peppermint Pig Dale E. Basye - Heck: Where the Bad Kids Go "BB" (D. J. Watkins-Pitchford) (19051990) - The Little Grey Men, Down the Bright Stream, Bill Badger and the Pirates Jerome Beatty Jr (19162002) - The Matthew Looney space series Frank Beddor - The Looking Glass Wars series John Bellairs (19381991) - The House with a Clock in Its Walls Hilaire Belloc (18701953) - Cautionary Tales for Children, The Bad Child's Book of Beasts, More Beasts for Worse Children Derek Benz (born 1971) - Grey Griffins Berechiah ha-Nakdan (12th13th century) - Mishle Shualim, Fables of a Jewish Aesop Stan and Jan Berenstain (19232005 & born 1923) - The Berenstain Bears series Elisabeth Beresford (born 1928) - The Wombles Paul Berna (19081994) - A Hundred Million Francs, The Street Musician, Flood Warning Luc Besson (born 1958) - Arthur and the Minimoys series Vitaly Bianki (18941959) - Whose Nose is Better? John Bibee - The Spirit Flyer series Margaret Biggs - Melling School series Franny Billingsley - Well Wished, Big Bad Bunny Claire Huchet Bishop (18991993) - The Five Chinese Brothers, All Alone, The Big Loop Holly Black (born 1971) - The Spiderwick Chronicles, Beyond the Spiderwick Chronicles, Tithe, Valiant Malorie Blackman (born 1962) - The Noughts & Crosses series Judy Blume (born 1938) - Are You There, God? It's Me, Margaret, Fudge series

Enid Blyton (18971968) - The Noddy books, The Famous Five series, The Secret Seven series, The Magic Faraway Tree series, Sunny Stories magazine Angela Sommer-Bodenburg (born 1948) - The Little Vampire series Michael Bond (born 1926) - The Paddington Bear series Nancy Bond - A String in the Harp Ruskin Bond - The Room on the Roof, The Blue Umbrella Lucy M. Boston - The Green Knowe series Chris Bradford (born 1974) - The Young Samurai series Tony Bradman (born 1954) - The Dilly the Dinosaur series Gillian Bradshaw (born 1956) - The Dragon and the Thief, The Land of Gold, Beyond the North Wind Christianna Brand (19071988) - The Nurse Matilda series (adapted as Nanny McPhee) Ann Brashares (born 1967) - The Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants series Angela Brazil (18681947) - The Nicest Girl in the School, For the Sake of the School, The Jolliest Term on Record Elinor Brent-Dyer (18941969) - The Chalet School series Jan Brett (born 1949) - Trouble with Trolls Thomas Brezina (born 1963) - The Knickerbocker Gang Rae Bridgman - The MiddleGate Books: The Serpent's Spell, Amber Ambrosia, Fish & Sphinx Robert Bright (19021988) - Georgie Hesba Fay Brinsmead (19222003) - Pastures of the Blue Crane, Longtime Dreaming Ivana Brli-Maurani (18741938) - The Marvellous Adventures and Misadventures of Hlapi the Apprentice, Tales of Long Ago Lauren Brooke - Heartland series, Chestnut Hill series Walter R. Brooks (18861958) - The Freddy the Pig series Marc Brown (born 1946) - Arthur Marcia Brown (born 1918) - Puss in Boots Margaret Wise Brown (19101952) - Goodnight Moon, The Runaway Bunny Frances Browne (18161879) - Granny's Wonderful Chair Jean de Brunhoff (18991937) - The Story of Babar Jan Brzechwa (19001966) - The Pan Kleks series, & many poems for children

Anthony Buckeridge (19122004) - The Jennings school stories Maria Elizabeth Budden (c. 17801832) - Always Happy!!: Or, Anecdotes of Felix and his Sister Serena. A Tale (1814) Eve Bunting (born 1928) - Smoky Night John Bunyan (16281688) - Pilgrim's Progress Della Burford - Journey to Dodoland, Magical Earth Secrets, Miracle Galaxy Anthony Burgess (19171993) - A Long Trip to Tea Time, The Land Where the Ice Cream Grows Thornton Burgess (18741965) - The Adventures of Danny Meadow Mouse, Old Mother West Wind Doris Burn - Andrew Henry's Meadow, The Summerfolk Sheila Burnford - The Incredible Journey Frances Hodgson Burnett (18491924) - A Little Princess, Little Lord Fauntleroy, The Secret Garden Virginia Lee Burton (19091968) - The Little House, Mike Mulligan and His Steam Shovel A. J. Butcher - The Spy High series Betsy Byars - Summer of the Swans, Cracker Jackson Georgia Byng - Molly Moon series

[edit]C

Meg Cabot - The Princess Diaries, Allie Finkle's Rules for Girls Dorothy Canfield Fisher (18791958) - Understood Betsy William Cardell (17801828) - The Story of Jack Halyard, the Sailor Boy Rosa Nouchette Carey (18401909) - Not Like Other Girls, Heriot's Choice Eric Carle (born 1929) - The Very Hungry Caterpillar, The Very Busy Spider Lewis Carroll (18321898) - Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, Through the Looking-Glass Peter Carter (19291999) - The Sentinels, Children of the Book, Borderlands Charles, Prince of Wales (born 1948) - The Old Man of Lochnagar Geoffrey Chaucer (c. 13431400) - Chanticleer and the Fox (from The Canterbury Tales) Lauren Child - Charlie and Lola, Clarice Bean series John Christopher (born 1922) - The Prince in Waiting series, The Tripods trilogy

Matt Christopher (19171997) - Wild Pitch, The Kid Who Only Hit Homers, Tough to Tackle Korney Chukovsky (18821969) - Moydodyr Pauline Clarke - The Twelve and the Genii Beverly Cleary - Ramona Quimby series Andrew Clements - Frindle, A Week in the Woods Eoin Colfer - Artemis Fowl series Suzanne Collins - The Underland Chronicles, The Hunger Games trilogy Carlo Collodi (18261890) - The Adventures of Pinocchio John Amos Comenius (15921670) - Orbis Sesualim Pictis Picture Book Harriet Theresa Comstock (18601925) - Molly the Drummer Boy, Janet of the Dunes Arthur Conan Doyle (18591930) - The Lost World Jane Leslie Conly - Racso and the Rats of NIMH, R-T, Margaret, and the Rats of NIMH, Crazy Lady! Susan Coolidge (18351905) - What Katy Did series Barbara Cooney (19172000) - Chanticleer and the Fox, Miss Rumphius Susan Cooper - The Dark Is Rising series, The Boggart Esther Copley (17861851) - Early Friendships Zizou Corder - Lionboy series William Corlett (19382005) - The Magician's House series Rachel Cosgrove - The Hidden Valley of Oz John Cotton (15851652) - Milk for Babes catechism Bruce Coville - Space Brat, My Teacher is an Alien, Aliens Ate My Homework, The Unicorn Chronicles, Magic Shop series Joy Cowley - The Silent One, Bow Down Shadrach Palmer Cox (18401924) - The Brownies series John Coy - Night Driving, Crackback Joe Craig - The Jimmy Coates series Sharon Creech - Walk Two Moons, Heartbeat Helen Cresswell (19342005) - The Bagthorpe Saga Richmal Crompton (18901969) - Just William Michael Cronin - Against The Day series Kevin Crossley-Holland - Storm, The Seeing Stone

Catherine Crowe (17901872) - Pippie's Warning; or, Mind Your Temper Gabriella Csire - Turpi series Judy Link Cuddehe (born 1961) - Forgive Me?, Mom Says I am Just Plain Squirrelly, Flash Light!, Big Al Has a Foul Attitude, The Wondrous Autobiography of Leaf, Erik's Son Jane Louise Curry - The Abaloc series, Poor Tom's Ghost, The Egyptian Box, The Black Canary

[edit]D

Debbie Dadey - The Adventures of the Bailey School Kids Roald Dahl (19161990) - Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, James and the Giant Peach, Matilda, The Witches, The BFG Annie Dalton - Agent Angel series, Afterdark series Lucy Daniels - Animal Ark, Dolphin Diaries Paula Danziger (19442004) - The Cat Ate My Gymsuit, Amber Brown series James Dashner - The 13th Reality series Alan Davidson - The Annabel books, Light, The Bewitching of Alison Allbright Stephen Mark Davies - The Sophie series Lavinia R. Davis (19091961) - The Wild Birthday Cake Edmondo De Amicis (18461908) - Heart (Cuore) Marguerite de Angeli (18891987) - The Door in the Wall, Black Fox of Lorne, Bright April Terry Deary - The Fire Thief, Master Crooks Crime Academy Daniel Defoe (16601731) - Robinson Crusoe Meindert DeJong (19061991) - The Wheel on the School, The House of Sixty Fathers Walter de la Mare (18731956) - The Three Mulla Mulgars, Songs of Childhood, Peacock Pie Dianne de Las Casas - The Cajun Cornbread Boy, There's a Dragon in the Library, The House That Witchy Built Silvana De Mari - The Last Dragon Kate DiCamillo - Because of Winn Dixie, The Tale of Despereaux, The Miraculous Journey of Edward Tulane Charles Dickens (18121870) - A Christmas Carol

Peter Dickinson - The Changes trilogy, Tulku, City of Gold Anne Digby - Trebizon series Thomas M. Disch (19402008) - The Brave Little Toaster, The Brave Little Toaster Goes to Mars Tony DiTerlizzi - The Spiderwick Chronicles, Beyond the Spiderwick Chronicles Franklin W. Dixon - The Hardy Boys series Chris D'Lacey - The Fire Within series Lynley Dodd - Hairy Maclary, Slinky Malinki Mary Mapes Dodge (18311905) - Hans Brinker or the Silver Skates Julia Donaldson - The Gruffalo, Monkey Puzzle, The Troll Siobhan Dowd (19602007) - The London Eye Mystery, Bog Child Debra Doyle - School of Wizardry, Knight's Wyrd Crescent Dragonwagon - Always, Always, Home Place, Half a Moon and One Whole Star Diane Duane - So You Want to Be a Wizard Tessa Duder - The Alex series William Pne du Bois (19161993) - The Twenty-One Balloons Lois Duncan - I Know What You Did Last Summer, A Gift of Magic Jeanne DuPrau - The Books of Ember series

[edit]E

Edward Eager (19111964) - Half Magic, Magic by the Lake, Knight's Castle, The Time Garden, The Well-Wishers, Magic or Not, Seven-Day Magic Martin Ebbertz - Little Mr. Jaromir Dorothy Edwards (19141982) - The Magician Who Kept A Pub and other stories, My Naughty Little Sister Julie Andrews Edwards - The Last of the Really Great Whangdoodles T. S. Eliot (18881965) - Old Possum's Book of Practical Cats Joy Emery (born 1952) - The Children from under the Ice and Santa's Present Michael Ende (19291995) - The Neverending Story, Momo, Jim Button and Luke the Engine Driver Elizabeth Enright (19091968) - The Melendy series, Thimble Summer, Gone-Away Lake

Eleanor Estes (19081988) - The Moffats, Rufus M., The Hundred Dresses, Ginger Pye Juliana Horatia Ewing (18411885) - A Flat Iron for a Farthing, The Story of a Short Life

[edit]F

John Meade Falkner (18581932) - Moonfleet Walter Farley (19151989) - The Black Stallion series Eleanor Farjeon (18811965) - Martin Pippin in the Apple Orchard, The Little Bookroom Nancy Farmer - The House of the Scorpion, The Ear, the Eye and the Arm, A Girl Named Disaster Penelope Farmer - Charlotte Sometimes, The Summer Birds, A Castle of Bone G. E. Farrow (1862 c. 1920) - The Wallypug of Why, The Little Panjandrum's Dodo Eugene Field (18501895) - Wynken, Blynken, and Nod Anne Fine - The Tulip Touch, Madame Doubtfire, Flour Babies Catherine Fisher - The Snow-Walker, The Book of the Crow, The Oracle, Corbenic John D. Fitzgerald (19061988) - The Great Brain series Louise Fitzhugh (19281974) - Harriet the Spy, Nobody's Family Is Going to Change Marjorie Flack (18971958) - The Story of Ping, Angus and the Ducks John Flanagan - Ranger's Apprentice series Sid Fleischman - The Whipping Boy, By The Great Horn Spoon! Ian Fleming (19081964) - Chitty Chitty Bang Bang Esther Forbes (18911967) - Johnny Tremain Antonia Forest (19152003) - Autumn Term, Falconer's Lure & others in the Marlow Family series Helen Fox - Eager series Anne Frank (19291945) - The Diary of a Young Girl Barbara C. Freeman - Two-Thumb Thomas, Timi, the Tale of a Griffin Frieda Friedman - Dot for Short, Pat and Her Policeman, Carol from the Country Cornelia Funke - The Thief Lord, Inkworld trilogy Fynn - Mister God, This Is Anna

[edit]G

Jostein Gaarder - Sophie's World, The Christmas Mystery Arkady Gaidar (19041941) - Timur and His Squad Neil Gaiman - Coraline, The Graveyard Book Paul Gallico (19971976) - The Snow Goose; Jennie Sally Gardner - The Countess's Calamity, I, Coriander, The Red Necklace Leon Garfield (19211996) - Jack Holborn, The Strange Affair of Adelaide Harris, The God Beneath the Sea Alan Garner - The Owl Service, The Weirdstone of Brisingamen, The Moon of Gomrath, Elidor, Red Shift, The Stone Book Quartet Eve Garnett (19001991) - The Family from One End Street Doris Gates (19011987) - Blue Willow Anna Genover-Mas - The Grumpy Gardener Jean Craighead George - My Side of the Mountain, Julie of the Wolves Charles Ghigna (born 1946) Father Goose Patricia Reilly Giff - The Polk Street School series, Lily's Crossing, Pictures of Hollis Woods, Eleven, Storyteller Fred Gipson (19081973) - Old Yeller Rumer Godden (19071998) - The Doll's House, The Mousewife, The Diddakoi Glenda Goertzen (born 1967) - The Prairie Dogs, City Dogs Julia Golding - The Diamond of Drury Lane, Secret of the Sirens Oliver Goldsmith (17301774) - The History of Little Goody Two-Shoes Elizabeth Goudge (19001984) - The Little White Horse, Linnets and Valerians Harry Graham (18741936) - Ruthless Rhymes for Heartless Homes Kenneth Grahame (18591932) - The Wind in the Willows Hardie Gramatky (19071979) - Little Toot John Grant - Little Nose stories Nicholas Stuart Gray (19221981) - Grimbold's Other World, The Seventh Swan Kate Greenaway (18461901) - Under the Window Graham Greene (19041991) - The Little Train, The Little Fire Engine, The Little Horse Bus, The Little Steamroller Stacy Gregg - Pony Club Secrets series Kristiana Gregory - Earthquake at Dawn, The Stowaway, Jenny of the Tetons Jacob (17851863) and Wilhelm (17861859) Grimm - Grimm's Fairy Tales

Maria Gripe (19232007) - Hugo and Josephine, In the Time of the Bells, Elvis and His Secret Johnny Gruelle (18801938) - Raggedy Ann series

[edit]H

Maria Hack (17771844) - Winter Evenings, Harry Beaufoy, or, The Pupil of Nature Margaret Peterson Haddix - Shadow Children sequence Mark Haddon - The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-Time, Agent Z series Virginia Hamilton (19362002) - M. C. Higgins the Great Leif Hamre (19142007) - Otter Three Two Calling, Contact Lost, Blue Two...Bale Out H. Irving Hancock (c. 18661922) - The High School Boys series, the West Point series, the Young Engineers series Roger Hargreaves (19351988) - The Mr. Men and Little Miss series Cynthia Harnett (18931981) - The Wool-Pack, The Load of Unicorn, The Writing on the Hearth Joel Chandler Harris (18451908) - Uncle Remus Rosemary Harris - The Moon in the Cloud, A Quest for Orion, Zed Lisi Harrison - The Clique series, Alpha series, Monster High series Peter Hrtling (born 1933) - Oma, Ben liebt Anna, Krcke Juanita Havill - The Jamaica series, Eyes Like Willy's Charles Hawes - (18891923) The Dark Frigate, The Great Quest Carol Hedges - Jigsaw, Spy Girl series Zenna Henderson (19171983) - Ingathering: The Complete People Stories Marguerite Henry (19021997) - King of the Wind, Misty of Chincoteague G. A. Henty (18321902) - Out on the Pampas, The Young Buglers, The Cat of Bubastes, With Lee in Virginia, Beric the Briton James Herriot (19161995) - All Creatures Great and Small Karen Hesse (born 1952) - Out of the Dust, The Music of Dolphins Carl Hiaasen - Hoot E.W. Hildick (19252001) - Jack McGurk mysteries, Jim Starling series Lorna Hill (19021991) - A Dream of Sadler's Wells Nigel Hinton (born 1941) - Buddy, Beaver Towers S.E. Hinton - The Outsiders, That Was Then, This Is Now, Rumble Fish

Russell Hoban - The Mouse and His Child Michael Hoeye - Hermux Tantamoq series Mary Hoffman - Stravaganza series, Amazing Grace Barbara Hofland (17701844) - The Blind Farmer and His Children, The Young Crusoe Christophe Honor - Tout contre Lo Anthony Horowitz - Alex Rider series, The Diamond Brothers series, The Gatekeepers series Hasan Hourani - Hassan Everywhere Janni Howker - The Nature of the Beast, Badger on the Barge Ted Hughes (19381998) - The Iron Man Thomas Hughes (18221896) - Tom Brown's School Days John Hulme - The Seems series Irene Hunt (19072001) - Up a Road Slowly, The Lottery Rose Erin Hunter - The Warriors series, the Seekers series Norman Hunter (18991995) - The Professor Branestawm series

[edit]I

Eva Ibbotson - Which Witch?, The Secret of Platform 13, Journey to the River Sea Jean Ingelow (18201897) - Mopsa the Fairy Mick Inkpen - Kipper the Dog series, Wibbly Pig series Koji Ishikawa - The Colorful Animals Hide and Seek series Laura Ingalls Wilder (18671957) - The Little House series Washington Irving - Rip Van Winkle And Other Stories

[edit]J

Joseph Jacobs (18541916) - English Fairy Tales, Celtic Fairy Tales, European Folk and Fairy Tales Grace James - The John and Mary series, Green Willow and Other Japanese Fairy Tales James Janeway (16361674) - A Token For Children Brian Jacques - The Redwall series, Castaways of the Flying Dutchman va Janikovszky (19262003) If I Were a Grown-Up, Who Does This Kid Take After?

Tove Jansson (19142001) - The Moomin books Paul Jennings - Unreal!, Undone!, Unbelievable!, The Paw Thing, The Gizmo, Wicked series W. E. Johns (18931968) - The Biggles series Marcia Thornton Jones - The Adventures of the Bailey School Kids, Ghostville Elementary series Diana Wynne Jones (born 1934) - The Chrestomanci series, Howl's Moving Castle, Dogsbody Jacqueline Jules (born 1956) - over 20 books, including the Zapato Power series and Unite or Die: How Thirteen States Became a Nation Norton Juster - The Phantom Tollbooth, The Hello, Goodbye Window

[edit]K

Maira Kalman (born 1949) - series on Max Stravinsky, the poet-dog Ulrich Karger (born 1957) - The Scary Sleepover Jan Karon (born 1937) - Miss Fannie's Hat Erich Kstner (18991974) - Emil and the Detectives, Lottie and Lisa, The Flying Classroom Elizabeth Kay - The Divide trilogy Annie Keary (18251879) - Heroes of Asgarth Ezra Jack Keats (19161983) - The Snowy Day, Whistle for Willie, Goggles! Carolyn Keene - The Nancy Drew mystery series Charles Keeping - Charley, Charlotte and the Golden Canary Harold Keith (19031998) - Rifles for Watie Eric P. Kelly (18841960) - The Trumpeter of Krakow Louise Andrews Kent (18861969) - The He went with... series of historical novels Judith Kerr - When Hitler Stole Pink Rabbit, The Tiger Who Came To Tea P. B. Kerr - Children of the Lamp series Dorothy Kilner (17551836) - The Life and Perambulation of a Mouse Clive King - Stig of the Dump Dick King-Smith - The Sheep-Pig, The Queen's Nose Charles Kingsley (18191875) - The Water Babies Jeff Kinney - Diary of a Wimpy Kid

Rudyard Kipling (18651936) - Just So Stories, The Jungle Book, Puck of Pook's Hill Annette Curtis Klause - Blood and Chocolate Anne Knight (17921860) E. L. Konigsburg - From the Mixed Up Files of Mrs. Basil E. Frankweiler, The View from Saturday Conor Kostick - Epic, Saga Erik P. Kraft - Chocolatina, Lenny and Mel series, Miracle Wimp Uma Krishnaswami Naming Maya, Monsoon Amy Krouse Rosenthal - Duck! Rabbit! Joseph Krumgold (19081980) - ...And Now Miguel, Onion John

[edit]L

Selma Lagerlf (18581940) - The Wonderful Adventures of Nils Andrew Lang (18441912) - The Blue Fairy Book, The Red Fairy Book and others Noel Langley (19111980) - The Land of Green Ginger Katherine Langrish - Troll Fell, Troll Mill, Troll Blood Jane Langton - The Hall Family Chronicles series Kirby Larson - The Magic Kerchief, Hattie Big Sky Kathryn Lasky - Guardians of Ga'hoole series, The Night Journey Caroline Lawrence - The Roman Mysteries Michael Lawrence - The Jiggy McCue series, Young Dracula, The Aldous Lexicon Robert Lawson (18921957) - Rabbit Hill, Ben and Me, They Were Strong and Good Ervin Lzr (19362006) "The Seven Headed Fairy", "The Little Boy and the Lions", "The Square Round Wood" Munro Leaf (19051976) - The Story of Ferdinand Edward Lear (18121888) - "The Owl and the Pussycat", A Book of Nonsense Dennis Lee - Alligator Pie Robert Leeson (born 1928) - The Third Class Genie, It's My Life Ursula K. Le Guin (born 1929) - A Wizard of Earthsea, Catwings, Gifts, Very Far Away From Anywhere Else Madeleine L'Engle (19182007) - A Wrinkle in Time, Meet the Austins

Peter Lerangis (born 1955) - Spy X series, Abracadabra series, The 39 Clues: The Sword Thief & The Viper's Nest Helen Lester (born 1936) - Tacky the Penguin Gail Carson Levine - Ella Enchanted, The Two Princesses of Bamarre, Fairest, Dave at Night, The Wish Ted Lewin - Peppe the Lamplighter C. S. Lewis (18981963) - The Chronicles of Narnia Hilda Lewis (18961974) - The Ship That Flew J. Patrick Lewis (born 1942) - A Hippopotamusn't, Swan Song, The House J. S. Lewis - Grey Griffins Naomi Lewis - Translations into English of works by Hans Christian Andersen Suzanne Lieurance - Shoelaces (with Patrick Girouard) Astrid Lindgren (19072002) - Pippi Longstocking, Ronia the Robber's Daughter Eric Linklater (18991974) - The Wind on the Moon, The Pirates in the Deep Green Sea Penelope Lively - The Ghost of Thomas Kempe, A Stitch in Time Hugh Lofting (18861947) - Doctor Dolittle series Jack London (18761916) - The Call of the Wild, White Fang Lois Lowry - Number the Stars, The Giver, Anastasia series Patricia Lynch (18981972) - The Turf-Cutter's Donkey, the Brogeen series Elinor Lyon (19212008) - The House in Hiding, Carver's Journey, Run Away Home

[edit]M

Amy MacDonald (born 1951) - Little Beaver and the Echo, Rachel Fister's Blister Betty MacDonald (19081958) - The Mrs. Piggle-Wiggle series George Macdonald (18241905) - At the Back of the North Wind, The Princess and the Goblin Reginald James MacGregor- The Young Detectives D. J. MacHale - The Pendragon Adventure Sandra Magsamen - The Gift Margaret Mahy - The Haunting, The Changeover, Maddigan's Fantasia Hector Malot (18301907) - Nobody's Boy (Sans Famille) Ruth Manning-Sanders (18881988) - A Book of Dragons, and other anthologies of fairy tales from around the world

Frederick Marryat (17921848) - The Children of the New Forest John Marsden - The Tomorrow series James (19421992) & Edward Marshall - Fox in Love, Fox and His Friends, Fox on Wheels Ann M. Martin - The Babysitters Club series J. P. Martin (18801966) - The Uncle series John Masefield (18781967) - The Midnight Folk, The Box of Delights Cotton Mather (16631728) - A Token for the Children of New England Andr Maurois (18851967) - Fattypuffs and Thinifers (Patapoufs et Filifers) Mercer Mayer - The Little Critter and Little Monster series William Mayne (19282010) - A Swarm in May, A Grass Rope, Earthfasts, Low Tide Geraldine McCaughrean - Peter Pan in Scarlet, A Pack of Lies Robert McCloskey (19142003) - Make Way for Ducklings, Time of Wonder, Blueberries for Sal Eloise McGraw (19152000) - The Golden Goblet, The Moorchild, The Rundelstone of Oz Lauren Lynn McGraw - Merry Go Round in Oz Sophie McKenzie - Girl, Missing Robin McKinley - The Hero and the Crown, The Blue Sword, Spindle's End Colin McNaughton - Captain Abdul's Pirate School Geoffrey McSkimming - The Cairo Jim series L. T. Meade (18541914) - A World of Girls Michael Mei - The Goofy Gourmet: Let's Cook Today! , The Goofy Gourmet: A Perfect Picnic! Milton Meltzer - The Black Americans, The American Revolutionaries, Mark Twain Himself Richard Michelson - Animals That Ought to Be: Poems about Imaginary Pets, Across the Alley Michael Milburn - If I Was a Turtle A. A. Milne (18821956) - Winnie-the-Pooh, The House at Pooh Corner, When We Were Very Young Olive Beaupre Miller (18831968) - My Book House series Elyne Mitchell (19132002) - The Silver Brumby series Walter Moers - The 13 Lives of Captain Bluebear

Lucy Maud Montgomery (18741942) - Anne of Green Gables, Emily of New Moon Clement Clarke Moore (17791863) - A Visit From St. Nicholas Lorin Morgan-Richards (1975) - Simon Snootle and OTHER small stories, A Boy Born from Mold and Other Delectable Morsels John A. Moroso (18741957) - Nobody's Buddy Michael Morpurgo - Why the Whales Came, The Wreck of the Zanzibar, Private Peaceful Farley Mowat - Lost in the Barrens, Owls in the Family Robert Muchamore - CHERUB Series, Henderson's Boys Series Brandon Mull - Fablehaven series Caryl Cude Mullin - A Riddle of Roses Robert Munsch - Love You Forever, The Paper Bag Princess Jill Murphy - The Worst Witch, The Last Noo-Noo Andrew Murray - Ghost Rescue Susan Musgrave - Gullband, Dreams Are More Real Than Bathtubs

[edit]N

Beverley Naidoo: Journey to Jo'berg, The Other Side of Truth Violet Needham (18761967) - The Black Riders, The Stormy Petrel, The Woods of Windri John R. Neill - The Wonder City of Oz, The Scalawagons of Oz, Lucky Bucky in Oz Boena Nmcov (18201862) - Slovak Fairy Tales and Legends (Slovensk pohdky a povsti) Edith Nesbit (18581924) - The Railway Children, Five Children and It, The Phoenix and the Carpet, The Story of the Amulet John Newbery (17131767) - A Little Pretty Pocket-Book Intended for the Instruction and Amusement of Little Master Tommy and Pretty Miss Molly Jenny Nimmo - The Snow Spider, the Children of the Red King series Garth Nix - The Old Kingdom series, The Keys to the Kingdom series, The Seventh Tower series Joan Lowery Nixon (19272003) - The Colonial Williamsburg series, the Orphan Train series Andrew Norriss - Aquila, The Unluckiest Boy in the World Jessica Nelson North (18911888) - The Giant Shoe

Sterling North (19061974) - Rascal, The Wolfing Mary Norton (19031992) - The Borrowers series, Bedknob and Broomstick Alfred Noyes (18801958) - The Secret of Pooduck Island, Daddy Fell into the Pond and Other Poems for Children

[edit]O

Graham Oakley - The Church Mice series, Magical Changes Robert C. O'Brien (19181973) - Mrs. Frisby and the Rats of NIMH, Z for Zachariah Jane O'Connor - Fancy Nancy Scott O'Dell (18981989) - Island of the Blue Dolphins, The King's Fifth, The Black Pearl Charles Ogden - Edgar and Ellen series Ian Ogilvy - Measle and the Wrathmonk, Measle and the Dragodon Jenny Oldfield - My Magical Pony, the Home Farm Twins, the Horses of Half-Moon Ranch series Kenneth Oppel - The Silverwing Saga, Airborn Pat O'Shea (19312007) - The Hounds of the Morrigan Uri Orlev - The Island on Bird Street Mary Pope Osborne - The Magic Treehouse series, Tales from the Odyssey Elsie J. Oxenham (18801960) - The Abbey Series

[edit]P

Lynde Palmer (see Mary Louise Peebles) Christopher Paolini - Inheritance cycle Barbara Park - Skinnybones, Junie B. Jones series Peter Parnall - Winter Barn, Apple Tree, Woodpile Katherine Paterson - Bridge to Terabithia, Jacob Have I Loved James Patterson - The Maximum Ride series, The Dangerous Days of Daniel X Jill Paton Walsh - Gaffer Samson's Luck, The Emperor's Winding Sheet Gary Paulsen - Hatchet, The Time Hackers Michelle Paver - Chronicles of Ancient Darkness series Philippa Pearce (19202006) - Tom's Midnight Garden Ridley Pearson - Peter and the Starcatchers series, The Kingdom Keepers series

Howard Pease (18941974) - Secret Cargo, Highroad to Adventure, Bound for Singapore Dale Peck - Drift House series Ethel Pedley (18591898) - Dot and the Kangaroo Mary Louise Peebles a.k.a. Lynde Palmer (18331915) - The Magnet Stories Bill Peet (19152002) - The Wump World, Hubert's Hair-Raising Adventure Daniel Pennac - Eye of the Wolf (L'il du loup) Lucy Fitch Perkins (18651937) - The Twins series Lynne Rae Perkins (born 1956) - Criss Cross, All Alone in the Universe Charles Perrault (16281703) - Tales of Mother Goose, Little Red Riding Hood Rodman Philbrick (born 1951) - Freak The Mighty, Max the Mighty, The Last Book in the Universe Joan Phipson (19122003) - The Boundary Riders, The Family Conspiracy, Polly's Tiger Tanwir Phool (born 1948) - Gulshan-e-Sukhan (Garden of Poetry) & Chiryaa, Titli, Phool Tamora Pierce (born 1954) - The Tortall series, Circle of Magic series Christopher Pike - The Spooksville series Dav Pilkey - The Captain Underpants series Daniel Pinkwater - The Big Orange Splot, The Hoboken Chicken Emergency Kin Platt (19112003) - The Big Max series, The Blue Man Peter Pohl (born 1940) - Johnny, My Friend Jacques Poustis (born 1949) - Joyeux anniversaire! (Happy Birthday!) Eleanor H. Porter (18681920) - Pollyanna Tracey Porter - Billy Creekmore Beatrix Potter (18661943) - The Tale of Peter Rabbit, The Tailor of Gloucester Ellen Potter - The Olivia Kidney series Rhoda Power (18901957) - Redcap Runs Away Terry Pratchett - The Nome Trilogy, Johnny Maxwell series, The Amazing Maurice and his Educated Rodents, Tiffany Aching series Otfried Preussler (born 1923) - The Robber Hotzenplotz, The Curse of the Darkling Mill Guillaume Prevost - The Book of Time trilogy Willard Price (18871983) - Amazon Adventure and others in the Adventure series

Elise Primavera - The Secret Order of the Gumm Street Girls Patricia Puddle - Star-Crossed Rascals, Velvet Ball and the Broken Fairy, Molly Gumnut Rescues a Bandicoot Josephine, Diana, and Christine Pullein-Thompson - Six Ponies, I Wanted a Pony, We Rode to the Sea & other pony books Philip Pullman (born 1946) - His Dark Materials trilogy, Clockwork, The FireworkMaker's Daughter

[edit]R

Janette Rallison (born 1966) - Fame, Glory, and Other Things on My To Do List Arthur Ransome (18841967) - Swallows and Amazons series Marjorie Rawlings (18961953) - The Yearling Talbot Baines Reed (18521893) - The Fifth Form at St. Dominic's W. Maxwell Reed (18711962) - The Earth for Sam, The Stars for Sam Celia Rees - The Bailey Game, Witch Child, Pirates! David Rees (19361993) - The Exeter Blitz, The Flying Island Gwyneth Rees - The Mum Hunt, Fairy Dust series, Mermaid Magic H. A. Rey (18981977) & Margret Rey (19061996) - Curious George series Frank Richards (18761961) - Stories of Greyfriars School and Billy Bunter Justin Richards - The Invisible Detective series Chris Riddell - The Edge Chronicles, Barnaby Grimes E. V. Rieu (18871972) - The Flattered Flying Fish and Other Poems Rick Riordan - Percy Jackson & the Olympians, The Heroes of Olympus, The Kane Chronicles, The Maze of Bones Jamie Rix (born 1958) - Alistair Fury series, Grizzly Tales for Gruesome Kids series Keith Robertson - Henry Reed series Hilary Robinson - Mixed Up Fairy Tales, The Princess's Secret Letters Gianni Rodari (19201980) - Telephone Tales (Favole al telefono), Tales Told by a Machine (Novelle fatte a macchina) Emily Rodda - The Fairy Realm series, the Rowan of Rin series, the Deltora Quest series Don Roff (born 1966) - Scary Stories Keith Lawrence Roman - The Heart of Nine Tigers, Bartram and the Blue Morning Glory

Malcolm Rose - Traces series, Lawless and Tilley series Simon Rose - The Alchemist's Portrait, The Sorcerer's Letterbox, The Clone Conspiracy, The Emerald Curse, The Heretic's Tomb Michael Rosen (born 1946) - Sad Book, Fantastically Funny Stories, Quick, Let's Get Out of Here, Were Going on a Bear Hunt Diana Ross (19102000) - The Little Red Engine series J. K. Rowling (born 1965) - Harry Potter series Ron Roy - A to Z Mysteries, Capital Mysteries Salman Rushdie (born 1947) - Haroun and the Sea of Stories Rachel Renee Russell - Dork Diaries Chris Ryan - The Alpha Force series Pam Muoz Ryan - Esperanza Rising, Becoming Naomi Len

[edit]S

Louis Sachar (born 1954) - Sideways Stories From Wayside School series, Holes Angie Sage (born 1952) - Septimus Heap series Antoine de Saint-Exupry (19001944) - The Little Prince Carl Sandburg (18781967) - Rootabaga Stories Brandon Sanderson (born 1975) - Alcatraz Versus the Evil Librarians Margaret Marshall Saunders (18611947) - Beautiful Joe Malcolm Saville (19011982) - The Lone Pine Club series Allen Say (born 1937) - Grandfather's Journey, The Ink-Keeper's Apprentice Kurtis Scaletta - Mudville, Mamba Point, The Tanglewood Terror Richard Scarry (19191994) - The Busytown series Pam Scheunemann (born 1955) - Overdue Kangaroo, Ape Cape, The Crane Loves Grain Mark Schlichting - Harry and the Haunted House Laura Amy Schlitz - Good Masters! Sweet Ladies! Voices from a Medieval Village Christoph von Schmid (17681854) - The Basket of Flowers, Easter Eggs Michael Scott - The Secrets of the Immortal Nicholas Flamel series Will Scott (18931964) - The Cherrys series Laura Vaccaro Seeger - First the Egg George Selden (19291989) - The Cricket in Times Square series Maurice Sendak (born 1928) - Where the Wild Things Are

Mike Serafin (born 1962) - 7 Stories from Baghdad, 4 Seasons of Baghdad Kate Seredy (18961975) - The White Stag, The Good Master, The Singing Tree Dr. Seuss (19041991) - The Cat in the Hat Anna Sewell (18201878) - Black Beauty Mark Shasha (born 1961) - Night of the Moonjellies Charles Green Shaw (18921974) - It Looked Like Spilt Milk Mary Shelley (17971851) - Maurice, or the Fisher's Cot Gary (born 1966) & Rhoda Shipman (born 1968) - Pakkins' Land Mark Shulman (born 1962) - Mom and Dad are Palindromes, Secret Hiding Places Yrsa Sigurardttir (born 1963) Shel Silverstein (19301999) - The Giving Tree, Where the Sidewalk Ends Francesca Simon (born 1955) - Horrid Henry series Isaac Bashevis Singer (19021991) - Stories for Children Marilyn Singer (born 1948) - Turtle in July Steve Skidmore - Outernet series Obert Skye - Leven Thumps series William Sleator - Singularity, Rewind Barbara Sleigh (19061982) - The Carbonel series, Jessamy Dodie Smith (18961990) - 101 Dalmatians Edward Wyke Smith (18711935) - The Marvellous Land of Snergs Roland Smith - Thunder Cave, Zach's Lie, Jack's Run Pat Smythe (19281996) - Three Jays Series, Adventure Series Lemony Snicket - A Series of Unfortunate Events Jack Snow (19071956) - The Magical Mimics in Oz, The Shaggy Man of Oz Laurel Snyder - Up and Down the Scratchy Mountains, Any Which Wall, Penny Dreadful Zilpha Keatley Snyder - The Egypt Game, The Headless Cupid, The Witches of Worm Donald J. Sobol - Encyclopedia Brown series, Two-Minute Mysteries series Ivan Southall (19212008) - Josh, Ash Road, Hills End, To the Wild Sky, Bread and Honey, Fly West Elizabeth George Speare (19081994) - The Witch of Blackbird Pond, The Bronze Bow, The Sign of the Beaver Armstrong Sperry (18971976) - Call It Courage

Jerry Spinelli - Loser, Stargirl, Maniac Magee, Crash, Wringer E.C. Spykman - A Lemon and a Star, The Wild Angel, Terrible Horrible Edie, Edie on the Warpath Johanna Spyri (18271901) - Heidi Andy Stanton - The Mr Gum series Dugald Steer - Ologies series Robert Louis Stevenson (18501894) - A Child's Garden of Verses, Treasure Island, Kidnapped Jennifer J. Stewart - If That Breathes Fire, We're Toast!, Close Encounters of a Third World Kind Mary Stewart (born 1916) - The Little Broomstick, Ludo and the Star Horse, A Walk in Wolf Wood Paul Stewart - The Edge Chronicles, Fergus Crane, Muddle Earth, Barnaby Grimes R. L. Stine (born 1943) - Goosebumps, Fear Street, The Nightmare Room series Frank R. Stockton (18341902) - The Lady or the Tiger? Margaret Storey - Timothy and the Two Witches, The Stone Sorcerer, Pauline Walter Scott Story (18791955) - Skinny Harrison Adventurer Todd Strasser - Help! I'm Trapped... series Edward Stratemeyer (18621930) - The Rover Boys series, The Stratemeyer Syndicate Noel Streatfeild (18951986) - Ballet Shoes, The Circus Is Coming, Curtain Up, White Boots Jonathan Stroud - The Bartimaeus Trilogy Dorothy Margaret Stuart (18891963) - The Children's Chronicle, The Young Clavengers Rosemary Sutcliff (19201992) - The Eagle of the Ninth, The Lantern Bearers Julia Suzuki - Yoshiko and the Gift of Charms Jonathan Swift (16671745) - Gulliver's Travels

[edit]T

Amanda Tabiri (born 1983) - The Adventures of Kwesi and Anna: Kwesi and Anna Lend a Helping Hand Colin Thiele (19202006) - Storm Boy, Blue Fin, Sun on the Stubble Kate Thompson - Switchers, The New Policeman

Ruth Plumly Thompson (18911976) The Royal Book of Oz James Thurber (18941961) - The Thirteen Clocks, The Wonderful O, Many Moons H. E. Todd (19081988) - The Bobby Brewster series Barbara Euphan Todd (18901976) - The Worzel Gummidge series J. R. R. Tolkien (18921973) - The Hobbit Aleksei Nikolaevich Tolstoy (18831945) - The Golden Key, or the Adventures of Buratino Leo Tolstoy (18281910) - Classic Tales and Fables for Children Sharon Tregenza (born 1951) - Tarantula Tide Nigel Tranter (19092000) - Spaniard's Isle, Nestor the Monster P. L. Travers (18991986) - Mary Poppins Mary Treadgold (19102005) - We Couldn't Leave Dinah Geoffrey Trease (19091998) - Cue for Treason, The Hills of Varna Henry Treece (19111966) - Horned Helmet, The Road to Miklagard, The Children's Crusade Sharon Tregenza (born 1951) - Tarantula Tide Meriol Trevor (19192000) - Merlin's Ring, The Other Side of the Moon, The Rose Round, The King of the Castle, The Letzenstein Chronicles Ethel Turner (18721958) - Seven Little Australians Julian Tuwim (18941953) - The Locomotive & other poems for children Mark Twain (18351910) - The Adventures of Tom Sawyer, Huckleberry Finn

[edit]U

Tomi Ungerer- The Mellops Go Flying, Mellops Go Spelunking, Moon Man, Flix Florence Kate Upton (18731922) - The Adventures of Two Dutch Dolls and a Golliwogg Anne Ursu - The Cronus Chronicles Alison Uttley (18841976) - The Little Grey Rabbit series, A Traveller in Time

[edit]V

Rachel Vail - Wonder, Do-Over, The Friendship Ring series Jenny Valentine - Finding Violet Park, Broken Soup Chris Van Allsburg - Jumanji, The Polar Express, The Garden of Abdul Gasazi Hendrik Willem van Loon (18821944) - The Story of Mankind

Wendelin Van Draanen - The Sammy Keyes series, Flipped Shreekumar Varma - The Royal Rebel Jules Verne (18281905) - Journey to the Center of the Earth, 20,000 Leagues Under The Sea Heiki Vilep (1960) - The Sounds of Silence, The Monsters of the Closet Door Rene Villanueva (19542007) - Ang Unang Baboy Sa Langit (The First Pig In Heaven) Judith Viorst - Alexander and the Terrible, Horrible, No Good, Very Bad Day Elfrida Vipont (19021992) - The Lark in the Morn, The Lark on the Wing, The Elephant and the Bad Baby John Vornholt - The Troll King series Anne de Vries (19041964) - Journey Through the Night

[edit]W

Lea Wait - Stopping to Home, Wintering Well Judy Waite - Mouse Look Out Maria Elena Walsh (19302011) - Tut Maramb Vivian Walsh - Olive, the Other Reindeer, Gluey, Penguin Dreams, Mr. Lunch series Ivy Wallace - The Pookie series, The Animal Shelf series Jennifer Ward - Way Out in the Desert Ronald Welch (19091982) - The Gauntlet, Knight Crusader H. G. Wells (18661946) - The Time Machine Robert Westall (19291993) - The Machine Gunners, Fathom Five, The Scarecrows Scott Westerfeld - The Midnighters Trilogy, Peeps, The Last Days, The Uglies series John F.C. Westerman (1901?) - John Wentley Takes Charge, The Invisible Plane Percy F. Westerman (18761959) - All Hands to the Boats, Deeds of Pluck and Daring in the Great War Michael Wexler - The Seems series Suzanne Weyn (born 1955) - The Bar Code Tattoo, Mr. Magorium's Wonder Emporium E. B. White (18991985) - Charlotte's Web, Stuart Little, The Trumpet of the Swan T. H. White (19061964) - The Sword in the Stone, Mistress Masham's Repose Kate Douglas Wiggin (18561923) - Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm Oscar Wilde (18541900) - The Selfish Giant, The Happy Prince and Other Stories

Laura Ingalls Wilder (18671957) - Little House on the Prairie Maiya Williams - The Golden Hour Margery Williams (18811944) - The Velveteen Rabbit, Poor Cecco, Winterbound Ursula Moray Williams (19112006) - Adventures of the Little Wooden Horse, Gobbolino the Witch's Cat Henry Williamson (18951977) - Tarka the Otter Henry Winkler - The Hank Zipzer series Jacqueline Wilson - Girls in Love, Double Act, The Story of Tracy Beaker, The Illustrated Mum Elizabeth Winthrop - The Castle in the Attic Mary Wollstonecraft (17591797) - Original Stories from Real Life Patricia Wrede - The Enchanted Forest Chronicles Dare Wright (19142001) - The Lonely Doll Virginia Brown Wright (born 1958) - Buzzzzzzzz: What Honeybees Do, Crying Bear, The Princess and the Castle, The Prince and the Dragon Patricia Wrightson (19212010) - The Crooked Snake, The Nargun and the Stars Eva-Lis Wuorio - The Island of Fish in the Trees, The Happiness Flower

[edit]Y

Laurence Yep - The Golden Mountain Chronicles, the Dragon series, Ribbons Jane Yolen - Owl Moon, Commander Toad series, The Pit Dragon Trilogy, Wizard's Hall Ed Young - Lon Po Po, Seven Blind Mice

[edit]Z

Paul Zindel (19362003) - The Pigman Charlotte Zolotow - Mr. Rabbit and the Lovely Present Zheng Yuanjie - King of Fairy Tales
SHORT STORIES Hugh Aaron is the CEO of his own plastics company. As a Seabee, he was stationed in Mindoro and Zambales in 1945. He has written several books. Gmino H. Abad teaches at U.P. Creative Writing Center. He has won several Palanca Awards. Estrella D. Alfon (1917-1983), a prolific writer from Cebu City, only managed to get an A.A. degree from U.P. because of poor health. A member of the U.P. Writers Club, she held the National Fellowship in Fiction post at the U.P. Creative Writing Center in 1979. Carlos A. Angeles is a Palanca Award-winning poet. The Wonderful Machine is his only published short story.

Paz Marquez Benitez (1894-1983) only had one more published short story after Dead Stars. Nevertheless, she made her mark in Philippine literature because her work is considered the first modern Philippine short story. Consorcio Borje (1912-1981) won the 1941 Commonwealth Award for Literature for his collection of 47 short stories, The Automobile Comes to Town. His book was never published because WWII came and the manuscript was lost. Carlos Corts was born in Cebu City, grew up in Mandaue, and works in Mactan. Iris Sheila G. Crisostomo has a degree in communication arts from University of the Philippines at Los Baos. She is getting her MFA at De La Salle University while working at the National Commission for Culture and the Arts. Rony V. Diaz has won Palancas and is now publisher ofManila Times. He has taught English at U.P. Diliman and has worked for for the Philippine government. Egmidio Enriquez wrote The.Doll which won a prize in thePhilippine Free Press annual competition. He showed lots of promise but I don't know if he wrote many more stories later. Juan T. Gatbonton has the distinction of winning the first Palanca Award. Another story of his won again later. He has written and edited several books on Philippine art and culture. Jose Claudio B. Guerrero is an English studies graduate of University of the Philippines at Diliman. He works at the National Commission for Culture and the Arts as an information officer. Doreen D.L. Jose is a media officer at the United Nations Transitional Authority in East Timor. Luis Joaquin M. Katigbak has won Philippine Graphic and Palanca awards. His first book, Happy Endings, is available from U.P. Press. E.L. Koh is a professor emeritus in mathematics at University of Regina in Saskatchewan, Canada. Angelo Rodriguez Lacuesta, winner of Philippine Graphic and Palanca awards, has come out with his first book, Life Before X and Other Stories. Timothy R. Montes, another Palanca winner, teaches in the creative writing program of the University of the Philippines in Mindanao (Davao City). He grew up in Samar and studied in Silliman University. Kevin Piamonte teaches at University of the Philippines Visayas in Iloilo City. He is a member of the Arts Council of Iloilo. Vicente Rivera, Jr. is a Bicolano writer who first started writing in the 1930s. He was editor of Evening News Magazine. Arturo B. Rotor (1907-1995?) enrolled in U.P. Conservatory of Music and College of Medicine simultaneously and graduated from both. He became director of the universitys Postgraduate School of Medicine, was a music critic and an orchid fancier. He had a disease (Rotor Syndrome) and a vanda orchid (Vanda merillii var. rotorii) named after him. He was given the Republic Cultural Award in 1966. Menchu Aquino Sarmiento, executive director for Philippine Air Lines Foundation, has won the NVM Gonzales, Philippine Graphic, and Philippines Free Pressgrand prizes for her short stories. H.O. Santos has been writing fiction since 1998. His stories have been published in the Philippines, U.S., and Canada. Lakambini A. Sitoy, a multiple Palanca Award winner, has received the National Book Award for Mens Rea, a collection of her short stories. Loreto Paras Sulit (1908-?) was a founding member of U.P. Writers club. She was head of the Philippine National Red Cross for decades. Maria Aleah G. Taboclaon majored in English at University of the Philippines Diliman. While working for an M.A. in clinical psychology, she works at the office of the Vice Chancellor for Research and Development at U.P. Macario D. Tiu is chair of the Humanities Division at Ateneo de Davao. His fiction and poems (Cebuano and English) have appeared in Philippines Free Press, Philippine Graphic, andBisaya. He is a Palanca and Graphics award winner. May M. Tobias teaches at U.P. College of Fine Arts. She has written and illustrated childrens books for Adarna, Bookmark, and Tahanan Books. Marby Villaceran is a teaching associate at U.P. Dilimans Department of English and Comparative Literature. She has published several stories and poems for children in thePhilippine Daily Inquirers Junior Inquirer section.

Manuel A. Viray (1917-1995?) has compiled poetry anthologies, essays on Philippine literature, and was editor-in-chief of Archipelago Quarterly. He worked in the foreign service corp of the Philippine government until his retirement. POEMS Genevieve Asenjo teaches English at De La Salle University where she is working towards an MFA. Angela Manalang Gloria (1907-1993) was a contemporary of the flashy Jose Garcia Villa. He often criticized her work but her poems have stood the test of time better than his. Her poems are only now begining to be appreciated. Evee V. Huervana is a literature major from University of the Philippines Visayas. She is a member of the Arts Council of Iloilo. Luisa A. Igloria, another multiple Palanca Award winner, teaches at Old Dominion University. Karen Pioquinto has journalism and law degrees from U.P. Diliman. Besides writing poetry, she works at a Makati law firm. Eileen Tupaz is a student at Ateneo de Manila University. IMAGES AND ILLUSTRATIONS Judith Angerman who goes by the initials JELA (for Judith E.L. Angerman) provided the artwork for "The Matini Effect." She has martini posters and art pieces for your bar, den, or office. You can see them at (click here) COOLARTETC. Jay Berkowitz is a photographer for Los Angeles World Airports (LAWA). His striking picture of the LAX Theme Bldg. illustrates "Pia Colada." Marissa Gonzalez lives in Switzerland. She paints with textile paint on silk, acrylic on wood, and watercolor on paper. Her work has been shown in England, France, and Switzerland. Rol P. Lampitoc studied at U.P. College of Fine Arts. He now lives in Toronto, Canada, where he was Dean of Fine Arts at University of Windsor before he retired. Rolando Lampitoc is a graphics designer from Toronto, Canada. Rudy Ledesma lives in Fond du Lac, Wisconsin and publishes Pacific Review. Jill A. Posadas lives in Quezon City and is a senior in art school. She has worked for an ad agency but now spends her days doing news for a radio station. Hector Santos has done glamour and fashion photography. Copper Sturgeon studied art and lives in Los Angeles. May M. Tobias teaches at U.P. College of Fine Arts. She has written and illustratred childrens books.

Mga manunulat ng mga maiikilimg kwento

Amado hernandez

Wala nang lunas Kulang sa Dilig Langaw sa Isang Basong Gatas Dalawang Metro sa Lupang Di-Malipad ng Uwak Ipinanganak ang Isang Kaaway sa Sosyaledad Limang Alas, Tatlong Santo

Deogracias A. Rosario

Dahil sa Pag-ibig Ang Anak ng Kanyang Asawa Ang Manika ni Takeo Walang Panginoon Dalawang Larawan Ang Geisha Bulaklak ng Inyong Panahon Mga Rodolfo Valentino

Jean Piaget
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jean Rio Francais Piaget 1st

Piaget at the University of Michigan, c. 1968

Born

9 August 1896

Neuchtel, Switzerland Died 16 September 1980 (aged 84) Geneva, Switzerland Developmental Psychology,Epistemology

Fields

Known for Constructivism, Genetic epistemology, Theory of cognitive development, Object permanence,Egocentrism Influences Immanuel Kant, Henri Bergson,Pierre Janet, James Mark Baldwin[citation needed] Influenced Barbel Inhelder, Jerome Bruner,Lawrence Kohlberg, Howard Gardner, Thomas Kuhn, Seymour Papert, Umberto Eco[citation
needed]

Jean Piaget (French pronunciation: [

pja ]; (9 August 1896 16 September 1980) was

a French-speaking Swiss developmental psychologist andphilosopher known for his epistemological studies with children. He was the eldest son of Swiss Arthur Piaget and French Rebecca Jackson. His theory of cognitive development and epistemological view are together called "genetic epistemology". Piaget placed great importance on the education of children. As the Director of the International Bureau of Education, he declared in 1934 that "only education is capable of saving our societies from possible collapse, whether violent, or gradual." [1] Piaget created the International Center for Genetic Epistemology in Geneva in 1955 and directed it until 1980. According to Ernst von Glasersfeld, Jean Piaget is "the great pioneer of the constructivist theory of knowing."[2]
Contents
[hide]

1 Biography 2 History
o o o o o

2.1 Zeroeth Piaget: Piaget before psychology 2.2 First Piaget: the sociological model of development 2.3 Second Piaget: the sensorimotor/adaptive model of intellectual development 2.4 Third Piaget: the elaboration of the logical model of intellectual development 2.5 Fourth Piaget: the study of figurative thought 3.1 Stages 3.2 The developmental process 3.3 Genetic epistemology 3.4 Schemas

3 Theory
o o o o

3.4.1 The physical microstructure of schemes

4 Research methods
o o

4.1 Issues and possible solutions 4.2 Development of new methods

4.2.1 Criticism of Piaget's research methods

4.3 Development of research methods 5.1 Developmental psychology 5.2 Education and development of morality 5.3 Piaget and the Cognitivists 5.4 Historical studies of thought and cognition 5.5 Non human development 5.6 Origins 5.7 Primatology 5.8 Philosophy 5.9 Artificial intelligence

5 Influence
o o o o o o o o o

6 Challenges 7 List of major works

o o

7.1 Exemplars 7.2 Super-classics

o o o o

7.3 Classics 7.4 Major works 7.5 Works of significance 7.6 New translations 8.1 Exemplars 8.2 Classics 8.3 Major works 8.4 Works of significance 9.1 Appointments 9.2 Honorary doctorates

8 Major commentaries and critiques

o o o o

9 List of Major Achievements

o o

10 Quotations 11 See also

o o

11.1 Collaborators 11.2 Translators

12 Notes 13 References 14 External links

[edit]Biography Piaget was born in 1896 in Neuchtel, in the Francophone region of Switzerland. His father, Arthur Piaget, was a professor of medieval literature at the University of Neuchtel. Piaget was a precocious child who developed an interest in biology and the natural world. His early interest in zoology earned him a reputation among those in the field after he had published several articles on mollusks by the age of 15.[3] He was educated at the University of Neuchtel, and studied briefly at the University of Zrich. During this time, he published two philosophical papers that showed the direction of his thinking at the time, but which he later dismissed as adolescent thought.[4] His interest in psychoanalysis, at the time a burgeoning strain of psychology, can also be dated to this period. Piaget moved from Switzerland to Paris, France after his graduation and he taught at the Grange-Aux-Belles Street School for Boys. The school was run by Alfred Binet, the developer of the Binet intelligence test, and Piaget assisted in the marking of Binet's intelligence tests. It was while he was helping to mark some of these tests that

Piaget noticed that young children consistently gave wrong answers to certain questions. Piaget did not focus so much on the fact of the children's answers being wrong, but that young children consistently made types of mistakes that older children and adults did not. This led him to the theory that young children's cognitive processes are inherently different from those of adults. Ultimately, he was to propose a global theory of cognitive developmental stages in which individuals exhibit certain common patterns of cognition in each period of development. In 1921, Piaget returned to Switzerland as director of the Rousseau Institute in Geneva. In 1923, he married Valentine Chtenay; together, the couple had three children, whom Piaget studied from infancy. In 1929, Jean Piaget accepted the post of Director of the International Bureau of Education and remained the head of this international organization until 1968. Every year, he drafted his Director's Speeches for the IBE Council and for the International Conference on Public Education in which he explicitly addressed his educational credo. In 1964, Piaget was invited to serve as chief consultant at two conferences at Cornell University (March 1113) and University of California, Berkeley (March 1618). The conferences addressed the relationship of cognitive studies and curriculum development and strived to conceive implications of recent investigations of children's cognitive development for curricula.[5] In 1979 he was awarded the Balzan Prize for Social and Political Sciences. [edit]History

Harry Beilin described Jean Piaget's theoretical research program[6] as consisting of four phases:
1. the sociological model of development, 2. the biological model of intellectual development, 3. the elaboration of the logical model of intellectual development, 4. the study of figurative thought.

The resulting theoretical frameworks are sufficiently different from each other that they have been characterized as representing different "Piagets." More recently, Jeremy Burman responded to Beilin and called for the addition of a phase before his turn to psychology: "the zeroeth Piaget."[7] [edit]Zeroeth

Piaget: Piaget before psychology

Before Piaget became a psychologist, he trained in natural history and philosophy. He received his doctorate in 1918 from the University of Neuchatel. He then undertook post-doctoral training in Zurich (19181919), and Paris (19191921). The theorist we recognize today only emerged when he moved to Geneva, to work for Edouard Claparede as director of research at the Rousseau Institute, in 1922. [edit]First

Piaget: the sociological model of development

Piaget first developed as a psychologist in the 1920s. He investigated the hidden side of childrens minds. Piaget proposed that children moved from a position of egocentrism to sociocentrism. For this explanation he combined the use of psychological and clinical methods to create what he called a semiclinical interview. He began the interview by asking children standardized questions and depending on how they answered, he would ask them a series of nonstandard questions. Piaget was looking for what he called spontaneous conviction so he often asked questions the children neither expected nor anticipated. In his studies, he noticed there was a gradual progression from intuitive to scientific and socially acceptable responses. Piaget theorized children did this because of the social interaction and the challenge to younger childrens ideas by the ideas of those children who were more advanced. This work was used by Elton Mayo as the basis for the famous Hawthorne Experiments.[8] For Piaget, it also led to an honorary doctorate from Harvard in 1936. [9] [edit]Second

Piaget: the sensorimotor/adaptive model of intellectual development

In this stage, Piaget described intelligence as having two closely interrelated parts. The first part, which is from the first stage, was the content of children's thinking. The second part was the process of intellectual activity. He believed this process of thinking could be regarded as an extension of the biological process of adaptation. Adaptation has two pieces: assimilation and accommodation. To test his theory, Piaget observed the habits in his own children. He argued infants were engaging in an act of assimilation when they sucked on everything in their reach. He claimed infants transform all objects

into an object to be sucked. The children were assimilating the objects to conform to their own mental structures. Piaget then made the assumption that whenever one transforms the world to meet individual needs or conceptions, one is, in a way, assimilating it. Piaget also observed his children not only assimilating objects to fit their needs, but also modifying some of their mental structures to meet the demands of the environment. This is the second division of adaption known as accommodation. To start out, the infants only engaged in primarily reflex actions such as sucking, but not long after, they would pick up actual objects and put them in their mouths. When they do this, they modify their reflex response to accommodate the external objects into reflex actions. Because the two are often in conflict, they provide the impetus for intellectual development. The constant need to balance the two triggers intellectual growth. [edit]Third

Piaget: the elaboration of the logical model of intellectual development

In the model Piaget developed in stage three, he argued the idea that intelligence develops in a series of stages that are related to age and are progressive because one stage must be accomplished before the next can occur. For each stage of development the child forms a view of reality for that age period. At the next stage, the child must keep up with earlier level of mental abilities to reconstruct concepts. Piaget concluded intellectual development as an upward expanding spiral in which children must constantly reconstruct the ideas formed at earlier levels with new, higher order concepts acquired at the next level. It is primarily the Third Piaget that was incorporated into American psychology when Piaget's ideas were "rediscovered" in the 1960s.[10] [edit]Fourth

Piaget: the study of figurative thought

Piaget studied areas of intelligence like perception and memory that arent entirely logical. Logical concepts are described as being completely reversible because they can always get back to the starting point. The perceptual concepts Piaget studied could not be manipulated. To describe the figurative process, Piaget uses pictures as examples. Pictures cant be separated because contours cannot be separated from the forms they outline. Memory is the same way. It is never completely reversible. During this last period of work, Piaget and his colleague Inhelder also published books on perception, memory, and other figurative processes such as learning during this last period.[11][12][13]

[edit]Theory Jean Piaget defined himself as a 'genetic' epistemologist, interested in the process of the qualitative development of knowledge. As he says in the introduction of his book Genetic Epistemology (ISBN 978-0-393-00596-7): "What the genetic epistemology proposes is discovering the roots of the different varieties of knowledge, since its elementary forms, following to the next levels, including also the scientific knowledge." He believed answers for the epistemological questions at his time could be answered, or better proposed, if one looked to the genetic aspect of it, hence his experimentations with children and adolescents. Piaget considered cognitive structures development as a differentiation of biological regulations. In one of his last books, Equilibration of Cognitive Structures: The Central Problem of Intellectual Development (ISBN 978022666781), he intends to explain knowledge development as a process of equilibration using two main concepts in his theory, assimilation and accommodation, as belonging not only to biological interactions but also to cognitive ones. [edit]Stages The four development stages are described in Piaget's theory as:

Sensorimotor stage: from birth to age 2. Children experience the world through movement and senses (use five senses to explore the world). During the sensorimotor stage children are extremely egocentric, meaning they cannot perceive the world from others' viewpoints. The sensorimotor stage is divided into six substages: "(1) simple reflexes; (2) first habits and primary circular reactions; (3) secondary circular reactions; (4) coordination of secondary circular reactions; (5) tertiary circular reactions, novelty, and curiosity; and (6) internalization of schemes." [14]

Simple reflexes is from birth to 1 month old. At this time infants use reflexes such as rooting and sucking. First habits and primary circular reactions is from 1 month to 4 months old. During this time infants learn to coordinate sensation and two types of scheme (habit and circular reactions). A primary circular reaction is when the infant tries to reproduce an event that happened by accident (ex: sucking thumb). The third stage, secondary circular reactions, occurs when the infant is 4 to 8 months old. At this time they become aware of things beyond their own body; they are more

object oriented. At this time they might accidentally shake a rattle and continue to do it for sake of satisfaction. Coordination of secondary circular reactions is from 8 months to 12 months old. During this stage they can do things intentionally. They can now combine and recombine schemes and try to reach a goal (ex: use a stick to reach something). They also understand object permanence during this stage. That is, they understand that objects continue to exist even when they can't see them. The fifth stage occurs from 12 months old to 18 months old. During this stage infants explore new possibilities of objects; they try different things to get different results. Some followers of Piaget's studies of infancy, such as Kenneth Kaye[15] argue that his contribution was as an observer of countless phenomena not previously described, but that he didn't offer explanation of the processes in real time that cause those developments, beyond analogizing them to broad concepts about biological adaptation generally.

Preoperational stage: from ages 2 to 7 (magical thinking predominates; motor skills are acquired). Egocentrism begins strongly and then weakens. Children cannot conserve or use logical thinking.

Concrete operational stage: from ages 7 to 11 (children begin to think logically but are very concrete in their thinking). Children can now conserve and think logically but only with practical aids. They are no longer egocentric.

Formal operational stage: from age 11-16 and onwards (development of abstract reasoning). Children develop abstract thought and can easily conserve and think logically in their mind.

[edit]The

developmental process

Piaget provided no concise description of the development process as a whole. Broadly speaking it consisted of a cycle:

The child performs an action which has an effect on or organizes objects, and the child is able to note the characteristics of the action and its effects. Through repeated actions, perhaps with variations or in different contexts or on different kinds of objects, the child is able to differentiate and integrate its elements and effects. This is the process of "reflecting abstraction" (described in detail in Piaget 2001).

At the same time, the child is able to identify the properties of objects by the way different kinds of action affect them. This is the process of "empirical abstraction". By repeating this process across a wide range of objects and actions, the child establishes a new level of knowledge and insight. This is the process of forming a new "cognitive stage". This dual process allows the child to construct new ways of dealing with objects and new knowledge about objects themselves.

However, once the child has constructed these new kinds of knowledge, he or she starts to use them to create still more complex objects and to carry out still more complex actions. As a result, the child starts to recognize still more complex patterns and to construct still more complex objects. Thus a new stage begins, which will only be completed when all the child's activity and experience have been re-organized on this still higher level.

This process may not be wholly gradual, but new evidence shows that the passage into new stages is more gradual than once thought. Once a new level of organization, knowledge and insight proves to be effective, it will quickly be generalized to other areas if they exist. As a result, transitions between stages can seem to be rapid and radical, but oftentimes the child has grasped one aspect of the new stage of cognitive functioning but not addressed others. The bulk of the time spent in a new stage consists of refining this new cognitive level however it is not always happening quickly. For example, a child may learn that two different colors of Play-Doh have been fused together to make one ball, based on the color. However if sugar is mixed into water or iced tea, then the sugar "disappeared" and therefore does not exist. These levels of one concept of cognitive development are not realized all at once, giving us a gradual realization of the world around us.[16] It is because this process takes this dialectical form, in which each new stage is created through the further differentiation, integration, and synthesis of new structures out of the old, that the sequence of cognitive stages are logically necessary rather than simply empirically correct. Each new stage emerges only because the child can take for granted the achievements of its predecessors, and yet there are still more sophisticated forms of knowledge and action that are capable of being developed. Because it covers both how we gain knowledge about objects and our reflections on our own actions, Piaget's model of development explains a number of features of human knowledge that had never previously been accounted for. For example, by showing how children progressively enrich their understanding of things by acting on and reflecting on the effects of their own previous knowledge, they are able to organize their knowledge

in increasingly complex structures. Thus, once a young child can consistently and accurately recognize different kinds of animals, he or she then acquires the ability to organize the different kinds into higher groupings such as "birds", "fish", and so on. This is significant because they are now able to know things about a new animal simply on the basis of the fact that it is a bird for example, that it will lay eggs. At the same time, by reflecting on their own actions, the child develops an increasingly sophisticated awareness of the "rules" that govern in various ways. For example, it is by this route that Piaget explains this child's growing awareness of notions such as "right", "valid", "necessary", "proper", and so on. In other words, it is through the process of objectification, reflection and abstraction that the child constructs the principles on which action is not only effective or correct but also justified. One of Piaget's most famous studies focused purely on the discriminative abilities of children between the ages of two and a half years old, and four and a half years old. He began the study by taking children of different ages and placing two lines of sweets, one with the sweets in a line spread further apart, and one with the same number of sweets in a line placed more closely together. He found that, Children between 2 years, 6 months old and 3 years, 2 months old correctly discriminate the relative number of objects in two rows; between 3 years, 2 months and 4 years, 6 months they indicate a longer row with fewer objects to have "more"; after 4 years, 6 months they again discriminate correctly (Cognitive Capacity of Very Young Children, p. 141). Initially younger children were not studied, because if at four years old a child could not conserve quantity, then a younger child presumably could not either. The results show however that children that are younger than three years and two months have quantity conservation, but as they get older they lose this quality, and do not recover it until four and a half years old. This attribute may be lost due to a temporary inability to solve because of an overdependence on perceptual strategies, which correlates more candy with a longer line of candy, or due to the inability for a four year old to reverse situations. By the end of this experiment several results were found. First, younger children have a discriminative ability that shows the logical capacity for cognitive operations exists earlier than acknowledged. This study also reveals that young children can be equipped with certain qualities for cognitive operations, depending on how logical the structure of the task is. Research also shows that children develop explicit understanding at age 5 and as a result, the child will count the sweets to decide which has more. Finally the

study found that overall quantity conservation is not a basic characteristic of humans' native inheritance. [edit]Genetic

epistemology

According to Jean Piaget, genetic epistemology "attempts to explain knowledge, and in particular scientific knowledge, on the basis of its history, its sociogenesis, and especially the psychological origins of the notions and operations upon which it is based"[5]. Piaget believed he could test epistemological questions by studying the development of thought and action in children. As a result Piaget created a field known as genetic epistemology with its own methods and problems. He defined this field as the study of child development as a means of answering epistemological questions. [edit]Schemas A Schema is a structured cluster of concepts, it can be used to represent objects, scenarios or sequences of events or relations. The original idea was proposed by philosopher Immanuel Kant as innate structures used to help us perceive the world. [17] A schema (pl. schemata) is the mental framework that is created as children interact with their physical and social environments.[18] For example, many 3-year-olds insist that the sun is alive because it comes up in the morning and goes down at night. According to Piaget, these children are operating based on a simple cognitive schema that things that move are alive. At any age, children rely on their current cognitive structures to understand the world around them. Moreover, younger and older children may often interpret and respond to the same objects and events in very different ways because cognitive structures take different forms at different ages.[19] Piaget (1953) described three kinds of intellectual structures: behavioural (or sensorimotor) schemata, symbolic schemata, and operational schemata.

Behavioural schemata: organized patterns of behaviour that are used to represent and respond to objects and experiences.

Symbolic schemata: internal mental symbols (such as images or verbal codes) that one uses to represent aspects of experience.

Operational schemata: internal mental activity that one performs on objects of thought.[20]

According to Piaget, children use the process of assimilation and accommodation to create a schema or mental framework for how they perceive and/or interpret what they

are experiencing. As a result, the early concepts of young children tend to be more global or general in nature.[21] Similarly, Gallagher and Reid (1981) maintained that adults view childrens concepts as highly generalized and even inaccurate. With added experience, interactions, and maturity, these concepts become refined and more detailed. Overall, making sense of the world from a childs perspective is a very complex and time-consuming process.[22] Schemata are:

Critically important building block of conceptual development Constantly in the process of being modified or changed Modified by on-going experiences A generalized idea, usually based on experience or prior knowledge.[21]

These schemata are constantly being revised and elaborated upon each time the child encounters new experiences. In doing this children create their own unique understanding of the world, interpret their own experiences and knowledge, and subsequently use this knowledge to solve more complex problems. In a neurological sense, the brain/mind is constantly working to build and rebuild itself as it takes in, adapts/modifies new information, and enhances understanding. [21] [edit]The physical microstructure of schemes In his Biology and Knowledge (1967+ / French 1965), Piaget tentatively hinted at possible physical embodiments for his abstract scheme entities. At the time, there was much talk and research about RNA as such an agent of learning, and Piaget considered some of the evidence. However he did not offer any firm conclusions, and confessed that this was beyond his area of expertise. Piaget died in 1980, and by then the RNA theory had lost its appeal. [edit]Research

methods

Piaget wanted to revolutionize the way research methods were conducted. Although he started researching with his colleagues using a traditional method of data collection, he was not fully satisfied with the results and wanted to keep trying to find new ways of researching using a combination of data, which included: naturalistic observation, psychometrics, and the psychiatric clinical examination, in order to have a less guided form of research that would produce more genuine results. As Piaget developed new research methods, he wrote a book called The Language and Thought

of the Child, which aimed to synthesize the methods he was using in order to study the conclusion children drew from situations and how they arrived to such conclusion. The main idea was to observe how children responded and articulated certain situations with their own reasoning, in order to examine their thought processes (Mayer, 2005). Piaget administered a test in 15 boys with ages ranging from 1014 years-old in which he asked participants to describe the relationship between a mix bouquet of flowers and a bouquet with flowers of the same color. The purpose of this study was to analyze the thinking process the boys had and to draw conclusions about the logic processes they had used, which was a psychometric technique of research. Piaget also used the psychoanalytic method initially developed by Sigmund Freud. The purpose of using such method was to examine the unconscious mind, as well as to continue parallel studies using different research methods. Psychoanalysis was later rejected by Piaget, as he thought it was insufficiently empirical (Mayer, 2005). Piaget argued that children and adults used speech for different purposes. In order to confirm his argument, he experimented analyzing a childs interpretation of a story. In the experiment, the child listened to a story and then told a friend that same story in his/her own words. The purpose of this study was to examine how children verbalize and understand each other without adult intervention. Piaget wanted to examine the limits of naturalistic observation, in order to understand a childs reasoning. He realized the difficulty of studying children's thoughts, as it is hard to know if a child is pretending to believe their thoughts or not. Piaget was the pioneer researcher to examine childrens conversations in a social context - starting from examining their speech and actions where children were comfortable and spontaneous(Kose, 1987). [edit]Issues

and possible solutions

After conducting many studies, Piaget was able to find significant differences in the way adults and children reason; however, he was still unable to find the path of logic reasoning and the unspoken thoughts children had, which could allow him to study a childs intellectual development over time (Mayer, 2005). In his third book, The Childs Conception of the World, Piaget recognized the difficulties of his prior techniques and the importance of psychiatric clinical examination. The researcher believed that the way clinical examinations were conducted influenced how a childs inner realities surfaced. Children would likely respond according to the way the research is conducted, the questions asked, or the familiarity they have with the environment. The clinical examination conducted for his third book provides a thorough investigation into a childs

thinking process. An example of a question used to research such process was: Can you see a thought? (Mayer, 2005, p. 372). [edit]Development

of new methods

Piaget recognized that psychometric tests had its limitations, as children were not able to provide the researcher with their deepest thoughts and inner intellect. It was also difficult to know if the results of child examination reflected what children believed or if it is just a pretend situation. For example, it is very difficult to know with certainty if a child who has a conversation with a toy believes the toy is alive or if the child is just pretending. Soon after drawing conclusions about psychometric studies, Piaget started developing the clinical method of examination. The clinical method included questioning a child and carefully examining their responses -in order to observe how the child reasoned according to the questions asked - and then examine the childs perception of the world through their responses. Piaget recognized the difficulties of interviewing a child and the importance of recognizing the difference between liberated" versus spontaneous responses (Mayer, 2005, p. 372). [edit]Criticism of Piaget's research methods "The developmental theory of Jean Piaget has been criticized on the grounds that it is conceptually limited, empirically false, or philosophically and epistemologically untenable." (Loureno & Machado, 1996, p. 143) Piaget responded to criticism by acknowledging that the vast majority of critics did not understand the outcomes he wished to obtain from his research (Loureno & Machado, 1996). As Piaget believed development was a universal process, his initial sample sizes were inadequate, particularly in the formulation of his theory of infant development.[23] Piagets theories of infant development were based on his observations of his own three children. While this clearly presents problems with the sample size, Piaget also probably introduced confounding variables and social desirability into his observations and his conclusions based on his observations. It is entirely possible Piaget conditioned his children to respond in a desirable manner, so, rather than having an understanding of object permanence, his children might have learned to behave in a manner that indicated they understood object permanence. The sample was also very homogenous, as all three children had a similar genetic heritage and environment. Piaget did, however, have larger sample sizes during his later years.

[edit]Development

of research methods

Piaget wanted to research in environments that would allow children to connect with some existing aspects of the world. The idea was to change the approach described in his book The Childs Conception of the World and move away from the vague questioning interviews. This new approach was described in his book The Childs Conception of Physical Causality, where children were presented with dilemmas and had to think of possible solutions on their own. Later, after carefully analyzing previous methods, Piaget developed a combination of naturalistic observation with clinical interviewing in his book Judgment and Reasoning in the Child, where a child's intellect was tested with questions and close monitoring. Piaget was convinced he had found a way to analyze and access a childs thoughts about the world in a very effective way. (Mayer, 2005) Piagets research provided a combination of theoretical and practical research methods and it has offered a crucial contribution to the field of developmental psychology (Beilin, 1992). "Piaget is often criticized because his method of investigation, though somewhat modified in recent years, is still largely clinical". He observes a child's surroundings and behavior. He then comes up with a hypothesis testing it and focusing on both the surroundings and behavior after changing a little of the surrounding. (Phillips, 1969) [edit]Influence

Photo of the Jean Piaget Foundation withPierre Bovet (1878-1965) first row (with large beard) and Jean Piaget (1896-1980) first row (on the right, with glasses) in front of the Rousseau Institute (Geneva), 1925

Despite his ceasing to be a fashionable psychologist, the magnitude of Piaget's continuing influence can be measured by the global scale and activity of theJean Piaget Society, which holds annual conferences and attracts very large numbers of

participants. His theory of cognitive development has proved influential in many different areas:

Developmental psychology Education and Morality Historical studies of thought and cognition Evolution Philosophy Primatology Artificial Intelligence (AI)

[edit]Developmental

psychology

Piaget is without doubt one of the most influential developmental psychologists, influencing not only the work of Lev Vygotsky and of Lawrence Kohlberg but whole generations of eminent academics. Although subjecting his ideas to massive scrutiny led to innumerable improvements and qualifications of his original model and the emergence of a plethora of neo-Piagetian and post-Piagetian variants, Piaget's original model has proved to be remarkably robust (Loureno and Machado 1996). [edit]Education

and development of morality

During the 1970s and 1980s, Piaget's works also inspired the transformation of European and American education, including both theory and practice, leading to a more child-centered approach. InConversations with Jean Piaget, he says: "Education, for most people, means trying to lead the child to resemble the typical adult of his society . . . but for me and no one else, education means making creators. . . . You have to make inventors, innovatorsnot conformists" (Bringuier, 1980, p. 132). His theory of cognitive development can be used as a tool in the early childhood classroom. According to Piaget, children developed best in a classroom with interaction. Piaget defined knowledge as the ability to modify, transform, and "operate on" an object or idea, such that it is understood by the operator through the process of transformation [24]. Learning, then, occurs as a result of experience, both physical and logical, with the objects themselves and how they are acted upon. Thus, knowledge must be assimilated in an active process by a learner with matured mental capacity, so that knowledge can build in complexity by scaffolded understanding. Understanding is scaffolded by the learner through the process of equilibration, whereby the learner

balances new knowledge with previous understanding, thereby compensating for "transformation" of knowledge[24]. Learning, then, can also be supported by instructors in an educational setting. Piaget specified that knowledge cannot truly be formed until the learner has matured the mental structures to which that learning is specific, and thereby development constrains learning. Never the less, knowledge can also be "built" by building on simpler operations and structures that have already been formed. Basing operations of an advanced structure on those of simpler structures thus scaffolds learning to build on operational abilities as they develop. Good teaching, then, is built around the operational abilities of the students such that they can excel in their operational stage and build on preexisting structures and abilities and thereby "build" learning [24]. Evidence of the effectiveness of a contemporary curricular design building on Piaget's theories of developmental progression and the support of maturing mental structures can be seen in Griffin and Case's "Number Worlds" curriculum[25]. The curriculum works toward building a "central conceptual structure" of number sense in young children by building on five instructional processes, including aligning curriculum to the developmental sequencing of acquisition of specific skills. By outlining the developmental sequence of number sense, a conceptual structure is build and aligned to individual children as they develop. Piaget's influence is strongest in early education and moral education. Piaget believed in two basic principles relating to moral education: that children develop moral ideas in stages and that children create their conceptions of the world. According to Piaget, "the child is someone who constructs his own moral world view, who forms ideas about right and wrong, and fair and unfair, that are not the direct product of adult teaching and that are often maintained in the face of adult wishes to the contrary" (Gallagher, 1978, p. 26). Piaget believed that children made moral judgments based on their own observations of the world. Piaget's theory of morality was radical when his book, The Moral Judgment of the Child, was published in 1932 for two reasons: his use of philosophical criteria to define morality (as universalizable, generalizable, and obligatory) and his rejection of equating cultural norms with moral norms. Piaget, drawing on Kantian theory, proposed that morality developed out of peer interaction and that it was autonomous from authority mandates. Peers, not parents, were a key source of moral concepts such as equality, reciprocity, and justice.

Piaget attributed different types of psychosocial processes to different forms of social relationships, introducing a fundamental distinction between different types of said relationships. Where there is constraint because one participant holds more power than the other the relationship is asymmetrical, and, importantly, the knowledge that can be acquired by the dominated participant takes on a fixed and inflexible form. Piaget refers to this process as one of social transmission, illustrating it through reference to the way in which the elders of a tribe initiate younger members into the patterns of beliefs and practices of the group. Similarly, where adults exercise a dominating influence over the growing child, it is through social transmission that children can acquire knowledge. By contrast, in cooperative relations, power is more evenly distributed between participants so that a more symmetrical relationship emerges. Under these conditions, authentic forms of intellectual exchange become possible; each partner has the freedom to project his or her own thoughts, consider the positions of others, and defend his or her own point of view. In such circumstances, where childrens thinking is not limited by a dominant influence, Piaget believed "the reconstruction of knowledge", or favorable conditions for the emergence of constructive solutions to problems, exists. Here the knowledge that emerges is open, flexible and regulated by the logic of argument rather than being determined by an external authority. In short, cooperative relations provide the arena for the emergence of operations, which for Piaget requires the absence of any constraining influence, and is most often illustrated by the relations that form between peers (for more on the importance of this distinction see Duveen & Psaltis, 2008; Psaltis & Duveen, 2006, 2007). This distinction acquired central importance in Jrgen Habermas' writings on communicative action.[citation needed] [edit]Piaget

and the Cognitivists

"Cognitivist" generates 18,100 hits on Google Scholar and is used frequently in academic settings and in academic literature; therefore, it is not a neologism. The Cognitivists include Piaget, Vygotsky, and Bruner. Cognitivist (learning theory) is the theory that humans generate knowledge and meaning through sequential development of an individuals cognitive abilities, such the mental processes of recognize, recall, analyze, reflect, apply, create, understand, and evaluate. The Cognitivists' (e.g. Piaget[26] [27] , Bruner [28] [29] [30]: Vygotsky [31] ) learning process is adoptive learning of techniques, procedures, organization, and structure to develop internal cognitive structure that strengthens synapses in the brain. The learner requires assistance to develop prior knowledge and integrate new knowledge. The purpose in education is to develop conceptual knowledge, techniques, procedures, and algorithmic problem

solving using Verbal/Linguistic and Logical/Mathematical intelligences. The learner requires scaffolding to develop schema and adopt knowledge from both people and the environment. The educators' role is pedagogical in that the instructor must develop conceptual knowledge by managing the content of learning activities. This theory relates to early stages of learning where the learner solves well defined problems through a series of stages with assistance from an instructor. Jean Piagets Cognitive Development Theory sequenced learning according to infancy [age 0-2: sensor motor], preschool [age 2-7: preoperational], childhood [age 7-11: concrete operational] and adolescence [age 11+: formal operational]. According to Piaget, the ability to learn a concept is related to a childs stage of intellectual development. Through a series of stages, Piaget explains the ways in which characteristics are constructed that lead to specific types of thinking. This focus on scaffolded early learning and sequential development of mental processes defines the Cognitivists' learning theory. [edit]Historical

studies of thought and cognition

Historical changes of thought have been modeled in Piagetian terms. Broadly speaking these models have mapped changes in morality, intellectual life and cognitive levels against historical changes (typically in the complexity of social systems). Notable examples include:

Michael Horace Barnes' study of the co-evolution of religious and scientific thinking[32] Peter Damerow's theory of prehistoric and archaic thought[33] Kieran Egan's stages of understanding[34] James W. Fowler's stages of faith development Suzy Gablik's stages of art history[35] Christopher Hallpike's studies of changes in cognition and moral judgment in pre-historical, archaic and classical periods ... (Hallpike 1979, 2004) Lawrence Kohlberg's stages of moral development Don Lepan's theory of the origins of modern thought and drama[36] Charles Radding's theory of the medieval intellectual development[37] Jrgen Habermas's reworking of historical materialism.

[edit]Non

human development

Neo-Piagetian stages have been applied to the maximum stage attained by various animals. For example spiders attain the circular sensory motor stage, coordinating

actions and perceptions.Pigeons attain the sensory motor stage, forming concepts.[citation
needed]

[edit]Origins The origins of human intelligence have also been studied in Piagetian terms. Wynn (1979, 1981) analysed Acheulian and Oldowan tools in terms of the insight into spatial relationships required to create each kind. On a more general level, Robinson's Birth of Reason (2005) suggests a large-scale model for the emergence of a Piagetian intelligence. [edit]Primatology Piaget's models of cognition have also been applied outside the human sphere, and some primatologists assess the development and abilities of primates in terms of Piaget's model.[38] [edit]Philosophy Some have taken into account of Piaget's work. For example, the philosopher and social theorist Jrgen Habermas has incorporated Piaget into his work, most notably in The Theory of Communicative Action. The philosopher Thomas Kuhn credited Piaget's work with helping him to understand the transition between modes of thought which characterized his theory of paradigm shifts.[39] Yet, that said, it is also noted that the implications of his later work do indeed remain largely unexamined.[40] Shortly before his death (September, 1980), Piaget was involved in a debate about the relationships between innate and acquired features of language, at the Centre Royaumont pour une Science de l'Homme, where he discussed his point of view with the linguist Noam Chomsky as well as Hilary Putnam and Stephen Toulmin. [edit]Artificial

intelligence

Piaget also had a considerable effect in the field of computer science and artificial intelligence. Seymour Papert used Piaget's work while developing the Logo programming language. Alan Kay used Piaget's theories as the basis for the Dynabook programming system concept, which was first discussed within the confines of the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center, or Xerox PARC. These discussions led to the development of the Alto prototype, which explored for the first time all the elements of the graphical user interface (GUI), and influenced the creation of user interfaces in the 1980s and beyond.

Gary Drescher's Made-Up Minds: A Constructivist Approach to Artificial Intelligence [41]

[edit]Challenges Piaget's theory, however vital in understanding child psychology, did not go without scrutiny. A main figure whose ideas contradicted Piaget's ideas was the Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky. Vygotsky stressed the importance of a child's cultural background as an effect to the stages of development. Because different cultures stress different social interactions, this challenged Piaget's theory that the hierarchy of learning development had to develop in succession. Vygotsky introduced the term Zone of proximal development as an overall task a child would have to develop that would be too difficult to develop alone. Also, the so called neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development maintained that Piaget's theory does not do justice either to the underlying mechanisms of information processing that explain transition from stage to stage or individual differences in cognitive development. According to these theories, changes in information processing mechanisms, such as speed of processing and working memory, are responsible for ascension from stage to stage. Moreover, differences between individuals in these processes explain why some individuals develop faster than other individuals (Demetriou, 1998). Curiously, Piaget had published a novel at the age of 20, before he'd begun any research in psychology, in which he stated what would later be the "conclusions" from decades of studying the development of intelligence in children.[42] Over time, alternative theories of Child Development have been put forward, and empirical findings have done a lot to undermine Piaget's theories. For example Esther Thelen and colleagues[43] found that babies would not make the A-not-B error if they had small weights added to their arms during the first phase of the experiment that were then removed before the second phase of the experiment. This minor change should not impact babies' understanding of object permanence, so the difference that this makes to babies' performance on the A-not-B task cannot be explained by Piagetian theory. Thelen and colleagues also found that various other factors also influenced performance on the A-not-B task (including strength of memory trace, salience of targets, waiting time and stance), and proposed that this could be better explained using a dynamic systems theory approach than using Piagetian theory. Alison Gopnik and Betty Repacholi[44] found that babies as young as 18 months old can understand that other people have desires, and that these desires could be very different to their own

desires. This strongly contradicts Piaget's view that children are very egocentric at this age. [edit]List

of major works

In the list below, the following definitions have been used:

Exemplars: More than 5,000 citations in Google Scholar Super-Classics: More than 2,500 citations in Google Scholar Classics: More than 1,000 citations in Google Scholar Major Works: More than 500 citations in Google Scholar Works of Significance: More than 250 citations in Google Scholar

The references have been presented in order of their impact according to Google Scholar. [edit]Exemplars

The Origins of Intelligence in Children (New York: International University Press, 1952) [La naissance de l'intelligence chez l'enfant (1936), also translated as The Origin of Intelligence in the Child(London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1953)].

The Moral Judgment of the Child (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner and Co., 1932) [Le jugement moral chez l'enfant (1932)].

[edit]Super-classics

The construction of reality in the child (New York: Basic Books, 1954) [La construction du rel chez l'enfant (1950), also translated as The Child's Construction of Reality (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1955)].

Play, Dreams and Imitation in Childhood (New York: Norton, 1962) [La formation du symbole chez l'enfant; imitation, jeu et reve, image et reprsentation (1945)]. The Language and Thought of the Child (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1962) [Le Langage et la pense chez l'enfant (1923)] . With Inhelder, B., The Psychology of the Child (New York: Basic Books, 1962) [La psychologie de l'enfant (1966, orig. pub. as an article, 1950)]. With Inhelder, B., The Growth of Logical Thinking from Childhood to Adolescence (New York: Basic Books, 1958) [De la logique de l'enfant la logique de l'adolescent (1955)]. The Child's Conception of the World (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1928) [La Reprsentation du monde chez l'enfant (1926, orig. pub. as an article, 1925)].

The Psychology of Intelligence (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1951) [La psychologie de l'intelligence (1947)].

[edit]Classics

With Inhelder, B., The Child's Conception of Space (New York: W.W. Norton, 1967). "Piaget's theory" in P. Mussen (ed.), Handbook of Child Psychology, Vol. 1. (4th ed., New York: Wiley, 1983). The Child's Conception of Number (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1952) [La genese du nombre chez l'enfant (1941)]. Structuralism (New York: Harper & Row, 1970) [Le Structuralisme (1968)]. Genetic epistemology (New York: W.W. Norton, 1971). The early growth of logic in the child (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1964) [La genese des structures logiques elementaires (1959)].

[edit]Major

works

Biology and Knowledge (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971) [Biologie et connaissance ; essai sur les relations entre les rgulations organiques et les processus cognitifs (1967)].

Science of education and the psychology of the child (New York : Orion Press, 1970) [Psychologie et pdagogie (1969)]. The child's conception of physical causality (London: Kegan Paul, 1930) [La causalite physique chez l'enfant (1927)]. Intellectual evolution from adolescence to adulthood (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1977) [L'evolution intellectuelle entre l'adolescence et l'age adulte (1970)]. Six psychological studies (New York: Random House, 1967) [Six tudes de psychologie (1964)]. The Equilibration of Cognitive Structures: The Central Problem of Intellectual Development (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985) [L'equilibration des structures cognitives (1975), previously translated as The development of thought: Equilibration of cognitive structures (1977)].

Child's Conception of Geometry (New York, Basic Books, 1960) [La Gomtrie spontane de l'enfant (1948)]. Development and learning. To understand is to invent: The future of education (New York: Grossman Publishers, 1973) [tr. of Ou va l'education (1971) and Le droit a l'education dans le monde actuel (1948)].

Massimo Piattelli-Palmarini (ed.), Language and learning: the debate between Jean Piaget and Noam Chomsky (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1980) [Theories du language, theories de l'apprentissage (1979)].

The Principles of Genetic Epistemology (New York: Basic Books, 1972) [L'pistmologie gntique (1950)].

[edit]Works

of significance

The Grasp of Consciousness: Action and concept in the young child (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1977) [La prise de conscience (1974)]. The Mechanisms of Perception (New York: Basic Books, 1969) [Les mcanismes perceptifs: modles probabilistes, analyse gntique, relations avec l'intelligence (1961)]. Psychology and Epistemology: Towards a Theory of Knowledge (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1972) [Psychologie et epistmologie (1970). The Child's Conception of Time (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1969) [Le dveloppement de la notion de temps chez l'enfant (1946)] Logic and Psychology (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1953). Memory and intelligence (New York: Basic Books, 1973) [Memoire et intelligence (1968)] The Origin of the Idea of Chance in Children (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1975) [La gense de l'ide de hasard chez l'enfant (1951)]. Mental imagery in the child: a study of the development of imaginal representation (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1971) [L'image mentale chez l'enfant : tudes sur le dveloppement des reprsentations imagines (1966)].

Intelligence and Affectivity. Their Relationship during Child Development (Palo Alto: Annual Reviews, 1981) [Les relations entre l'intelligence et l'affectivit dans le dveloppement de l'enfant(1954)].

With Garcia, R. Psychogenesis and the History of Science (New York: Columbia University Press, 1989) [Psychogense et histoire des sciences (1983). With Beth, E. W.,Mathematical Epistemology and Psychology (Dordrecht: D. Reidel, 1966) [pistmologie mathmatique et psychologie: Essai sur les relations entre la logique formelle et la pense relle] (1961).

The Growth of the Mind

[edit]New

translations

Piaget, J. (1995). Sociological Studies. London: Routledge. Piaget, J. (2000). "Commentary on Vygotsky". New Ideas in Psychology 18: 24159.

Piaget, J. (2001). Studies in Reflecting Abstraction. Hove, UK: Psychology Press.

[edit]Major

commentaries and critiques

Piaget inspired innumerable studies and even new areas of inquiry. The following is a list of the major critiques and commentaries, organized using the same citation-based method as the list of his own major works (above). These represent the most important and influential post-Piagetian writings in their respective sub-disciplines. [edit]Exemplars

Vygotsky, L. (1963). Thought and language. [12630 citations]

[edit]Classics

Papert, S. (1980). Mindstorms: Children, Computers, and Powerful Ideas. [4089] Minsky, M. (1988). The society of mind. [3950] Kohlberg, L. (1969). Stage And Sequence: The Cognitive-Developmental Approach To Socialization. [3118] Flavell, J. (1963). The developmental psychology of Jean Piaget. [2333] Gibson, E. J. (1973). Principles of perceptual learning and development. [1903] Hunt, J. McV. (1961). Intelligence and Experience. [617+395+384+111+167+32=1706] Meltzoff, A. N. & Moore, M. K. (1977). Imitation of facial and manual gestures by human neonates. [1497] Case, R. (1985). Intellectual development: Birth to adulthood. [1456] Fischer, K. W. (1980). A theory of cognitive development: The control and construction of hierarchies of skills. [1001]

[edit]Major

works

Bates, E. (1976). Language and context: The acquisition of pragmatics. [959] Ginsberg, H. P. & Opper, S. (1969). Piaget's theory of intellectual development. [931] Singley, M. K. & Anderson, J. R. (1989). The transfer of cognitive skill. [836] Duckworth, E. (1973). The having of wonderful ideas. [775] Youniss, J. (1982). Parents and peers in social development: A Sullivan-Piaget perspective. [763] Pascual-Leone, J. (1970). A mathematical model for the transition rule in Piaget's developmental stages. [563]

Schaffer, H. R. & Emerson, P. E. (1964). The development of social attachments in infancy. [535]

[edit]Works

of significance

Shatz, M. & Gelman, R. (1973). The Development of Communication Skills: Modifications in the Speech of Young Children as a Function of Listener. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 38(5), pp. 137.[470]

Broke, H. (1971). Interpersonal perception of young children: Egocentrism or Empathy? Developmental Psychology, 5(2), pp. 263269.[469] Wadsworth, B. J. (1989). Piaget's theory of cognitive and affective development [421] Karmiloff-Smith, A. (1992). Beyond Modularity. [419] Bodner, G. M. (1986). Constructivism: A theory of knowledge. [403] Shantz, C. U. (1975). The Development of Social Cognition. [387] Diamond, A. & Goldman-Rakic, P. S. (1989). Comparison of human infants and rhesus monkeys on Piaget's AB task: evidence for dependence on dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Experimental Brain Research, 74(1), pp. 2440. [370]

Gruber, H. & Voneche, H. (1982). The Essential Piaget. [348] Walkerdine, V. (1984). Developmental psychology and the child-centred pedagogy: The insertion of Piaget into early education. [338] Kamii, C. & DeClark, G. (1985). Young children reinvent arithmetic: Implications of Piaget's theory [335] Riegel, K. F. (1973). Dialectic operations: The final period of cognitive development [316] Bandura, A. & McDonald, F. J. (1963). Influence of social reinforcement and the behavior of models in shaping children's moral judgment. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67(3), pp. 274281. [314]

Karplus, R. (1980). Teaching for the development of reasoning. [312] Brainerd, C. (1978). The stage question in cognitive-developmental theory. [311] Brainerd, C. (1978). Piaget's theory of intelligence. [292] Gilligan, C. (1997). Moral orientation and moral development [285] Diamond, A. (1991). Neuropsychological insights into the meaning of object concept development [284] Braine, M. D. S., & Rumain, B. (1983). Logical reasoning. [276] John-Steiner, V. (2000). Creative collaboration. [266]

Pascual-Leone, J. (1987). Organismic processes for neo-Piagetian theories: A dialectical causal account of cognitive development. [261] Hallpike, C. R. (1979). The foundations of primitive thought [261] Furth, H. (1969). Piaget and Knowledge [261] Gelman, R. & Baillargeon, R. (1983). A review of some Piagetian concepts. [260] O'Loughlin, M. (1992). Rethinking science education: Beyond piagetian constructivism. Toward a sociocultural model of teaching and learning. [252]

[edit]List

of Major Achievements

[edit]Appointments

1921-25 Research Director (Chef des travaux), Institut Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Geneva 1925-29 Professor of Psychology, Sociology and the Philosophy of Science, University of Neuchatel 1929-39 Professeur extraordinaire of the History of Scientific Thought, University of Geneva 1929-67 Director, International Bureau of Education, Geneva 1932-71 Director, Institute of Educational Sciences, University of Geneva 1938-51 Professor of Experimental Psychology and Sociology, University of Lausanne 1939-51 Professor of Sociology, University of Geneva 1940-71 Professeur ordinaire of Experimental Psychology, University of Geneva 1952-64 Professor of Genetic Psychology, Sorbonne, Paris 1954-57 President, International Union of Scientific Psychology 1955-80 Director, International Centre for Genetic Epistemology, Geneva 1971-80 Emeritus Professor, University of Geneva

[edit]Honorary

doctorates

1936 Harvard 1946 Sorbonne 1949 University of Brazil 1949 Bruxelles 1953 Chicago 1954 McGill 1958 Warsaw 1959 Manchester 1960 Oslo

1960 Cambridge 1962 Brandeis 1964 Montreal 1964 Aix-Marseille 1966 Pennsylvania[45] 1966? Barcelona [46] 1970 Yale[47]

[edit]Quotations

"Intelligence is what you use when you don't know what to do."[citation needed] "Intelligence organizes the world by organizing itself."[48] "The principal goal of education in the schools should be creating men and women who are capable of doing new things, not simply repeating what other generations have done."[49]

[edit]See

also

Psychology portal

Active learning Cognitive acceleration Cognitivism (learning theory) Constructivist epistemology Developmental psychology Fluid and crystallized intelligence Inquiry-based learning Kohlberg's stages of moral development Psychosocial development Water-level task

[edit]Collaborators

Leo Apostel Edgar Ascher Evert Beth Magali Bovet Guy Cellrier

fr:Paul Fraisse Rolando Garcia Pierre Grco Jean-Blaise Grize Gil Henriques Brbel Inhelder Benoit Mandelbrot Albert Morf Pierre Olron Seymour Papert Maurice Reuchlin Hermina Sinclair de-Zwart Alina Szeminska Hu Vinh-Bang

[edit]Translators

Eleanor R. Duckworth Wolfe Mays

Friedrich Frbel
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Friedrich Wilhelm August Frbel

Friedrich Wilhelm August Frbel

Full name

Friedrich Wilhelm August Frbel

Born

21 April 1782 Oberweibach, Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt

Died

21 June 1852 (aged 70) Mariental

Era

19th-century philosophy

Region

Western philosophy

Friedrich Wilhelm August Frbel (or Froebel) (German pronunciation: [fid vlhlm ast fbl]; April 21, 1782 June 21, 1852) was a Germanpedagogue, a student of Pestalozzi who laid the foundation for modern education based on the recognition that children have unique needs and capabilities. He developed the concept of the kindergarten, developed the Froebel Gifts educational toys, and also coined the word now used in Germanand English.
Contents
[hide]

1 Biography
o

1.1 Career

2 Legacy 3 Works 4 References 5 Further reading 6 External links

[edit]Biography

House in Oberweibach where Friedrich Frbel was born

Friedrich Frbel was born at Oberweibach in the Principality of SchwarzburgRudolstadt in Thuringia. His father, who died in 1802, was the pastor of the orthodox Lutheran (alt-lutherisch) parish there. The church and Lutheran Christian faith were pillars in Frbel's own early education. Oberweibach was a wealthy village in the Thuringian Forest and had been known centuries long for its natural herb remedies, tinctures, bitters, soaps and salves. Families had their own inherited areas of the forest where herbs and roots were grown and harvested. Each family prepared, bottled, and produced their individual products which were taken throughout Europe on trade routes passed from father to son, who were affectionately called "Buckelapotheker" or Rucksack Pharmacists. They adorned the church with art acquired from their travels, many pieces of which can still be seen in the renovated structure. The pulpit from which Frbel heard his father preach is the largest in all Europe and can fit a pastor and 12 men, a direct reference to Christ's apostles. Shortly after Frbel's birth, his mother's health began to fail. She died when he was nine months old, profoundly influencing his life. In 1792, Frbel went to live in the small town of Stadt-Ilm with his uncle, a gentle and affectionate man. At the age of 15 Frbel, who loved nature, became the apprentice to a forester. In 1799, he decided to leave his apprenticeship and study mathematics and botany in Jena. From 1802 to 1805, he worked as a land surveyor. On 11 September 1818, Frbel wed Wilhelmine Henriette Hoffmeister (b. 1780) in Berlin. The union was childless. Wilhelmine died in 1839, and Frbel married again in 1851. His second wife was Louise Levin. [edit]Career He began as an educator in 1805 at the Musterschule (a secondary school) in Frankfurt, where he learnt about Johann Heinrich Pestalozzis ideas. He later worked with Pestalozzi in Switzerlandwhere his ideas further developed. From 1806 Frbel was the

live-in teacher for a Frankfurt noble familys three sons. He lived with the three children from 1808 to 1810 at Pestalozzis institute inYverdon-les-Bains in Switzerland. In 1811, Frbel once again went back to school in Gttingen and Berlin, eventually leaving without earning a certificate. He became a teacher at the Plamannsche Schule in Berlin, a boarding schoolfor boys, and at that time also a pedagogical and patriotic centre.

Allgemeine Deutsche Erziehungsanstalt inKeilhau, nowadays the Keilhau Free Frbel School

During his service in the Ltzow Free Corps in 1813 and 1814 when he was involved in two campaigns against Napoleon Frbel befriended Wilhelm Middendorf, a theologian and fellow pedagogue, and Heinrich Langethal, also a pedagogue. After Waterloo and the Congress of Vienna, Frbel found himself a civilian once again and became an assistant at the Museum of Mineralogy under Christian Samuel Weiss. This did not, however, last very long, and by 1816 he had quit and founded the Allgemeine Deutsche Erziehungsanstalt (German General Education Institute) in Griesheim near Arnstadt in Thuringia. A year later he moved this to Keilhau near Rudolstadt. In 1831, work was continued there by the other cofounders Wilhelm Middendorf and Heinrich Langethal. In 1820, Frbel published the first of his five Keilhau pamphlets, An unser deutsches Volk (To Our German People). The other four were published between then and 1823. In 1826 he published his main literary work, Die Menschenerziehung (The Education of Man) and founded the weekly publication Die erziehenden Familien(The Educating Families). In 1828 and 1829 he pursued plans for a peoples education institute (Volkserziehungsanstalt) in Helba (nowadays a constituent community of Meiningen), but they were never realized.

From 1831 to 1836, Frbel once again lived in Switzerland. In 1831 he founded an educational institute in Wartensee (Lucerne). In 1833 he moved this toWillisau, and from 1835 to 1836, he headed the orphanage in Burgdorf (Berne), where he also published the magazine Grundzge der Menschenerziehung(Features of Human Education). In 1836 appeared his work Erneuerung des Lebens erfordert das neue Jahr 1836 (The New Year 1836 Calls For the Renewal of Life). He returned to Germany, dedicated himself almost exclusively to preschool child education and began manufacturing playing materials in Bad Blankenburg. In 1837 he founded a care, playing and activity institute for small children in Bad Blankenburg. From 1838 to 1840 he also published the magazine Ein Sonntagsblatt fr Gleichgesinnte (A Sunday Paper for the Like-Minded). In 1840 he coined the word kindergarten for the Play and Activity Institute he had founded in 1837 at Bad Blankenburg for young children, together with Wilhelm Middendorf and Heinrich Langethal. These two men were Frbels most faithful colleagues when his ideas were also transplanted to Keilhau near Rudolstadt. He designed the educational play materials known as Froebel Gifts, or Frbelgaben, which included geometric building blocks and pattern activity blocks. A book entitled Inventing Kindergarten, by Norman Brosterman, examines the influence of Friedrich Frbel on Frank Lloyd Wright and modern art. Friedrich Frbel's great insight was to recognise the importance of the activity of the child in learning. He introduced the concept of free work (Freiarbeit) into pedagogy and established the game as the typical form that life took in childhood, and also the games educational worth. Activities in the first kindergarten included singing, dancing, gardening and self-directed play with the Froebel Gifts. Frbel intended, with his Mutter- und Koselieder a songbook that he published to introduce the young child into the adult world. These ideas about childhood development and education were introduced to academic and royal circles through the tireless efforts of his greatest proponent, the Baroness (Freiherrin) Bertha Marie von Marenholtz-Blow. Through her Frbel made the acquaintance of the Royal House of the Netherlands, various Thuringian dukes and duchesses, including the Romanov wife of the Grand Duke von Sachsen-Weimar. Baroness von Marenholtz-Blow, Duke von Meiningen and Frbel gathered donations to support art education for children in honor of the 100th anniversary of the birth of Goethe. The Duke of Meiningen granted the use of his hunting lodge, called

Marienthal (the Vale of Mary) in the resort town of Bad Liebenstein for Frbel to train the first women as Kindergarten teachers (calledKindergrtnerinnen). Frbel died on 21 June 1852 in Mariental.[1] His grave is still found at the cemetery at Schweina, where his widow, who died in Hamburg, was also buried on 10 January 1900. [edit]Legacy

The Frbel Memorial at the Frbel Kindergarten in Mhlhausen, Thuringia shows the pedagogical basic forms.

Frbelturm near Oberweibach

Frbels idea of the kindergarten found appeal, but its spread in Germany was thwarted by the Prussian government, whose education ministry banned it on 7 August 1851 as atheistic and demagogic for its alleged destructive tendencies in the areas of religion and politics. Other states followed suit. The reason for the ban, however, seems to have been a confusion of names. Frbels nephew Karl Frbel had written and published Weibliche Hochschulen und Kindergrten(Female Colleges and Kindergartens), which apparently met with some disapproval. To quote Karl August Varnhagen von Ense, The stupid minister von Raumer has decreed a ban on kindergartens, basing himself on a book by Karl Frbel. He is confusing Friedrich and Karl Frbel. Frbels student Margarethe Schurz founded the first kindergarten in the United States at Watertown, Wisconsin in 1856, and she also inspired Elizabeth Peabody, who went on to found the first English-speaking kindergarten in the United States the language at Schurzs kindergarten had been German, to serve an immigrant community in Boston in 1860. This paved the way for the concepts spread in the USA. The German migr Adolph Douai had also founded a kindergarten in Boston in 1859, but was obliged to close it after only a year. By 1866, however, he was founding others inNew York City. The pedagogue August Khler was the initiator and cofounder in 1863 of the Deutscher Frbelverein (German Frbel Association), first for Thuringia, out of which grew the Allgemeiner Frbelverein (General Frbel Association) in 1872, and a year later the Deutscher Frbelverband (German Frbel Federation). August Khler critically analyzed and evaluated Frbel theory, adopted fundamental notions into his own kindergarten pedagogy and expanded on these, developing an independent Khler Kindergarten Pedagogy. He first trained kindergarten teachers in Gotha in 1857. In the beginning, Khler had thought to engage male educators exclusively, but far too few applied. Thekla Naveau founded in October 1853 the first kindergarten in Sondershausen and on 1 April 1867 the first kindergarten after the Prussian ban was lifted in Nordhausen. Angelika Hartmann founded in 1864 the first kindergarten after Frbels model in Kthen, Anhalt.

In 1908 and 1911, kindergarten teacher training was recognized in Germany through state regulatory laws. In the meantime, there are many kindergartens in Germany named after Frbel that continue his pedagogy. Many of them have sprung from parental or other private initiatives. The biggest Frbel association, Frbel e.V., today runs more than 100 kindergartens and other early childhood institutions throughout the country through the Frbel-Gruppe.

In the Netherlands, frbelen means to be busy with arts and crafts. Here a shop inTerborg.

Committed to Frbels legacy is also the Neuer Thringer Frbelverein (NTFV; New Thuringian Frbel Association), and in particular to protecting the legacys business receipts. As well, the Association runs a school museum and the Frbel Archive in Keilhau. Furthermore it engages itself in Frbel institutions worldwide (United States, United Kingdom, Japan). Through this network, the NTFV further continues one of the most prominent lines of modern pedagogy from the authentic Frbel town of Keilhau. The Frbel Diploma, now conferred by the Frbel Academy in Rudolstadt, can also be traced back to the NTFV. All this ensures that Frbels ideas will live on into the future. Frbels building forms and movement games are also forerunners of abstract art as well as a source of inspiration to the Bauhaus movement.[2] In Frbels honour, Walter Gropius designed the Friedrich Frbel Haus. In 1892 followers of Frbel established a college of teacher education in South West London to continue his traditions. Froebel College is now a constituent college of Roehampton University and is home to the university's department of education. The University of Roehampton Library is also home to the Froebel Archive for Childhood Studies,[3] a collection of books, archives, photographs, objects and multi-media

materials, centring on Friedrich Frbels educational legacy, early years and elementary education. The Demonstration School, originally located at Colet Court, Kensington, has evolved into Ibstock Place School, Roehampton. [edit]Works (a selection of Frbel`s works from his time at Keilhau)

An unser deutsches Volk. Erfurt 1820. Durchgreifende, dem deutschen Charakter erschpfend gengende Erziehung ist das Grund- und Quellbedrfnis des deutschen Volkes. Erfurt 1821. Die Grundstze, der Zweck und das innere Leben der allgemeinen deutschen Erziehungsanstalt in Keilhau bei Rudolstadt. Rudolstadt 1821. Die allgemeine deutsche Erziehungsanstalt in Keilhau betreffend. Rudolstadt 1822. ber deutsche Erziehung berhaupt und ber das allgemeine Deutsche der Erziehungsanstalt in Keilhau insbesondere. Rudolstadt 1822. Fortgesetzte Nachricht von der allgemeinen deutschen Erziehungsanstalt in Keilhau. Rudolstadt 1823. Die Menschenerziehung, die Erziehungs-, Unterrichts- und Lehrkunst, angestrebt in der allgemeinen deutschen Erziehungsanstalt zu Keilhau. Erster Band. Keilhau-Leipzig 1826. Die erziehenden Familien. Wochenblatt fr Selbstbildung und die Bildung Anderer. KeilhauLeipzig 1826.

[edit]References
1. ^ Frbels biography 1843 - 1852[dead link] 2. ^ Frederick M. Logan, Kindergarten and Bauhaus, College Art Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1 (Autumn, 1950), pp. 36-43 3. ^ "Froebel Archive for Childhood Studies". Studentzone.roehampton.ac.uk. Retrieved 2011-11-12.

[edit]Further

reading

Berger, Manfred: 150 Jahre Kindergarten. Ein Brief an Friedrich Frbel. Frankfurt 1990 Berger, Manfred: Frauen in der Geschichte des Kindergartens. Ein Handbuch. Frankfurt 1995 Frbel, Friedrich (1900) The Student's Froebel: adapted from "Die Erziehung der Menschheit" of F. Froebel, by William H. Herford. 2 vols. London: Isbister, 1900-01. pt. 1.

Theory of educationpt. 2. Practice of education (Substantially a translation of Froebel's work, with editorial comments and annotations)

Hebenstreit, Sigurd: Friedrich Frbel - Menschenbild, Kindergartenpdagogik, Spielfrderung. Jena 2003. ISBN 978-3-934601-58-1 Heiland, Helmut: Die Konzeption des Sachunterrichts bei Frbel (17821852). In: Kaiser, A./Pech, D. (Hrsg.): Geschichte und historische Konzeptionen des Sachunterrichts. Baltmannsweiler 2004, S. 69-72

Heiland, Helmut: Friedrich Frbel in Selbstzeugnissen und Bilddokumenten. Reinbek 1982 Heiland, Helmut: Die Schulpdagogik Friedrich Frbel. 1993 Wollons, Roberta. L., (Ed). Kindergartens and cultures : the global diffusion of an idea. New Haven, CT, Yale University Press, 2000

Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. Please help to improvethis article by introducing more precise citations. (September 2010)

Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi

Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi

Full name

Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi

Born

12 January 1746 Zrich, Switzerland

Died

17 February 1827 (aged 81) Brugg

Era

19th-century philosophy

Region

Western philosophy

Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (12 January 1746 17 February 1827) was a Swiss pedagogue and educational reformer who exemplified Romanticism in his approach. He founded several educational institutions both in German and French speaking regions of Switzerland and wrote novels explaining his revolutionary modern principles of education. His motto "Learning by head, hand and heart" is still a key principle in successful 21st century schools. Thanks to Pestalozzi, illiteracy still prevailing in 18th century Switzerland was overcome almost completely by 1830.
Contents
[hide]

1 Life
o o

1.1 Career 1.2 Later years

2 Ideas 3 Legacy 4 See also 5 References 6 External links

[edit]Life

[edit]Career

Coat of arms of Pestalozzi's family fromZrich

He was born on 12 January 1746 in Zrich, Switzerland. His father died when he was young, and he was brought up by his mother. At the University of Zrich he associated himself with Johann Kaspar Lavater and the party of reform. His earliest years were spent in schemes for improving the condition of the people. The death of his friend Johann Kaspar Bluntschli turned him from politics, however, and induced him to devote himself to education. He married Anna Schulthess in 1769 at twenty-three and bought a piece of waste land at Birr,Aargau called Neuhof (New Farm), where he attempted the cultivation of madder. Pestalozzi knew nothing of business, and the plan failed. Before this he had opened his farm-house as a school, but that plan also met with failure. His first published book was The Evening Hours of a Hermit (1780), a series of aphorisms and reflections. This was followed by his masterpiece, Leonard and Gertrude (1781), an account of the gradual reformation, first of a household, and then of a whole village, by the efforts of a good and devoted woman. It was avidly read in Germany, and the name of Pestalozzi was rescued from obscurity. During the French invasion of Switzerland in 1798, a number of orphaned children had been left without food or shelter in the Canton of Nidwalden. Pestalozzi took some of them under his charge, and he converted a deserted convent into a school for them. During the winter he personally tended them with the utmost devotion, but in June 1799 the building was requisitioned by the French to use as a hospital, and his charges were dispersed.

[edit]Later

years

In 1801 Pestalozzi gave an exposition of his ideas on education in the book How Gertrude Teaches Her Children. His method is to proceed from the easier to the more difficult. To begin with observation, to pass from observation to consciousness, and then from consciousness to speech. Then come measuring, drawing, writing, numbers, and reckoning. In 1799 he was able to establish a school at Burgdorf, where he remained until 1804. In 1802, he went as deputy to Paris, and did his best to interest Napoleon in a scheme of national education; but the great conqueror said that he could not trouble himself about the alphabet (see also: Philipp Albert Stapfer). He did not believe in corporal punishment or rote memorization for instructional purposes. He once stated, "The role of the educator is to teach children, not subjects."

Pestalozzi with the orphans in Stans(detail); oil on canvas painting by Konrad Grob, 1879

Memorial at Pestalozziwiese(Bahnhofstrasse) in Zrich, Switzerland

In 1805 he moved to Yverdon on Lake Neuchtel, and for twenty years worked steadily at his task. He was visited by all who took interest in education:Talleyrand, Capo d'Istria, and Mme de Stal. He was praised by Wilhelm von Humboldt and by Fichte. His pupils included Hippolyte Leon Denizard Rivail,Charles Badham, James Pierrepont Greaves, Ramsauer, Delbrck, Blochmann, Carl Ritter, Friedrich Frbel and Zeller. Around 1815, rebellion broke out among the teachers of the school, and Pestalozzi's last ten years were marred by weariness and sorrow. In 1825 he retired to Neuhof, the place of his youth, and after writing the adventures of his life, and his last work, the Swans Song, he died at Brugg. Pestalozzi's complete works were published in Stuttgart in 1819 and 1826, and an edition by Seyffarth appeared in Berlin in 1881. [edit]Ideas Pestalozzi was a Romantic who felt that education must be radically personal, appealing to each learner's intuition. He emphasized that every aspect of the child's life contributed to the formation of personality, character, and reason. He learned by operating schools at Neuhof and Yverdon. The success of the Yverdon school attracted the interest of European and American educators. Pestalozzi's educational methods were child-centered and based on individual differences, sense perception, and the student's self-activity. Pestalozzi worked in Yverdon to 'elementarize' the teaching of ancient languages, principally Latin, but also Hebrew and Greek. In 1819, Stephan Ludwig Roth came to study with Pestalozzi, and his new humanism contributed to the development of the method of language teaching, including considerations such as the function of the mother tongue in the teaching of ancient languages. Pestalozzi was an important influence on the theory of physical education; he developed a regimen of physical exercise and outdoor activity linked to general, moral, and intellectual education that reflected his ideal of harmony and human autonomy. [1] Pestalozzi's philosophy of education was based on a four-sphere concept of life and the premise that human nature was essentially good. The first three 'exterior' spheres home and family, vocational and individual self-determination, and state and nation recognized the family, the utility of individuality, and the applicability of the parent-child

relationship to society as a whole in the development of a child's character, attitude toward learning, and sense of duty. The last 'exterior' sphere - inner sense - posited that education, having provided a means of satisfying one's basic needs, results in inner peace and a keen belief in God.[2] [edit]Legacy As Pestalozzi said himself, the real work of his life did not lie in Burgdorf or in Yverdon. It lay in the principles of education which he practised, the development of his observation, the training of the whole person, and the sympathetic way of dealing with students, of which he left an example in his six months' labors at Stans. He had the deepest effect on all branches of education, and his influence is far from being exhausted. Schools that are named after Pestalozzi include Kinderdorf Pestalozzi and PestalozziGymnasium Biberach in Germany, Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (Macedonian: ) Elementary School in Skopje, Republic of Macedonia and Colegio Pestalozzi in Argentina. In fact, when the Swiss government joined the international rebuilding effort after the devastating 1963 Skopje earthquake by donating funds for the construction of a school inSkopje, it enrolled the famous Swiss architect Alfred Roth to design the new school,[3]equipped it with the first modern application of seismic isolation,[4] and named it after the great Swiss pedagogue. The British charity Pestalozzi International Village sponsors students from developing countries to study in the UK; it also sponsors other overseas programs. Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky (Russian: or , born (Lev Simkhovich Vygodsky), but in early 1920s changed his last name from Vygodskii (with "d") into Vygotskii (with middle "t");[1][2] November 17 [O.S. November 5] 1896 June 11, 1934) was a Soviet psychologist, the founder of cultural-historical psychology, and the leader of the Vygotsky Circle.
Contents
[hide]

1 Biography 2 Work
o

2.1 Cultural mediation and internalization

o o o o

2.2 Psychology of play 2.3 Thought and Language 2.4 Zone of proximal development 2.5 Child-in-activity-in-cultural-context

3 Influence in Eastern Europe 4 Critics 5 Strengths 6 See also 7 References 8 Bibliography

o o

8.1 Writings by L. S. Vygotsky 8.2 Secondary literature

9 Vygotsky's texts online 10 External links

[edit]Biography Lev Vygotsky was born in Orsha, Byelorussia, in the Russian Empire (today in Belarus) into a nonreligious Jewish family. He was raised in the city of Gomel, where he obtained both public and private education. He was influenced by his cousin, David Vygodsky. Vygotsky was eventually admitted to the Moscow State University through a Jewish Lottery, whereby a three per cent Jewish student quota for entry in Moscow and Saint Petersberg universities was made.[3] There he studied law, but his thirst for knowledge pushed him to enrol in the unofficial "Shanyavskii Peoples University".[4]Upon graduation in 1917, Vygotsky returned to Gomel to teach, "a profession he was now able to practice due to the abolition of the anti-Semitic legislation after the October Socialist Revolution",[5]and publish "copies of great literary works".[6] On 6 January 1924, Vygotsky delivered The Methodology of Reflexologic and Psychological Investigations[7] at the Second All-Russian Psychoneurological Congress[8] at Leningrad. On the invitation of the new director of the Psychological Institute of Moscow, K. N. Kornilov, Vygotsky and his new wife, Roza Smekhova, moved to Moscow. Until the birth of his first daughter, Gita, they lived in "the basement of the Institute of Experimental Psychology"[9] surrounded by the "archives of that institute's philosophical section".[10] Vygotsky completed his dissertation in 1925 on "The Psychology of Art".[10] He began his career at the Psychological Institute as a "staff

scientist, second class"[11] and continued it at other educational, research and clinical institutions in Moscow,Leningrad and Kharkov extensively investigating ideas about cognitive development. He died of tuberculosis in 1934, at the age of 37, in Moscow.[12] [edit]Work Vygotsky was a pioneering psychologist and his major works span six separate volumes, written over roughly 10 years, from Psychology of Art (1925) to Thought and Language [or Thinking and Speech] (1934). Vygotsky's interests in the fields of developmental psychology, child development, and education were extremely diverse. The philosophical framework he provided includes not only insightful interpretations about the cognitive role of tools of mediation, but also the reinterpretation of well-known concepts in psychology such as the notion of internalization of knowledge. Vygotsky introduced the notion of zone of proximal development, an innovative metaphor capable of describing not the actual, but the potential of human cognitive development. His work covered such diverse topics as the origin and the psychology of art, development of higher mental functions, philosophy of science and methodology of psychological research, the relation between learning and human development, concept formation, interrelation between language and thought development, play as a psychological phenomenon, the study of learning disabilities, and abnormal human development (aka defectology). [edit]Cultural

mediation and internalization

Vygotsky investigated child development and how this was guided by the role of cultural mediation and interpersonal communication. He observed how higher mental functions developed through these interactions also represented the shared knowledge of a culture. This process is known as internalization.[13] Internalization can be understood in one respect as knowing how. For example, riding a bicycle or pouring a cup of milk are tools of the society and initially outside and beyond the child. The mastery of these skills occurs through the activity of the child within society. A further aspect of internalization is appropriation, in which the child takes a tool and makes it his own, perhaps using it in a way unique to himself. Internalizing the use of a pencil allows the child to use it very much for his own ends rather than draw exactly what others in society have drawn previously.[13] Guided participation, which takes place when creative thinkers interact with a knowledgeable person, is practiced around the world. Cultures may differ, though, in the

goals of development. For example, Mayan mothers in Guatemala help their daughters learn to weave through guided participation.[13] [edit]Psychology

of play

Less known is Vygotsky's research on play, or children's games, as a psychological phenomenon and its role in the child's development. Through play the child develops abstract meaning separate from the objects in the world, which is a critical feature in the development of higher mental functions.[14] The famous example Vygotsky gives is of a child who wants to ride a horse but cannot. If the child were under three, he would perhaps cry and be angry, but around the age of three the child's relationship with the world changes: "Henceforth play is such that the explanation for it must always be that it is the imaginary, illusory realization of unrealizable desires. Imagination is a new formation that is not present in the consciousness of the very raw young child, is totally absent in animals, and represents a specifically human form of conscious activity. Like all functions of consciousness, it originally arises from action." (Vygotsky, 1978) The child wishes to ride a horse but cannot, so he picks up a stick and stands astride of it, thus pretending he is riding a horse. The stick is a pivot. "Action according to rules begins to be determined by ideas, not by objects.... It is terribly difficult for a child to sever thought (the meaning of a word) from object. Play is a transitional stage in this direction. At that critical moment when a stick i.e., an object becomes a pivot for severing the meaning of horse from a real horse, one of the basic psychological structures determining the childs relationship to reality is radically altered". As children get older, their reliance on pivots such as sticks, dolls and other toys diminishes. They have internalized these pivots as imagination and abstract concepts through which they can understand the world. "The old adage that 'childrens play is imagination in action' can be reversed: we can say that imagination in adolescents and schoolchildren is play without action" (Vygotsky, 1978). Another aspect of play that Vygotsky referred to was the development of social rules that develop, for example, when children play house and adopt the roles of different family members. Vygotsky cites an example of two sisters playing at being sisters. The rules of behavior between them that go unnoticed in daily life are consciously acquired through play. As well as social rules, the child acquires what we now refer to as selfregulation. For example, when a child stands at the starting line of a running race, she may well desire to run immediately so as to reach the finish line first, but her knowledge

of the social rules surrounding the game and her desire to enjoy the game enable her to regulate her initial impulse and wait for the start signal. [edit]Thought

and Language

Perhaps Vygotsky's most important contribution concerns the inter-relationship of language development and thought. This concept, explored in Vygotsky's book Thought and Language, (alternative translation: Thinking and Speaking) establishes the explicit and profound connection between speech (both silent inner speech and oral language), and the development of mental concepts and cognitive awareness. It should be noted that Vygotsky described inner speech as being qualitatively different from normal (external) speech. Although Vygotsky believed inner speech developed from external speech via a gradual process of internalization, with younger children only really able to "think out loud," he claimed that in its mature form inner speech would be unintelligible to anyone except the thinker, and would not resemble spoken language as we know it (in particular, being greatly compressed). Hence, thought itself develops socially. [13] An infant learns the meaning of signs through interaction with its main care-givers, e.g., pointing, cries, and gurgles can express what is wanted. How verbal sounds can be used to conduct social interaction is learned through this activity, and the child begins to utilize, build, and develop this faculty, e.g., using names for objects, etc.[13] Language starts as a tool external to the child used for social interaction. The child guides personal behavior by using this tool in a kind of self-talk or "thinking out loud." Initially, self-talk is very much a tool of social interaction and it tapers to negligible levels when the child is alone or with deaf children. Gradually self-talk is used more as a tool for self-directed and self-regulating behavior. Then, because speaking has been appropriated and internalized, self-talk is no longer present around the time the child starts school. Self-talk "develops along a rising not a declining, curve; it goes through an evolution, not an involution. In the end, it becomes inner speech" (Vygotsky, 1987, pg 57). Inner speech develops through its differentiation from social speech. [13] Speaking has thus developed along two lines, the line of social communication and the line of inner speech, by which the child mediates and regulates their activity through their thoughts which in turn are mediated by the semiotics (the meaningful signs) of inner speech. This is not to say that thinking cannot take place without language, but rather that it is mediated by it and thus develops to a much higher level of sophistication. Just as the birthday cake as a sign provides much deeper meaning than

its physical properties allow, inner speech as signs provides much deeper meaning than the lower psychological functions would otherwise allow.[13] Inner speech is not comparable in form to external speech. External speech is the process of turning thought into words. Inner speech is the opposite; it is the conversion of speech into inward thought. Inner speech for example contains predicates only. Subjects are superfluous. Words too are used much more economically. One word in inner speech may be so replete with sense to the individual that it would take many words to express it in external speech.[13] [edit]Zone

of proximal development

"Zone of proximal development" (ZPD) is Vygotskys term for the range of tasks that a child can complete independently and those completed with the guidance and assistance of adults or more-skilled children. The lower limit of ZPD is the level of skill reached by the child working independently (also referred to as the childs actual developmental level). The upper limit is the level of potential skill that the child is able to reach with the assistance of a more capable instructor (also referred to as the childs potential developmental level). The ZPD captures the childs cognitive skills that are in the process of maturing and can be accomplished only with the assistance of a moreskilled person. Vygotsky viewed the ZPD as a way to better explain the relation between childrens learning and their cognitive development. Prior to the ZPD, the relation between learning and development could be boiled down to the following three major positions: 1) Development always precedes learning (e.g., constructivism): children first need to meet a particular maturation level before learning can occur; 2) Learning and development cannot be separated but instead occur simultaneously (e.g., behaviorism): essentially, learning is development; and 3) learning and development are separate but interactive processes (e.g., gestaltism): one process always prepares the other process, and vice versa. Vygotsky rejected these three major theories because he believed that learning always precedes development in the ZPD. In other words, through the assistance of a more capable person, a child is able to learn skills or aspects of a skill that go beyond the childs actual developmental or maturational level. Therefore, development always follows the childs potential to learn. In this sense, the ZPD provides a prospective view of cognitive development, as opposed to a retrospective view that characterizes development in terms of a childs independent capabilities. [15]

Scaffolding is a concept closely related to the idea of ZPD, although Vygotsky never actually used the term. Scaffolding is changing the level of support in order to best meet the cognitive potential of the child. Over the course of a teaching session, a more-skilled person adjusts the amount of guidance to fit the childs potential level of performance. Therefore, more support is offered when a child is having difficulty with a particular task, and over time, less support is provided as the child makes gains on the task. Ideally, scaffolding works to maintain the childs potential level of development in the ZPD. An essential element to the ZPD and scaffolding is the acquisition of language. According to Vygotsky, language (and in particular, speech) is fundamental to childrens cognitive growth because language provides purpose and intention so that behaviors can be better understood.[16] Through the use of speech, children are able to communicate to and learn from others through dialogue, which is an important tool in the ZPD. In a dialogue, a child's unsystematic, disorganized, and spontaneous concepts are met with the more systematic, logical and rational concepts of the skilled helper. [13]Empirical research suggests that the benefits of scaffolding are not only useful during a task, but can even extend beyond the immediate situation in order to influence childrens future cognitive development. For instance, a recent study recorded verbal scaffolding between mothers and their 3- and 4-year-old children as they played together. Then, when the children were 6 years old, they were administered a number of tasks designed to measure executive function, such as working memory and goal-directed play. The study found that the childrens working memory and language skills at 6 years of age were related to the amount of verbal scaffolding provided by mothers at 3 years of age. In particular, scaffolding was most effective for children whose mothers provided explicit conceptual links during play. Therefore, the results of this study not only suggest that verbal scaffolding aids childrens cognitive development, but that the quality of the scaffolding is also important for learning and development.[17] [edit]Child-in-activity-in-cultural-context Vygotsky focused on the child-in-context acting in a situation or event as the smallest unit of study. Vygotsky defined context as a childs culture and how they express their culture. Further, the child is continually acting in social interactions with other people. Vygotsky argued that looking at child development without cultural context distorts our view of development, and often causes us to look at causes of behavior as residing within the child, rather than in their culture. P. H. Miller[18] defined culture as, shared beliefs, values, knowledge, skills, structured relationships, ways of doing things (customs), socialization practices, and symbol

systems (such as spoken and written language) (p. 374). Culture is communicated through home and societal routines. Vygotsky also included physical and historical influences in the concept of culture. For example, culture can be influenced by a peoples response to a physical terrain, natural disasters, or war.

Mediation of intellectual functioning by cultural tools

Adults and children also collaborate through helping children learn how to utilize their cultures psychological and technical tools. Examples of psychological tools that inform intellectual functioning include language and counting systems, writing, maps, memorizing, and attending. Physical tools that inform intellectual development include computers or electronic games. Both psychological and physical tools help a child navigate their environment. Children learn to use the tools most valued by their society. Vygotsky viewed language as the most critical psychological tool. Thinking, comprehending, and producing language are all processes that affect individual perceptions of their social worlds. Language also has an influence on how children use physical tools. As language develops and becomes re-organized, it influences new modes of problem solving. For example, examine the effects of not using the language of mental health disorders to describe homosexuality. Taking homosexuality out of the DSM and shifting from talking about it as a 'disorder' rather than 'innate' or 'biological' created a huge shift in society, as evidenced by historical changes in attitudes towards and greater advocacy with LGBT populations. The transmission of cultural tools most often happens in the home and through schooling. However, one should not assume that all schooling systems are addressing the needs of each child in a culture (e.g., see comments in diversity section on diversity in educational systems). The modes of teaching/schooling are intricately tied to what a culture values as knowledge (e.g., memorization vs. scientific reasoning; see Miller, 2002, p. 386 for examples). [edit]Influence

in Eastern Europe

This unreferenced section requires citations to ensureverifiability.

In the Soviet Union, the work of the group of Vygotsky's students known as the Kharkov School of Psychology was vital for preserving the scientific legacy of Lev Vygotsky and identifying new avenues of its subsequent development. The members of the group laid a foundation for Vygotskian psychology's systematic development in such diverse fields as the psychology of memory (P. Zinchenko), perception, sensation and movement (Zaporozhets, Asnin, A. N. Leont'ev), personality (L. Bozhovich, Asnin, A. N. Leont'ev), will and volition (Zaporozhets, A. N. Leont'ev, P. Zinchenko, L. Bozhovich,Asnin), psychology of play (G. D. Lukov, D. El'konin) and psychology of learning (P. Zinchenko, L. Bozhovich, D. El'konin), as well as the theory of step-by-step formation of mental actions (Gal'perin), general psychological activity theory (A. N. Leont'ev) and psychology of action (Zaporozhets). A. Puzyrey elaborated the ideas of Vygotsky in respect of psychotherapy and even in the broader context of deliberate psychological intervention (psychotechnique), in general. [edit]Critics In the Soviet Union, the school of Vygotsky and, specifically, his cultural-historical psychology was much criticized during his lifetime as well as after his death. By the beginning of the 1930s, the school was defeated in Soviet academic and political circles by Vygotsky's "scientific" opponents who criticized him for "idealist aberrations", which at that time equaled with the charge in disloyalty to the Communist Party (and, particularly during the Stalin era, frequently entailed serious consequences not only for academic work but also in terms of potential prosecution, detention, and/orexecution). As a result of this criticism of their work, a major group of Vygotsky's students including Luria and Leontiev had to flee from Moscow to Ukraine where they established the Kharkov school of psychology. Later, the representatives of the school would, in turn, in the second half of the 1930s criticize Vygotsky himself for his interest in the cross-disciplinary study of the child that was developed under the umbrella term of paedology (also spelled as pedology) as well as for his ignoring the role of practice and practical, object-bound activity and arguably his emphasis on the research on the role of language and, on the other hand, emotional factors in human development. Much of this early criticism of the 1930s was later discarded by these Vygotskian scholars themselves. Another line of the critique of Vygotsky's psychological theory comes from such major figures of the Soviet psychology as Sergei Rubinstein and his followers who criticized Vygotsky's notion of mediation and its development in the works of students.

Insufficient Attention to Developmental Issues A more developmental account of both contexts and children is needed. Vygotsky's theory offers little description of contexts of children of various ages or developmental levels. Along similar lines, children's abilities, needs, and interests at each age influence the nature of the settings they seek out and the effect that a particular setting has on them. We have little idea how the child's cognitive level permits or constrains processes in the zone. Sociocultural research rarely addresses the nature of the cognitive skills that are required for responding to prompts, joint attention, learning from observation, collaborative dialogue, and other such processes. Ultimately, a major issue that Vygotsky's theory seems to overlook is that children of different developmental levels bring different things to a setting, and thus greater attention needs to be paid to a child's cognitive and physical developmental levels themselves. (Miller, 2002) [edit]Strengths Emphasis on Social-Cultural Context Vygotosky is the main developmental theorist to emphasize the broader socio-historical context of development. In many ways, sociocultural theory thus "corrects" theories focused on individuals, and gives a different perspective on major topics of development. Particularly useful for contemporary developmental psychology is Vygotsky's focus on the fluid boundary between self and others. According to Vygotsky, society shares its cognitive goals with the child, and the child shapes the environment. Concepts such as the zone of proximal development and internalization refer to the cognitive exchanges that occur at this border. The task for developmental psychologists is to focus on the specific processes that occur in the interface between the child and the environment. In other words, "What do a child and other people actually do together moment-to-moment in a particular setting, and how does this interaction affect the child's environment?" (Miller, 2002) [edit]See

also
Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Lev Vygotsky

Social constructivism Laboratory of Comparative Human Cognition (LCHC) Anna Stetsenko

[edit]References
1. ^ . . . " . . " 2. ^ The traditional pronunciation of Vygotsky's family name is with the stress on the first syllable, and it is so marked in, for example, the Bolshoi entsyklopedicheskii slovar; its current pronunciation, with the stress on the second syllable, has presumably been changed on the analogy of names like Vysotsky. 3. ^ Wertsch, J. V. (1985). Vygotsky and the social formation of mind.. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-94351-1.(p. 5) 4. ^ Wertsch, J. V. (1985). Vygotsky and the social formation of mind.. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-94351-1.(p. 6) 5. ^ Blanck, G. (1992). "Vygotsky: The man and his cause". In L. C. Moll. Vygotsky and education: Instructional implications and applications of sociohistorical psychology. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. pp. 31 58. ISBN 052136051. (p. 35) 6. ^ Wertsch, J. V. (1985). Vygotsky and the social formation of mind.. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-94351-1. (p. 7) 7. ^ Blanck, G. (1992). "Vygotsky: The man and his cause". In L. C. Moll. Vygotsky and education: Instructional implications and applications of sociohistorical psychology. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. pp. 31 58. ISBN 052136051. (p. 38) 8. ^ Wertsch, J. V. (1985). Vygotsky and the social formation of mind.. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-94351-1. (p. 8) 9. ^ Blanck, G. (1992). "Vygotsky: The man and his cause". In L. C. Moll. Vygotsky and education: Instructional implications and applications of sociohistorical psychology. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. pp. 31 58. ISBN 052136051. (p. 39) 10. ^ a b Wertsch, J. V. (1985). Vygotsky and the social formation of mind.. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-94351-1. (p. 8) 11. ^ Wertsch, J. V. (1985). Vygotsky and the social formation of mind.. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-94351-1. (p. 10) 12. ^ McClare, Erin, and Adam Winsler. "Vygotsky, Lev (18961934)." Encyclopedia of Human Development. Ed. Neil J. Salkind. Vol. 3. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Reference, 2006. 1314-1315. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 30 Sep. 2011.

13. ^ a b c d e f g h i Santrock, J (2004). A Topical Approach To Life-Span Development. Chapter 6 Cognitive Development Approaches (200 225). New York, NY: McGrawHill. 14. ^ See Paul Tough, "Can the right kinds of play teach self-control?", New York Times, 2009/09/27 (reviewing the "Tools of the Mind" curriculum based on Vygotsky's research). 15. ^ Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological proceses. Chapter 6 Interaction between learning and development (79-91). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 16. ^ Vygotsky, L. (1934/1986). Thought and language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. 17. ^ Landry, S. H., Miller-Loncar, C. L., Smith, K. E., & Swank, P. R. (2002). The role of early parenting in childrens development of executive processes. Developmental Neuropsychology, 21, 15-41. 18. ^ [Miller, P. H. (2002). Theories of Developmental Psychology (4th. ed.). New York: Worth Publishers.

[edit]Bibliography Vygotsky's virtually full bibliography, in Russian [edit]Writings

by L. S. Vygotsky

Consciousness as a problem in the Psychology of Behavior, essay, 1925 Educational Psychology, 1926 Historical meaning of the crisis in Psychology, 1927 The Problem of the Cultural Development of the Child, essay 1929 The Fundamental Problems of Defectology, article 1929 The Socialist alteration of Man, 1930 Ape, Primitive Man, and Child: Essays in the History of Behaviour. A. R. Luria and L. S. Vygotsky. 1930 Paedology of the Adolescent, 1931 Play and its role in the Mental development of the Child, essay 1933 Thinking and Speech, 1934 Tool and symbol in child development, 1934 Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes, 1978 Thought and Language, 1986

The Collected Works of L. S. Vygotsky, 1987 overview

[edit]Secondary

literature

Major publications about Vygotsky's Life and Work

Kozulin, A. (1990). Vygotsky's Psychology: A Biography of Ideas. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Van der Veer, R., & Valsiner, J. (1991). Understanding Vygotsky. A quest for synthesis. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Van der Veer, R., & Valsiner, J. (Eds.) (1994). The Vygotsky Reader. Oxford: Blackwell. Vygodskaya, G. L., & Lifanova, T. M. (1996/1999). Lev Semenovich Vygotsky, Journal of Russian and East European Psychology, Part 1, 37 (2), 3-90; Part 2, 37 (3), 3-90; Part 3, 37 (4), 3-93, Part 4, 37 (5), 3-99.

Veresov, N. N. (1999). Undiscovered Vygotsky: Etudes on the pre-history of culturalhistorical psychology. New York: Peter Lang. Van der Veer, Rene (2007). Lev Vygotsky: Continuum Library of Educational Thought. Continuum. ISBN 0-8264-8409-3. Yasnitsky, A. (2010). Guest editor's introduction: "Archival revolution" in Vygotskian studies? Uncovering Vygotsky's archives [1]. Journal of Russian & East European Psychology, Vol 48(1), Jan-Feb 2010, 3-13. doi: 10.2753/RPO1061-0405480100

Yasnitsky, A. (2011). Lev Vygotsky: Philologist and Defectologist, A Socio-intellectual Biography. In Pickren, W., Dewsbury, D., & Wertheimer, M. (Eds.). Portraits of Pioneers in Developmental Psychology, vol. VII.

van der Veer, R. & Yasnitsky, A. (2011). Vygotsky in English: What Still Needs to Be Done. Integrative Psychological and Behavioral Science html, pdf Kotik-Friedgut B.S., T. H. Friedgut, (2008). A Man of His Country and His Time: Jewish Influences on the Personality and Outlook of Lev Semionovich Vygotsky, History of Psychology,(Indiana U., an APA journal,) V.11, (1), pp.15-39.

Yasnitsky, A. (2011). Vygotsky Circle as a Personal Network of Scholars: Restoring Connections Between People and Ideas (idem). Integrative Psychological and Behavioral Science, DOI: 10.1007/s12124-011-9168-5 pdf

Yasnitsky, A. (2011). The Vygotsky That We (Do Not) Know: Vygotskys Main Works and the Chronology of their Composition. PsyAnima, Dubna Psychological Journal, 4(4)

Some "post-Vygotskian" publications

Wertsch, J. V. (1985). Vygotsky and the Social Formation of Mind, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., and London. Cole, M. & Wertsch, J. (1996). Contemporary Implications of Vygotsky and Luria, Worcester, MA: Clark University Press. Daniels, H. (Ed.) (1996). An Introduction to Vygotsky, London: Routledge. Lee, C. D., & Smagorinsky, P. (Eds.) (2000). Vygotskian perspectives on literacy research: Constructing meaning through collaborative inquiry. New York: Cambridge University Press. Daniels, H., Wertsch, J. & Cole, M. (Eds.) (2007). The Cambridge Companion to Vygotsky.

[edit]Vygotsky's In English

texts online

Lev Vygotsky archive, marxists.org: all major works

In Russian

(1922) (1924/5) (1927) (1928) (1930) : . . (1930) ( . . ) (1931) (1. ; 2. ; 3. ; 4. ; 5. ; 6. ) (1932) (1934) (idem, idem, idem) (1934)

In French

Dr. Miffre Lon. Training with Vygotsky. Teacher training schools (Se former avec Vygotski. Formation des professeurs des coles.). Editions Je Publie, 5e dition, 2010.[2].

Jean-Jacques Rousseau
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article is about the philosopher. For the post-impressionist painter, see Henri Rousseau. For other uses, see Rousseau (disambiguation).

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Rousseau in 1753, by Maurice Quentin de La Tour Born 28 June 1712 Geneva, Republic of Geneva Died 2 July 1778 (aged 66) Ermenonville, Kingdom of France Era 18th century philosophy (Modern philosophy) Region School Western Philosophers Social contract theory Romanticism

Main interests Political philosophy, music, education, literature, autobiography Notable ideas General will, amour-propre,moral simplicity of humanity,child-centered learning, civil religion, popular sovereignty,positive liberty Influenced by[show] Influenced[show]

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (28 June 1712 2 July 1778) was a Genevan philosopher, writer, and composer of 18th-century Romanticism of Frenchexpression. His political philosophy influenced the French Revolution as well as the overall development of modern political, sociological and educational thought. His novel mile: or, On Education is a treatise on the education of the whole person for citizenship. His sentimental novel Julie, ou la nouvelle Hlose was of importance to the development of pre-romanticism[1] and romanticism in fiction.[2] Rousseau's autobiographical writings his Confessions, which initiated the modern autobiography, and his Reveries of a Solitary Walker exemplified the late 18th-century movement known as the Age of Sensibility, featuring an increasing focus on subjectivity and introspection that has characterized the modern age. His Discourse on the Origin of Inequality and his On the Social Contract are cornerstones in modern political and social thought and make a strong[citation needed] case for democratic government and social empowerment. Rousseau was a successful composer of music. He wrote seven operas as well as music in other forms, and he made contributions to music as a theorist. During the period of the French Revolution, Rousseau was the most popular of the philosophes among members of the Jacobin Club. Rousseau, aFreemason,[3] was interred as a national hero in the Panthon in Paris, in 1794, 16 years after his death.
Contents
[hide]

1 Biography
o o

1.1 Youth 1.2 Independence 2.1 Theory of Natural Human 2.2 Political theory 2.3 Education and child rearing

2 Philosophy
o o o

3 Religion 4 Legacy
o

4.1 Criticisms of Rousseau

5 Major works 6 Editions in English 7 Online texts 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 External links

[edit]Biography [edit]Youth Rousseau was born in Geneva, which was at the time a city-state and a Protestant associate of the Swiss Confederacy. Since 1536, Geneva had been aHuguenot republic and the seat of Calvinism. Rousseau was proud that his family, of the moyen order (or middle-class), had voting rights in the city. Throughout his life, he described himself as a citizen of Geneva.[citation needed] In theory, Geneva was governed democratically by its male voting citizens, a minority of the population. In fact, the city was ruled by a secretive executive committee, called the "Little Council", which was made up of 25 members of its wealthiest families. In 1707, a patriot called Pierre Fatio protested at this situation, and the Little Council had him shot. Jean-Jacques Rousseau's father Isaac was not in the city at this time, but JeanJacques's grandfather supported Fatio and was penalized for it.[4]

The house where Rousseau was born at number 40, place du Bourg-de-Four

Rousseau's father, Isaac Rousseau, was a watchmaker who, notwithstanding his artisan status, was well educated and a lover of music. "A Genevan watchmaker," Rousseau wrote, "is a man who can be introduced anywhere; a Parisian watchmaker is only fit to talk about watches."[5] Rousseau's mother, Suzanne Bernard Rousseau, the daughter of a Calvinist preacher, died of puerperal fever nine days after his birth. He and his older brother Franois were brought up by their father and a paternal aunt, also named Suzanne. Rousseau had no recollection of learning to read, but he remembered how when he was 5 or 6 his father encouraged his love of reading:

Every night, after supper, we read some part of a small collection of romances [i.e., adventure stories], which had been my mother's. My father's design was only to improve me in reading, and he thought these entertaining works were calculated to give me a fondness for it; but we soon found ourselves so interested in the adventures they contained, that we alternately read whole nights together and could not bear to give over until at the conclusion of a volume. Sometimes, in the morning, on hearing the swallows at our window, my father, quite ashamed of this weakness, would cry, "Come, come, let us go to bed; I am more a child than thou art." Confessions, Book 1

Not long afterward, Rousseau abandoned his taste for escapist stories in favor of the antiquity of Plutarch's Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans, which he would read to his father while he made watches. When Rousseau was 10, his father, an avid hunter, got into a legal quarrel with a wealthy landowner on whose lands he had been caught trespassing. To avoid certain defeat in the courts, he moved away to Nyon in the territory of Bern, taking Rousseau's aunt Suzanne with him. He remarried, and from that point Jean-Jacques saw little of him.[6] Jean-Jacques was left with his maternal uncle, who packed him, along with his own son, Abraham Bernard, away to board for two years with a Calvinist minister in a hamlet outside Geneva. Here the boys picked up the elements of mathematics and drawing. Rousseau, who was always deeply moved by religious services, for a time even dreamed of becoming a Protestant minister.

Les Charmettes: where Rousseau lived with Mme de Warens in 1735-6, now a museum dedicated to Rousseau

Virtually, all our information about Rousseau's youth has come from his posthumously published Confessions, in which the chronology is somewhat confused, though recent scholars have combed the archives for confirming evidence to fill in the blanks. At age 13, Rousseau was apprenticed first to anotary and then to an engraver who beat him. At 15, he ran away from Geneva (on 14 March 1728) after returning to the city and finding the city gates locked due to the curfew. In adjoining Savoy he took shelter with a Roman Catholic priest, who introduced him to Franoise-Louise de Warens, age 29. She was a noblewoman of Protestant background who was separated from her husband. As professional lay proselytizer, she was paid by the King of Piedmont to help bring Protestants to Catholicism. They sent the boy to Turin, the capital of Savoy (which included Piedmont, in what is now Italy), to complete his conversion. This resulted in his

having to give up his Genevan citizenship, although he would later revert to Calvinism in order to regain it. In converting to Catholicism, both De Warens and Rousseau were likely reacting to Calvinism's insistence on the total depravity of man. Leo Damrosch writes, "an eighteenth-century Genevan liturgy still required believers to declare that we are miserable sinners, born in corruption, inclined to evil, incapable by ourselves of doing good'."[7] De Warens, a deist by inclination, was attracted to Catholicism's doctrine of forgiveness of sins. [edit]Independence Finding himself on his own, since his father and uncle had more or less disowned him, the teenage Rousseau supported himself for a time as a servant, secretary, and tutor, wandering in Italy (Piedmont and Savoy) and France. During this time, he lived on and off with De Warens, whom he idolized and called his "maman". Flattered by his devotion, De Warens tried to get him started in a profession, and arranged formal music lessons for him. At one point, he briefly attended a seminary with the idea of becoming a priest. When Rousseau reached 20, De Warens took him as her lover, while intimate also with the steward of her house. The sexual aspect of their relationship (in fact a mnage trois) confused Rousseau and made him uncomfortable, but he always considered De Warens the greatest love of his life. A rather profligate spender, she had a large library and loved to entertain and listen to music. She and her circle, comprising educated members of the Catholic clergy, introduced Rousseau to the world of letters and ideas. Rousseau had been an indifferent student, but during his 20s, which were marked by long bouts of hypochondria, he applied himself in earnest to the study of philosophy, mathematics, and music. At 25, he came into a small inheritance from his mother and used a portion of it to repay De Warens for her financial support of him. At 27, he took a job as a tutor in Lyon. In 1742, Rousseau moved to Paris in order to present the Acadmie des Sciences with a new system of numbered musical notation he believed would make his fortune. His system, intended to be compatible with typography, is based on a single line, displaying numbers representing intervals between notes and dots and commas indicating rhythmic values. Believing the system was impractical, the Academy rejected it, though they praised his mastery of the subject, and urged him to try again.

Palazzo belonging to Tommaso Querini at 968 Cannaregio Venicethat served as the French Embassy during Rousseau's period as Secretary to the Ambassador

From 1743 to 1744, Rousseau had an honorable but ill-paying post as a secretary to the Comte de Montaigue, the French ambassador to Venice. This awoke in him a lifelong love for Italian music, particularly opera: I had brought with me from Paris the prejudice of that city against Italian music; but I had also received from nature a sensibility and niceness of distinction which prejudice cannot withstand. I soon contracted that passion for Italian music with which it inspires all those who are capable of feeling its excellence. In listening to barcaroles, I found I had not yet known what singing was... Confessions Rousseau's employer routinely received his stipend as much as a year late and paid his staff irregularly.[8] After 11 months, Rousseau quit, taking from the experience a profound distrust of government bureaucracy. Returning to Paris, the penniless Rousseau befriended and became the lover of Thrse Levasseur, a seamstress who was the sole support of her mother and numerous ne'er-do-well siblings. At first, they did not live together, though later Rousseau took Thrse and her mother in to live with him as his servants, and himself assumed the burden of supporting her large family. According to his Confessions, before she moved in with him, Thrse bore him a son and as many as four other children (there is no independent verification for this number[9]). Rousseau wrote that he persuaded Thrse to give each of the newborns up to a foundling hospital, for the sake

of her "honor". "Her mother, who feared the inconvenience of a brat, came to my aid, and she [Thrse] allowed herself to be overcome" (Confessions). In his letter to Madame de Francueil in 1751, he first pretended that he wasn't rich enough to raise his children but in book IX of the confessions, he gave the true reasons of his choice : " I trembled at the thought of intrusting them to a family ill brought up, to be still worse educated. The risk of the education of the foundling hospital was much less." Ten years later, Rousseau made inquiries about the fate of his son, but no record could be found. When Rousseau subsequently became celebrated as a theorist of education and child-rearing, his abandonment of his children was used by his critics, including Voltaire and Edmund Burke, as the basis for ad hominem attacks. In an irony of fate, Rousseau's later injunction to women to breastfeed their own babies (as had previously been recommended by the French natural scientist Buffon), probably saved the lives of thousands of infants. While in Paris, Rousseau became a close friend of French philosopher Diderot and, beginning with some articles on music in 1749,[10] contributed numerous articles to Diderot and D'Alembert's greatEncyclopdie, the most famous of which was an article on political economy written in 1755. Rousseau's ideas were the result of an almost obsessive dialogue with writers of the past, filtered in many cases through conversations with Diderot. His genius lay in his strikingly original way of putting things rather than in the originality, per se, of his thinking. In 1749, Rousseau was paying daily visits to Diderot, who had been thrown into the fortress of Vincennes under a lettre de cachet for opinions in his "Lettre sur les aveugles," that hinted at materialism, a belief in atoms, and natural selection. Rousseau had read about an essay competition sponsored by the Acadmie de Dijon to be published in the Mercure de France on the theme of whether the development of the arts and sciences had been morally beneficial. He wrote that while walking to Vincennes (about three miles from Paris), he had a revelation that the arts and sciences were responsible for the moral degeneration of mankind, who were basically good by nature. According to Diderot, writing much later, Rousseau had originally intended to answer this in the conventional way, but his discussions with Diderot convinced him to propose the paradoxical negative answer that catapulted him into the public eye. Rousseau's 1750 "Discourse on the Arts and Sciences" was awarded the first prize and gained him significant fame.

Rousseau continued his interest in music. He wrote both the words and music of his opera Le Devin du Village (The Village Soothsayer), which was performed for King Louis XV in 1752. The king was so pleased by the work that he offered Rousseau a lifelong pension. To the exasperation of his friends, Rousseau turned down the great honor, bringing him notoriety as "the man who had refused a king's pension." He also turned down several other advantageous offers, sometimes with a brusqueness bordering on truculence that gave offense and caused him problems. The same year, the visit of a troupe of Italian musicians to Paris, and their performance of Giovanni Battista Pergolesi's La Serva Padrona, prompted the Querelle des Bouffons, which pitted protagonists of French music against supporters of the Italian style. Rousseau as noted above, was an enthusiastic supporter of the Italians against Jean-Philippe Rameau and others, making an important contribution with his Letter on French Music. On returning to Geneva in 1754, Rousseau reconverted to Calvinism and regained his official Genevan citizenship. In 1755, Rousseau completed his second major work, the Discourse on the Origin and Basis of Inequality Among Men (the Discourse on Inequality), which elaborated on the arguments of the Discourse on the Arts and Sciences. He also pursued an unconsummated romantic attachment with the 25-year-old Sophie d'Houdetot, which partly inspired his epistolary novel, Julie, ou la nouvelle Hlose (also based on memories of his idyllic youthful relationship with Mme de Warens). Sophie was the cousin and houseguest of Rousseau's patroness and landlady Madame d'Epinay, whom he treated rather highhandedly. He resented being at Mme d'Epinay's beck and call and detested the insincere conversation and shallow atheism of the Encyclopedistes whom he met at her table. Wounded feelings gave rise to a bitter three-way quarrel between Rousseau and Madame d'Epinay; her lover, the philologist Grimm; and their mutual friend, Diderot, who took their side against Rousseau. Diderot later described Rousseau as being, "false, vain as Satan, ungrateful, cruel, hypocritical, and wicked ... He sucked ideas from me, used them himself, and then affected to despise me".[11]

The mestizo Pierre Alexandre du Peyrou, rich inhabitant of Neufchtel, plantation owner, writer, friend and publisher of some of Rousseau's oeuvre. His mansion was Le Palais du Peyrou

Rousseau's break with the Encyclopedistes coincided with the composition of his three major works, in all of which he emphasized his fervent belief in a spiritual origin of man's soul and the universe, in contradistinction to the materialism of Diderot, La Mettrie, and d'Holbach. During this period Rousseau enjoyed the support and patronage of the Duc de Luxembourg, and the Prince de Conti, two of the richest and most powerful nobles in France. These men truly liked Rousseau and enjoyed his ability to converse on any subject, but they also used him as a way of getting back at Louis XV and the political faction surrounding his mistress, Mme de Pompadour. Even with them, however, Rousseau went too far, courting rejection when he criticized the practice of tax farming, in which some of them engaged.[12] Rousseau's 800-page novel of sentiment, Julie, ou la nouvelle Hlose, was published in 1761 to immense success. The book's rhapsodic descriptions of the natural beauty of the Swiss countryside struck a chord in the public and may have helped spark the subsequent nineteenth century craze for Alpine scenery. In 1762, Rousseau published Du Contrat Social, Principes du droit politique (in English, literally Of the Social Contract, Principles of Political Right) in April. Even his friend Antoine-Jacques Roustan felt impelled to write a polite rebuttal of the chapter on Civil Religion in the Social Contract, which implied that the concept of a Christian Republic was paradoxical since Christianity taught submission rather than participation in public affairs. Rousseau even helped Roustan find a publisher for the rebuttal.[13] Rousseau published Emile: or, On Education in May. The final section of mile, "The Profession of Faith of a Savoyard Vicar," was intended to be a defense of religious belief. Rousseau's choice of a Catholic vicar of humble peasant background (plausibly

based on a kindly prelate he had met as a teenager) as a spokesman for the defense of religion was in itself a daring innovation for the time. The vicar's creed was that of Socinianism (or Unitarianism as it is called today). Because it rejected original sin and divine Revelation, both Protestant and Catholic authorities took offense. Moreover, Rousseau advocated the opinion that, insofar as they lead people to virtue, all religions are equally worthy, and that people should therefore conform to the religion in which they have been brought up. This religious indifferentism caused Rousseau and his books to be banned from France and Geneva. He was condemned from the pulpit by the Archbishop of Paris, his books were burned, and warrants were issued for his arrest.[14] Former friends such as Jacob Vernes of Geneva could not accept his views, and wrote violent rebuttals.[15] A sympathetic observer, British philosopher David Hume, "professed no surprise when he learned that Rousseau's books were banned in Geneva and elsewhere." Rousseau, he wrote, "has not had the precaution to throw any veil over his sentiments; and, as he scorns to dissemble his contempt for established opinions, he could not wonder that all the zealots were in arms against him. The liberty of the press is not so secured in any country ... as not to render such an open attack on popular prejudice somewhat dangerous.'"[16] Rousseau, who thought he had been defending religion, was crushed. Forced to flee arrest he made his way, with the help of the Duc of Luxembourg and Prince de Conti, to Neuchtel, a Canton of the Swiss Confederation that was a protectorate of the Prussiancrown. His powerful protectors discreetly assisted him in his flight and they helped to get his banned books (published in Holland by Marc-Michel Rey) distributed in France disguised as other works using false covers and title pages. In the town of Mtiers, he sought and found protection under Lord Keith, who was the local representative of the free-thinking Frederick the Great of Prussia. While in Mtiers, Rousseau wrote the Constitutional Project for Corsica (Projet de Constitution pour la Corse, 1765). After his house in Mtiers was stoned on the night of 6 September 1765, Rousseau took refuge in Great Britain with Hume, who found lodgings for him at a friend's country estate in Wootton in Staffordshire. Neither Thrse nor Rousseau was able to learn English or make friends. Isolated, Rousseau, never emotionally very stable, suffered a serious decline in his mental health and began to experience paranoid fantasies about plots against him involving Hume and others. He is plainly mad, after having long been maddish, Hume wrote to a friend.[17] Rousseau's letter to Hume, in which he articulates

the perceived misconduct, sparked an exchange which was published in Paris and received with great interest at the time.

The tomb of Rousseau in the crypt of the Panthon, Paris

Although officially barred from entering France before 1770, Rousseau returned in 1767 under a false name. In 1768 he went through a marriage of sorts to Thrse (marriages between Catholics and Protestants were illegal), whom he had always hitherto referred to as his "housekeeper". Though she was illiterate, she had become a remarkably good cook, a hobby her husband shared. In 1770 they were allowed to return to Paris. As a condition of his return he was not allowed to publish any books, but after completing his Confessions, Rousseau began private readings in 1771. At the request of Madame d'Epinay, who was anxious to protect her privacy, however, the police ordered him to stop, and the Confessions was only partially published in 1782, four years after his death. All his subsequent works were to appear posthumously.

The statue of Rousseau on thele Rousseau, Geneva

In 1772, Rousseau was invited to present recommendations for a new constitution for the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, resulting in the Considerations on the Government of Poland, which was to be his last major political work. In 1776, he completedDialogues: Rousseau Judge of Jean-Jacques and began work on the Reveries of the Solitary Walker. In order to support himself, he returned to copying music, spending his leisure time in the study of botany. Although a celebrity, Rousseau's mental health did not permit him to enjoy his fame. His final years were largely spent in deliberate withdrawal. However, he did respond favorably to an approach from the composer Gluck, whom he met in 1774. Gluck admired Rousseau as "a pioneer of the expressive natural style" in music.[18] One of Rousseau's last pieces of writing was a critical yet enthusiastic analysis of Gluck's opera Alceste. While taking a morning walk on the estate of the marquis Ren Louis de Girardin atErmenonville (28 miles northeast of Paris), Rousseau suffered a hemorrhage and died, aged 66.

le Rousseau, Geneva

Rousseau was initially buried at Ermenonville on the Ile des Peupliers, which became a place of pilgrimage for his many admirers. Sixteen years after his death, his remains were moved to the Panthon in Paris in 1794, where they are located directly across from those of his contemporary, Voltaire. His tomb, in the shape of a rustic temple, on which, in bas reliefan arm reaches out, bearing the torch of liberty, evokes Rousseau's deep love of nature and of classical antiquity. In 1834, the Genevan government somewhat reluctantly erected a statue in his honor on the tiny le Rousseau in Lake Geneva. Today he is proudly claimed as their most celebrated native son. In 2002,

the Espace Rousseau was established at 40 Grand-Rue, Geneva, Rousseau's birthplace. [edit]Philosophy [edit]Theory

of Natural Human

A 1766 portrait of Rousseau by Allan Ramsay

The first man who, having fenced in a piece of land, said "This is mine," and found people nave enough to believe him, that man was the true founder of civil society. From how many crimes, wars, and murders, from how many horrors and misfortunes might not any one have saved mankind, by pulling up the stakes, or filling up the ditch, and crying to his fellows: Beware of listening to this impostor; you are undone if you once forget that the fruits of the earth belong to us all, and the earth itself to nobody. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Discourse on Inequality, 1754

In common with other philosophers of the day, Rousseau looked to a hypothetical State of Nature as a normative guide. Rousseau criticized Hobbes for asserting that since man in the "state of nature . . . has no idea of goodness he must be naturally wicked; that he is vicious because he does not know virtue". On the contrary, Rousseau holds that "uncorrupted morals" prevail in the "state of nature" and he especially praised the admirable moderation of the Caribbeans in expressing the sexual urge[19] despite the fact that they live in a hot

climate, which "always seems to inflame the passions".[20] This has led Anglophone critics to erroneously attribute to Rousseau the invention of the idea of the noble savage, an oxymoronic expression that was never used in France[21] and which grossly misrepresents Rousseau's thought.[22] The expression, "the noble savage" was first used in 1672 by British poet John Dryden in his play The Conquest of Granada.[citation
needed]

Rousseau wrote that morality was not a societal construct, but rather "natural" in the sense of "innate," an outgrowth from man's instinctive disinclination to witness suffering, from which arise the emotions of compassion or empathy. These were sentiments shared with animals, and whose existence even Hobbesacknowledged.[23]

Frontispiece and title page of an edition of Rousseau's Discourse on Inequality (1754), published in 1755 in Holland.

Contrary to what his many detractors have claimed, Rousseau never suggests that humans in the state of nature act morally; in fact, terms such as "justice" or "wickedness" are inapplicable to prepolitical society as Rousseau understands it. Morality proper, i.e., self restraint, can only develop through careful education in a civil state. Humans "in a state of Nature" may act with all of the ferocity of an animal. They are good only in a negative sense, insofar as they are self-sufficient and thus not subject to the vices of political society. In fact, Rousseau's natural man is virtually identical to a solitary chimpanzee or otherape, such as the orangutan as described by Buffon; and the "natural" goodness of humanity is thus the goodness of an animal,

which is neither good nor bad. Rousseau, a deteriorationist, proposed that, except perhaps for brief moments of balance, at or near its inception, when a relative equality among men prevailed, human civilization has always been artificial, creating inequality, envy, and unnatural desires.[citation needed] In Rousseau's philosophy, society's negative influence on men centers on its transformation of amour de soi, a positive self-love, intoamour-propre, or pride. Amour de soi represents the instinctive human desire for self-preservation, combined with the human power ofreason. In contrast, amour-propre is artificial and encourages man to compare himself to others, thus creating unwarranted fear and allowing men to take pleasure in the pain or weakness of others.[citation needed] Rousseau was not the first to make this distinction. It had been invoked by Vauvenargues, among others. In Discourse on the Arts and Sciences Rousseau argues that the arts and sciences have not been beneficial to humankind, because they arose not from authentic human needs but rather as a result of pride and vanity. Moreover, the opportunities they create for idleness and luxury have contributed to the corruption of man. He proposed that the progress of knowledge had made governments more powerful and had crushed individual liberty; and he concluded that material progress had actually undermined the possibility of true friendship by replacing it with jealousy, fear, and suspicion. In contrast to the optimistic view of other Enlightenment figures, for Rousseau, progress has been inimical to the well-being of humanity, that is, unless it can be counteracted by the cultivation of civic morality and duty. Only in civil society, can man be ennobledthrough the use of reason: The passage from the state of nature to the civil state produces a very remarkable change in man, by substituting justice for instinct in his conduct, and giving his actions the morality they had formerly lacked. Then only, when the voice of duty takes the place of physical impulses and right of appetite, does man, who so far had considered only himself, find that he is forced to act on different principles, and to consult his reason before listening to his inclinations. Although, in this state, he deprives himself of some advantages which he got from nature, he gains in return others so great, his faculties are so stimulated and developed, his ideas so extended, his feelings so ennobled, and his whole soul so uplifted, that, did not the abuses of this new condition often degrade him below that which he left, he would be bound to bless continually the happy moment which took him from it for ever, and, instead of a stupid and unimaginative animal, made him an intelligent being and a man.[24]

Society corrupts men only insofar as the Social Contract has not de facto succeeded, as we see in contemporary society as described in the Discourse on Inequality (1754). In this essay, which elaborates on the ideas introduced in the Discourse on the Arts and Sciences, Rousseau traces man's social evolution from a primitive state of nature to modern society. The earliest solitary humans possessed a basic drive for self preservation and a natural disposition to compassion or pity. They differed from animals, however, in their capacity for free will and their potential perfectibility. As they began to live in groups and form clans they also began to experience family love, which Rousseau saw as the source of the greatest happiness known to humanity. As long as differences in wealth and status among families were minimal, the first coming together in groups was accompanied by a fleeting golden age of human flourishing. The development of agriculture, metallurgy, private property, and the division of labour and resulting dependency on one another, however, led to economic inequality and conflict. As population pressures forced them to associate more and more closely, they underwent a psychological transformation: They began to see themselves through the eyes of others and came to value the good opinion of others as essential to their self esteem. Rousseau posits that the original, deeply flawed Social Contract (i.e., that of Hobbes), which led to the modern state, was made at the suggestion of the rich and powerful, who tricked the general population into surrendering their liberties to them and instituted inequality as a fundamental feature of human society. Rousseau's own conception of the Social Contract can be understood as an alternative to this fraudulent form of association. At the end of the Discourse on Inequality, Rousseau explains how the desire to have value in the eyes of others comes to undermine personal integrity and authenticity in a society marked by interdependence, and hierarchy. In the last chapter of the Social Contract, Rousseau would ask "What is to be done?" He answers that now all men can do is to cultivate virtue in themselves and submit to their lawful rulers. To his readers, however, the inescapable conclusion was that a new and more equitable Social Contract was needed. [edit]Political

theory

Perhaps Rousseau's most important work is The Social Contract, which outlines the basis for a legitimate political order within a framework of classical republicanism. Published in 1762, it became one of the most influential works of political philosophy in the Western tradition. It developed some of the ideas mentioned in an earlier work, the article Economie Politique (Discourse on Political Economy), featured in Diderot's Encyclopdie. The treatise begins with the dramatic opening lines, "Man is

born free, and everywhere he is in chains. Those who think themselves the masters of others are indeed greater slaves than they." Rousseau claimed that the state of nature was a primitive condition without law or morality, which human beings left for the benefits and necessity of cooperation. As society developed, division of labor and private property required the human race to adopt institutions of law. In the degenerate phase of society, man is prone to be in frequent competition with his fellow men while also becoming increasingly dependent on them. This double pressure threatens both his survival and his freedom. According to Rousseau, by joining together into civil society through the social contract and abandoning their claims of natural right, individuals can both preserve themselves and remain free. This is because submission to the authority of the general will of the people as a whole guarantees individuals against being subordinated to the wills of others and also ensures that they obey themselves because they are, collectively, the authors of the law. Although Rousseau argues that sovereignty (or the power to make the laws) should be in the hands of the people, he also makes a sharp distinction between the sovereign and the government. The government is composed of magistrates, charged with implementing and enforcing the general will. The "sovereign" is the rule of law, ideally decided on by direct democracy in an assembly. Under a monarchy, however, the real sovereign is still the law. Rousseau was opposed to the idea that the people should exercise sovereignty via a representative assembly (Book III, Chapter XV). The kind ofrepublican government of which Rousseau approved was that of the city state, of which Geneva was a model, or would have been, if renewed on Rousseau's principles. France could not meet Rousseau's criterion of an ideal state because it was too big. Much subsequent controversy about Rousseau's work has hinged on disagreements concerning his claims that citizens constrained to obey the general will are thereby rendered free: The notion of the general will is wholly central to Rousseau's theory of political legitimacy. ... It is, however, an unfortunately obscure and controversial notion. Some commentators see it as no more than the dictatorship of the proletariat or the tyranny of the urban poor (such as may perhaps be seen in the French Revolution). Such was not Rousseau's meaning. This is clear from the Discourse on Political Economy, where Rousseau emphasizes that the general will exists to protect individuals against the mass, not to require them to be sacrificed to it. He is, of course, sharply aware that men have selfish and sectional interests which will lead them to try to oppress others. It is for

this reason that loyalty to the good of all alike must be a supreme (although not exclusive) commitment by everyone, not only if a truly general will is to be heeded but also if it is to be formulated successfully in the first place".[25] [edit]Education

and child rearing

Main article: Emile: or, On Education

The noblest work in education is to make a reasoning man, and we expect to train a young child by making him reason! This is beginning at the end; this is making an instrument of a result. If children understood how to reason they would not need to be educated. Rousseau, Emile.

Rousseaus philosophy of education is not concerned with particular techniques of imparting information and concepts, but rather with developing the pupils character and moral sense, so that he may learn to practice self-mastery and remain virtuous even in the unnatural and imperfect society in which he will have to live. The hypothetical boy, mile, is to be raised in the countryside, which, Rousseau believes, is a more natural and healthy environment than the city, under the guardianship of a tutor who will guide him through various learning experiences arranged by the tutor. Today we would call this the disciplinary method of "natural consequences" since, like modern psychologists[who?], Rousseau felt that children learn right and wrong through experiencing the consequences of their acts rather than through physical punishment. The tutor will make sure that no harm results to mile through his learning experiences. Rousseau was one of the first to advocate developmentally appropriate education; and his description of the stages of child development mirrors his conception of the evolution of culture. He divides childhood into stages: the first is to the age of about 12, when children are guided by their emotions and impulses. During the second stage, from 12 to about 16, reason starts to develop; and finally the third stage, from the age of 16 onwards, when the child develops into an adult. Rousseau recommends that the young adult learn a manual skill such as carpentry, which requires creativity and thought, will keep him out of trouble, and will supply a fallback means of making a living in the event of a change of fortune. (The most illustrious aristocratic youth to have been educated this way may have been Louis XVI, whose parents had him learn the skill of locksmithing.[26]) The sixteen-year-old is also ready to have a companion of the opposite sex.

Although his ideas foreshadowed modern ones in many ways, in one way they do not: Rousseau was a believer in the moral superiority of the patriarchal family on the antique Roman model. Sophie, the young woman mile is destined to marry, as a representative of ideal womanhood, is educated to be governed by her husband while mile, as representative of the ideal man, is educated to be self-governing. This is not an accidental feature of Rousseau's educational and political philosophy; it is essential to his account of the distinction between private, personal relations and the public world of political relations. The private sphere as Rousseau imagines it depends on the subordination of women, in order for both it and the public political sphere (upon which it depends) to function as Rousseau imagines it could and should. Rousseau anticipated the modern idea of the bourgeois nuclear family, with the mother at home taking responsibility for the household and for childcare and early education. Feminists, beginning in the late 18th century with Mary Wollstonecraft in 1792[27] have criticized Rousseau for his confinement of women to the domestic sphereunless women were domesticatedand constrained by modesty and shame, he feared[28] "men would be tyrannized by women... For, given the ease with which women arouse men's senses... men would finally be their victims...."[29]His contemporaries saw it differently because Rousseau thought that mothers should breastfeed their children.[30] Marmontel wrote that his wife thought, "One must forgive something," she said, "in one who has taught us to be mothers." [31] Rousseau's detractors have blamed him for everything they do not like in what they call modern "child-centered" education. John Darling's 1994 book Child-Centered Education and its Critics argues that the history of modern educational theory is a series of footnotes to Rousseau, a development he regards as bad. Good or bad, the theories of educators such as Rousseau's near contemporariesPestalozzi, Mme de Genlis, and later, Maria Montessori, and John Dewey, which have directly influenced modern educational practices do have significant points in common with those of Rousseau. [edit]Religion Having converted to Roman Catholicism early in life and returned to the austere Calvinism of his native Geneva as part of his period of moral reform, Rousseau maintained a profession of that religious philosophy and of John Calvin as a modern lawgiver throughout the remainder of his life.[32] His views on religion presented in his works of philosophy, however, may strike some as discordant with the doctrines of both Catholicism and Calvinism.

At the time, however, Rousseau's strong endorsement of religious toleration, as expounded by the Savoyard vicar in mile, was interpreted as advocating indifferentism, a heresy, and led to the condemnation of the book in both Calvinist Geneva and Catholic Paris. His assertion in the Social Contract that true followers of Jesus would not make good citizens may have been another reason for Rousseau's condemnation in Geneva. Unlike many of the more radical Enlightenment philosophers, Rousseau affirmed the necessity of religion. But he repudiated the doctrine of original sin, which plays so large a part in Calvinism (inmile, Rousseau writes "there is no original perversity in the human heart").[33] In the 18th century, many deists viewed God merely as an abstract and impersonal creator of the universe, which they likened to a giant machine. Rousseau's deism differed from the usual kind in its intense emotionality. He saw the presence of God in his creation, including mankind, which, apart from the harmful influence of society, is good, because God is good. Rousseau's attribution of a spiritual value to the beauty of nature anticipates the attitudes of 19th-century Romanticism towards nature and religion. Rousseau was upset that his deistic views were so forcefully condemned, while those of the more atheistic philosophes were ignored. He defended himself against critics of his religious views in his "Letter to Christophe de Beaumont, the Archbishop of Paris in which he insists that freedom of discussion in religious matters is essentially more religious than the attempt to impose belief by force."[34] [edit]Legacy
This section may be unbalanced towards certain viewpoints. Please improve the article by adding information on neglected viewpoints, or discuss the issue on the talk page. (September 2011)

A plaque commemorating the bicentenary of Rousseau's birth. Issued by the city of Geneva on 28 June 1912. The legend at the bottom says "Jean-Jacques, aime ton pays" ("love your country"), and shows Rousseau's father gesturing towards the window. The scene is drawn from a footnote to the Letter to d'Alembert where Rousseau recalls witnessing the popular celebrations following the exercises of the St Gervais regiment.

Rousseau's idea of the volont gnrale ("general will") was not original with him but rather belonged to a well-established technical vocabulary of juridical and theological writings in use at the time. The phrase was used by Diderot and also by Montesquieu (and by his teacher, the Oratorian friar Nicolas Malebranche). It served to designate the common interest embodied in legal tradition, as distinct from and transcending people's private and particular interests at any particular time. The concept was also an important aspect of the more radical 17th-century republican tradition of Spinoza, from whom Rousseau differed in important respects, but not in his insistence on the importance of equality. This emphasis on equality is Rousseau's most important and consequential legacy, causing him to be both reviled and applauded: While Rousseau's notion of the progressive moral degeneration of mankind from the moment civil society established itself diverges markedly from Spinoza's claim that human nature is always and everywhere the same ... for both philosophers the pristine equality of the state of nature is our ultimate goal and criterion ... in shaping the "common good", volont gnrale, or Spinoza's mens una, which alone can ensure stability and political salvation. Without the supreme criterion of equality, the general will would indeed be meaningless. ... When in the depths of the French Revolution the Jacobin clubs all over France regularly deployed Rousseau when demanding radical reforms. and especially anything such as land redistribution designed to enhance equality, they were at the same time, albeit unconsciously, invoking a radical tradition which reached back to the late seventeenth century.[35] The cult that grew up around Rousseau after his death, and particularly the radicalized versions of Rousseau's ideas that were adopted by Robespierre andSaint-Just during the Reign of Terror, caused him to become identified with the most extreme aspects of the French Revolution.[36] Among other things, the ship of the line Jean-Jacques Rousseau (launched in 1795) was named after the philosopher. The revolutionaries were also inspired by Rousseau to introduce Deism as the new official civil religion of France, scandalizing traditionalists:

Ceremonial and symbolic occurrences of the more radical phases of the Revolution invoked Rousseau and his core ideas. Thus the ceremony held at the site of the demolished Bastille, organized by the foremost artistic director of the Revolution, Jacques-Louis David, in August 1793 to mark the inauguration of the new republican constitution, an event coming shortly after the final abolition of all forms of feudal privilege, featured a cantata based on Rousseau's democratic pantheistic deism as expounded in the celebrated "Profession de foi d'un vicaire savoyard" in Book Four of mile.[37] Opponents of the Revolution and defenders of religion, most influentially the Irish essayist Edmund Burke, therefore placed the blame for the excesses of the French Revolution directly on the revolutionaries' misplaced (as he considered it) adulation of Rousseau. Burke's "Letter to a Member of the National Assembly", published in February 1791, was a diatribe against Rousseau, whom he considered the paramount influence on the French Revolution (his ad hominem attack did not really engage with Rousseau's political writings). Burke maintained that the excesses of the Revolution were not accidents but were designed from the beginning and were rooted in Rousseau's personal vanity, arrogance, and other moral failings. He recalled Rousseau's visit to Britain in 1766, saying: "I had good opportunities of knowing his proceedings almost from day to day and he left no doubt in my mind that he entertained no principle either to influence his heart or to guide his understanding, but vanity". Conceding his gift of eloquence, Burke deplored Rousseau's lack of the good taste and finer feelings that would have been imparted by the education of a gentleman: Taste and elegance ... are of no mean importance in the regulation of life. A moral taste ... infinitely abates the evils of vice. Rousseau, a writer of great force and vivacity, is totally destitute of taste in any sense of the word. Your masters [i.e., the leaders of the Revolution], who are his scholars, conceive that all refinement has an aristocratic character. The last age had exhausted all its powers in giving a grace and nobleness to our mutual appetites, and in raising them into a higher class and order than seemed justly to belong to them. Through Rousseau, your masters are resolved to destroy these aristocratic prejudices.[38] In America, where there was no such cult, the direct influence of Rousseau was arguably less. The American founders rarely cited Rousseau, but came independently to their Republicanism and enthusiastic admiration for the austere virtues described by Livy and in Plutarch's portrayals of the great men of ancient Sparta and the classical republicanism of early Rome, as did most other enlightenment figures. Rousseaus

praise of Switzerland and Corsicas economies of isolated and self-sufficient independent homesteads, and his endorsement of a well-regulated citizen militia, such as Switzerlands, recall the ideals of Jeffersonian democracy. To Rousseau we owe the invention of the concept of a "civil religion", one of whose key tenets is religious toleration. Yet despite their mutual insistence on the self evidence that "all men are created equal", their insistence that the citizens of a republic be educated at public expense, and the evident parallel between the concepts of the "general welfare" and Rousseau's "general will", some scholars maintain there is little to suggest that Rousseau had that much effect on Thomas Jefferson and other founding fathers.[39] They argue that the American constitution owes as much or more to the English Liberal philosopher John Locke's emphasis on the rights of property and to Montesquieu's theories of the separation of powers.[40] Rousseau's writings had an indirect influence on American literature through the writings of Wordsworth and Kant, whose works were important to the New England Transcendentalist Ralph Waldo Emerson, as well as on such Unitarians as theologian William Ellery Channing. American novelist James Fennimore Cooper's Last of the Mohicans and other novels reflect republican and egalitarian ideals present alike in Rousseau, Thomas Paine, and also in English Romantic primitivism.[41] Another American admirer was lexicographer Noah Webster.[42] The Paraguayan dictatorJos Gaspar Rodrguez de Francia sought to found a society based on the principles set forth in Rousseau's Social Contract.[43] The Australian biologist Jeremy Griffith in his 'Beyond the Human Condition' has formulated a thesis that seeks to ground Rousseau's concept of the noble savage and the artificiality of modern urban living in evolutionary psychology.

[edit]Criticisms

of Rousseau

A portrait of Rousseau in later life.

The first to criticize Rousseau were his fellow Philosophes, above all, Voltaire. According to Jacques Barzun: Voltaire, who had felt annoyed by the first essay [On the Arts and Sciences], was outraged by the second, [Discourse on the Origin of Inequality Among Men], declaring that Rousseau wanted us to walk on all fours like animals and behave like savages, believing them creatures of perfection. From these interpretations, plausible but inexact, spring the clichs Noble Savage and Back to Nature.[44] Barzun states that, contrary to myth, Rousseau was no primitivist; for him: The model man is the independent farmer, free of superiors and self-governing. This was cause enough for the philosophes' hatred of their former friend. Rousseaus unforgivable crime was his rejection of the graces and luxuries of civilized existence. Voltaire had sung The superfluous, that most necessary thing." For the high bourgeois standard of living Rousseau would substitute the middling peasants. It was the country versus the city an exasperating idea for them, as was the amazing fact that every new work of Rousseaus was a huge success, whether the subject was politics, theater, education, religion, or a novel about love.[45] Following the French Revolution, other commentators fingered a potential danger of Rousseaus project of realizing an antique conception of virtue amongst the citizenry in

a modern world (e.g. through education, physical exercise, a citizen militia, public holidays, and the like). Taken too far, as under theJacobins, such social engineering could result in tyranny. As early as 1819, in his famous speech On Ancient and Modern Liberty, the political philosopher Benjamin Constant, a proponent of constitutional monarchy and representative democracy, criticized Rousseau, or rather his more radical followers (specifically the Abb de Mably), for allegedly believing that "everything should give way to collective will, and that all restrictions on individual rights would be amply compensated by participation in social power. Common also were attacks by defenders of social hierarchy on Rousseau's "romantic" belief in equality. In 1860, shortly after the Sepoy Rebellion in India, two British white supremacists, John Crawfurd and James Hunt, mounted a defense of British imperialism based on scientific racism".[46] Crawfurd, in alliance with Hunt, took over the presidency of the British Anthropological Society, which had been founded with the mission to defend indigenous peoples against slavery and colonial exploitation. Invoking "science" and "realism", the two men derided their "philanthropic" predecessors for believing in human equality and for not recognizing that mankind was divided into superior and inferior races. Crawfurd, who opposed Darwinian evolution, "denied any unity to mankind, insisting on immutable, hereditary, and timeless differences in racial character, principal amongst which was the 'very great' difference in 'intellectual capacity.'" For Crawfurd, the races had been created separately and were different species. Since Crawfurd was Scottish, he thought the Scottish "race" superior and all others inferior; whilst Hunt, on the other hand, believed in the supremacy of the Anglo-Saxon "race". Crawfurd and Hunt routinely accused those who disagreed with them of believing in "Rousseaus Noble Savage". (The pair ultimately quarreled because Hunt believed in slavery and Crawfurd did not). "As Ter Ellinson demonstrates, Crawfurd was responsible for re-introducing the Pre-Rousseauian concept of 'the Noble Savage' to modern anthropology, attributing it wrongly and quite deliberately to Rousseau.[47] In 1919 Irving Babbitt, founder of a movement called the "New Humanism", wrote a critique of what he called "sentimental humanitarianism", for which he blamed Rousseau.[48] Babbitt's depiction of Rousseau was countered in a celebrated and much reprinted essay by A. O. Lovejoy in 1923.[49] In France, fascist theorist and antiSemite Charles Maurras, founder of Action Franaise, had no compunctions in laying the blame for both Romantisme et Rvolution firmly on Rousseau in 1922."[50]

During the Cold War, Karl Popper criticized Rousseau for his association with nationalism and its attendant abuses[citation needed]. This came to be known among scholars as the "totalitarian thesis". An example is J. L. Talmon's, The Origins of Totalitarian Democracy (1952).[51] Political scientist J. S. Maloy states that the twentieth century added Nazism and Stalinism to Jacobinism on the list of horrors for which Rousseau could be blamed. ... Rousseau was considered to have advocated just the sort of invasive tampering with human nature which the totalitarian regimes of midcentury had tried to instantiate." But Maloy adds that "The totalitarian thesis in Rousseau studies has, by now, been discredited as an attribution of real historical influence.[52] Arthur Melzer, however, while conceding that Rousseau would not have approved of modern nationalism, observes that his theories do contain the "seeds of nationalism", insofar as they set forth the "politics of identification", which are rooted in sympathetic emotion. Melzer also believes that in admitting that people's talents are unequal, Rousseau therefore tacitly condones the tyranny of the few over the many.[53] For Stephen T. Engel, on the other hand, Rousseau's nationalism anticipated modern theories of "imagined communities" that transcend social and religious divisions within states.[54] On similar grounds, one of Rousseau's strongest critics during the second half of the 20th century was political philosopher Hannah Arendt. Using Rousseau's thought as an example, Arendt identified the notion of sovereignty with that of the general will. According to her, it was this desire to establish a single, unified will based on the stifling of opinion in favor of public passion that contributed to the excesses of the French Revolution.[55] [edit]Major

works

Dissertation sur la musique moderne, 1736 Discourse on the Arts and Sciences (Discours sur les sciences et les arts), 1750 Narcissus, or The Self-Admirer: A Comedy, 1752 Le Devin du Village: an opera, 1752, scorePDF (21.7 MB) Discourse on the Origin and Basis of Inequality Among Men (Discours sur l'origine et les fondements de l'ingalit parmi les hommes), 1754 Discourse on Political Economy, 1755 Letter to M. D'Alembert on Spectacles, 1758 (Lettre d'Alembert sur les spectacles) Julie, or the New Heloise (Julie, ou la nouvelle Hlose), 1761

mile: or, on Education (mile ou de l'ducation), 1762 The Creed of a Savoyard Priest, 1762 (in mile) The Social Contract, or Principles of Political Right (Du contrat social), 1762 Four Letters to M. de Malesherbes, 1762 Pygmalion: a Lyric Scene, 1762 Letters Written from the Mountain, 1764 (Lettres de la montagne) Confessions of Jean-Jacques Rousseau (Les Confessions), 1770, published 1782 Constitutional Project for Corsica, 1772 Considerations on the Government of Poland, 1772 Essay on the Origin of Languages, published 1781 (Essai sur l'origine des langues) Reveries of a Solitary Walker, incomplete, published 1782 (Rveries du promeneur solitaire) Dialogues: Rousseau Judge of Jean-Jacques, published 1782

[edit]Editions

in English

Basic Political Writings, trans. Donald A. Cress. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing, 1987. Collected Writings, ed. Roger Masters and Christopher Kelly, Dartmouth: University Press of New England, 19902010, 13 vols. The Confessions, trans. Angela Scholar. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. Emile, or On Education, trans. with an introd. by Allan Bloom, New York: Basic Books, 1979. "On the Origin of Language," trans. John H. Moran. In On the Origin of Language: Two Essays. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986. Reveries of a Solitary Walker, trans. Peter France. London: Penguin Books, 1980. 'The Discourses' and Other Early Political Writings, trans. Victor Gourevitch. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997. 'The Social Contract' and Other Later Political Writings, trans. Victor Gourevitch. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997. 'The Social Contract, trans. Maurice Cranston. Penguin: Penguin Classics Various Editions, 19682007. The Political writings of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, edited from the original MCS and authentic editions with introduction and notes by C.E.Vaughan, Blackwell, Oxford, 1962. (In French but the introduction and notes are in English).

[edit]Online

texts

A Discourse on the Moral Effects of the Arts and Sciences English translation

Confessions of Jean-Jacques Rousseau English translation, as published by Project Gutenberg, 2004 [EBook #3913] Considerations on the Government of Poland English translation Constitutional Project for Corsica English translation Discourse on Political Economy English translation Discourse on the Origin and Basis of Inequality Among Men English translation The Social Contract, Or Principles of Political Right English translation 'Elementary Letters on Botany', 1771-3PDF (4.23 MB)[dead link] English translation Emile French text and English translation (Grace G. Roosevelt's revision and correction of Barbara Foxley's Everyman translation, at Columbia) Full Ebooks of Rousseau in french on the website 'La philosophie' Mondo Politico Library's presentation of Jean-Jacques Rousseau's book, The Social Contract (G.D.H. Cole translation; full text) Narcissus, or The Self-Admirer: A Comedy English translation Project Concerning New Symbols for Music French text and English translation, archived from the original on 2008-12-20 The Creed of a Savoyard Priest English translation Works by Jean-Jacques Rousseau at Project Gutenberg

Maria Montessori (August 31, 1870 May 6, 1952) was an Italian physician and educator, a noted humanitarian and devout Catholic best known for thephilosophy of education which bears her name. Her educational method is in use today in public and private schools throughout the world.
Contents
[hide]

1 Life and Career

o o o o o o o

1.1 Birth and Family 1.2 18831896: Education 1.3 18961901: Early Career 1.4 19011906: Further studies 1.5 19061911: Casa dei Bambini and the spread of Montessori's ideas 1.6 19091915: International recognition and growth of Montessori education 1.7 19151939: Further development of Montessori education

o o

1.8 19391946: Montessori in India 1.9 19461952: The Last Years 2.1 Early influences 2.2 Scientific pedagogy 2.3 Casa dei Bambini 2.4 Further development

2 Educational Philosophy and Pedagogy

o o o o

3 Works 4 Notes 5 References 6 External links

[edit]Life

and Career
and Family

[edit]Birth

Maria Tecla Artemesia Montessori was born on August 31, 1870 in Chiaravalle, Italy. Her father, Alessandro Montessori, 33 years old at the time, was an official of the Ministry of Finance working in the local, state-run tobacco factory. Her mother, Renilde Stoppani, 25 years old, was well educated for the times and was probably related to Italian geologist and paleontologist Antonio Stoppani. [1] [edit]18831896:

Education

[edit]Early education The Montessori family moved to Florence in 1873 and then to Rome in 1875 because of her father's work. Montessori entered a public elementary school at the age of 6 in 1876. Her early school record was not particularly noteworthy[2], although she was awarded certificates for good behavior in 1st grade and for "lavori donneschi", or women's work", the next year.[3] [edit]Secondary school In 1883 [4] or 1884,[5] at the age of 13, Montessori entered a secondary, technical school Regia Scuola Tecnica Michelangelo Buonarroti, where she studied Italian, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, accounting, history, geography, and sciences. She graduated in 1886 with good grades and examination results. That year, at the age of 16, she continued at the technical institute Regio Istituto Tecnico Leonardo Da Vinci, studying

Italian, mathematics, history, geography, geometric and ornate drawing, physics, chemistry, botany, zoology, and two foreign languages. She did well in the sciences and especially in mathematics. She initially intended to pursue the study of engineering upon graduation, an unusual aspiration for a woman in her time and place. However, by the time she graduated in 1890 at the age of 20, with a certificate in physics mathematics, she had decided to study medicine instead, an even more unlikely pursuit given cultural norms at the time.[6] [edit]University of RomeMedical school Montessori moved forward with her intention to study medicine. She appealed to Guido Baccelli, the professor of clinical medicine at the University of Rome but was strongly discouraged. Nonetheless, in 1890, she enrolled in the University of Rome in a degree course in natural sciences, passing examinations in botany, zoology, experimental physics, histology, anatomy, and general and organic chemistry, and earning her diploma di licenza in 1892. This degree, along with additional studies in Italian and Latin, qualified her for entrance into the medical program at the University in 1893. [7] She was met with hostility and harassment from some medical students and professors because of her gender. Because her attendance of classes with men in the presence of a naked body was deemed inappropriate, she was required to perform her dissections of cadavers alone, after hours. She resorted to smoking tobacco to mask the offensive odors. [8] Montessori won an academic prize in her first year, and in 1895 secured a position as a hospital assistant, gaining early clinical experience. In her last two years she studied pediatrics and psychiatry, and worked in the pediatric consulting room and emergency service, becoming an expert in pediatric medicine. Montessori graduated from the University of Rome in 1896 as a doctor of medicine. Her thesis was published in 1897 in the journal Policlinico. She found employment as an assistant at the University hospital and started a private practice. [9] [10]) [edit]18961901:

Early Career

From 1896 to 1901, Montessori worked with and researched so-called "phrenasthenic" childrenin modern terms, children experiencing some form of mental retardation, illness, or disability. She also began to travel, study, speak, and publish nationally and internationally, coming to prominence as an advocate for women's rights and education for mentally disabled children.[11] [edit]Work with mentally disabled children

After graduation from the University of Rome in 1896, Montessori continued with her research at the University's psychiatric clinic, and in 1897 Montessori was accepted as a voluntary assistant there. As part of her work there, she visited asylums in Rome where she observed children with mental disabilities, observations which were fundamental to her future educational work. She also read and studied the works of 19th century physicians and educators Jean Marc Gaspard Itard and Edouard Seguin, who greatly influenced her work. Also in 1897, Montessori audited the University courses in pedagogy and read all the major works on educational theory of the past two hundred years. [12] [edit]Public advocacy In 1897 Montessori spoke on societal responsibility for juvenile delinquency at the National Congress of Medicine in Turin. In 1898, she wrote several articles and spoke again at the First Pedagogical Conference of Turin, urging the creation of special classes and institutions for mentally disabled children, as well as teacher training for their instructors. [13] In 1899 Montessori was appointed a councilor to the newly-formed National League for the Protection of Retarded Children, and was invited to lecture on special methods of education for retarded children at the teacher training school of the College of Rome. That year Montessori undertook a two-week national lecture tour to capacity audiences before prominent public figures. [14] She joined the board of the National League and was appointed as a lecturer in hygiene and anthropology at one of the two teacher-training colleges for women in Italy. [15] [edit]Orthophrenic School In 1900 the National League opened the Scuola Magistrale Ortofenica, or Orthpophrenic School, a medico-pedagogical institute for training teachers in educating mentally disabled children with an attached laboratory classroom. Montessori was appointed co-director.[16] 64 teachers enrolled in the first class, studying psychology, anatomy and physiology of the nervous system, anthropological measurements, causes and characteristics of mental disability, and special methods of instruction. During her two years at the school, Montessori developed methods and materials which she would later adapt to use with typical children.[17] The school was an immediate success, attracting the attention of government officials from the departments of education and health, civic leaders, and prominent figures in the fields of education, psychiatry, and anthropology from the University of Rome.[18] The children in the model classroom were drawn from ordinary schools but

considered "uneducable" due to their deficiencies. Some of these children were later able to pass public examinations given to so-called "normal" children.[19] [edit]19011906:

Further studies

In 1901, Montessori left the Orthophrenic School and her private practice, and in 1902 she enrolled in the philosophy degree course at the University of Rome. (Philosophy at the time included much of what we now consider psychology.) She studied theoretical and moral philosophy, the history of philosophy, and psychology as such, but she did not graduate. She also pursued independent study in anthropology and educational philosophy, conducted observations and experimental research in elementary schools, and revisited the work of Itard and Seguin, translating their books into handwritten Italian. During this time she began to consider adapting her methods of educating mentally disabled children to mainstream education. [20] Montessori's work developing what she would later call scientific pedagogy continued over the next few years. Still in 1902, Montessori presented a report at a second national pedagogical congress in Naples. She published two articles on pedagogy in 1903, and two more the following year. In 1903 and 1904, she conducted anthropological research with Italian schoolchildren, and in 1904 she was qualified as a free lecturer in anthropology for the University of Rome. She was appointed to lecture in the Pedagogic School at the University and continued in the position until 1908. Her lectures were printed as a book titled Pedagogical Anthropology in 1910. [21] [edit]19061911:

Casa dei Bambini and the spread of Montessori's ideas

[edit]The first Casa In 1906 Montessori was invited to oversee the care and education of a group of children of working parents in a new apartment building for low-income families in the San Lorenzo district in Rome. Montessori was interested in applying her work and methods to mentally normal children, and she accepted. [22] The name Casa dei Bambini, or Children's House, was suggested to Montessori, and the first Casa opened on January 6, 1907, enrolling 50 or 60 children between the ages of two or three and six or seven. [23] At first, the classroom was equipped with a teacher's table and blackboard, a stove, small chairs, armchairs, and group tables for the children, and a locked cabinet for the materials that Montessori had developed at the Orthophrenic School. Activities for the

children included personal care such as dressing and undressing, care of the environment such as dusting and sweeping, and caring for the garden. The children were also shown the use of the materials Montessori had developed. [24] Montessori herself, occupied with teaching, research, and other professional activities, oversaw and observed the classroom work, but did not teach the children directly. Day-to-day teaching and care were provided, under Montessori's guidance, by the building porter's daughter. [25] In this first classroom, Montessori observed behaviors in these young children which formed the foundation of her educational method. She noted episodes of deep attention and concentration, multiple repetitions of activity, and a sensitivity to order in the environment. Given free choice of activity, the children showed more interest in practical activities and Montessori's materials than in toys provided for them, and were surprisingly unmotivated by sweets and other rewards. Over time, she saw a spontaneous self-discipline emerge. [26] Based on her observations, Montessori implemented a number of practices that became hallmarks of her educational philosophy and method. She replaced the heavy furniture with child-sized tables and chairs light enough for the children to move, and placed child-sized materials on low, accessible shelves. She expanded the range of practical activities such as sweeping and personal care to include a wide variety of exercises for care of the environment and the self, including flower arranging, hand washing, gymnastics, care of pets, and cooking. She continued to adapt and refine the materials she had developed earlier, altering or removing exercises which were chosen less frequently by the children. Also based on her observations, Montessori experimented with allowing children free choice of the materials, uninterrupted work, and freedom of movement and activity within the limits set by the environment. She began to see independence as the aim of education, and the role of the teacher as an observer and director of children's innate psychological development. [27] [edit]The spread of Montessori education in Italy The first Casa dei Bambini was a success, and a second was opened on April 7, 1907. The children in her programs continued to exhibit concentration, attention, and spontaneous self-discipline, and the classrooms began to attract the attention of prominent educators, journalists, and public figures. [28] In the fall of 1907, Montessori began to experiment with teaching materials for writing and readingletters cut from sandpaper and mounted on boards, moveable cutout letters, and picture cards with

labels. Four and five year old children engaged spontaneously with the materials and quickly gained a proficiency in writing and reading far beyond what was expected for their age. This attracted further public attention to Montessori's work. [29] Three more Case dei Bambini opened in 1908, and in 1909 Italian Switzerland began to replace Froebellian methods with Montessori in orphanages and kindergartens. [30] In 1909, Montessori held the first teacher training course in her new method in Citt de Castello, Italy. In the same year, she described her observations and methods in a book titled Il Metodo della Pedagogia Scientifica Applicato All'Educazione Infantile Nelle Casa Dei Bambine (The Method of Scientific Pedagogy Applied to the Education of Children in the Children's Houses). [31] Two more training courses were held in Rome in 1910, and a third in Milan in 1911. Montessori's reputation and work began to spread internationally as well, and around that time she gave up her medical practice to devote more time to her educational work, developing her methods and training teachers. [32] In 1919 she resigned from her position at the University of Rome, as her educational work was increasingly absorbing all her time and interest. [edit]19091915:

International recognition and growth of Montessori education

As early as 1909, Montessori's work began to attract the attention of international observers and visitors. Her work was widely published internationally, and spread rapidly. By the end of 1911, Montessori education had been officially adopted in public schools in Italy and Switzerland, and was planned for the United Kingdom. [33] By 1912, Montessori schools had opened in Paris and many other Western European cities, and were planned for Argentina, Australia, China, India, Japan, Korea, Mexico, Switzerland, Syria, the United States, and New Zealand. Public programs in London, Johannesburg, Rome, and Stockholm had adopted the method in their school systems. [34] Montessori societies were founded in the United States (the Montessori American Committee) and the United Kingdom (the Montessori Society for the United Kingdom). [35] In 1913 the first International Training Course was held in Rome, with a second in 1914.
[36]

Montessori's work was widely translated and published during this period. Il Metodo della Pedagogia Scientifica was published in the United States as The Montessori Method: Scientific Pedagogy as Applied to Child Education in the Children's Houses, where it became a best seller. [37] British and Swiss editions followed. A revised Italian edition was published in 1913. Russian and Polish editions came out in 1913 as well, and German, Japanese, and Romanian editions appeared in 1914, followed by Spanish

(1915), Dutch (1916), and Danish (1917) editions. Pedagogical Anthropology was published in English in 1913. [38] In 1914, Montessori published, in English, Doctor Montessori's Own Handbook, a practical guide to the didactic materials she had developed.[39] [edit]Montessori in the United States
Main article: Montessori in the United States

In 1911 and 1912, Montessori's work was popular and widely publicized in the United States, especially in a series of articles in McClure's Magazine, and the first North American Montessori school was opened in October 1911, in Tarrytown, New York. American inventor Alexander Graham Bell and his wife became proponents of the method and a second school was opened in their Canadian home. [40]. The Montessori Method sold quickly through six editions. [41] The first International Training Course in Rome in 1913 was sponsored by the American Montessori Committee, and 67 of the 83 students were from the United States. [42] By 1913 there were more than 100 Montessori schools in the country. [43] Montessori traveled to the United States in December 1913 on a three-week lecture tour which included films of her European classrooms, meeting with large, enthusiastic crowds wherever she traveled. [44] Montessori returned to the United States in 1915, sponsored by the National Education Association, to demonstrate her work at the PanamaPacific International Exposition in San Francisco, California, and to give a third international training course. A glasswalled classroom was put up at the Exposition, and thousands of observers came to see a class of 21 students. Montessori's father died in November of 1915, and she returned to Italy. [45] Although Montessori and her educational approach were highly popular in the United States, she was not without opposition and controversy. Influential progressive educator William Heard Kilpatrick, a follower of American philosopher and educational reformer John Dewey, wrote a dismissive and critical book titled The Montessori Method Examined, which had a broad impact. The National Kindergarten Association was critical as well. Critics charged that Montessori's method was outdated, overly rigid, overly reliant on sense-training, and left too little scope for imagination, social interaction, and play. [46] In addition, Montessori's insistence on tight control over the elaboration of her method, the training of teachers, the production and use of materials, and the establishment of schools became a source of conflict and controversy. After she

left in 1915, the Montessori movement in the United States fragmented, and Montessori education was a negligible factor in education in the United States until 1952. [47] [edit]19151939:

Further development of Montessori education

In 1915, Montessori returned to Europe and took up residence in Barcelona, Spain. Over the next 20 years Montessori traveled and lectured widely in Europe and gave numerous teacher training courses. Montessori education experienced significant growth in Spain, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and Italy. [edit]Spain (19151936) On her return from the United States, Montessori continued her work in Barcelona, where a small program sponsored by the Catalonian government begun in 1915 had developed into the Escola Montessori, serving children from three to ten years old, and the Laboratori i Seminari de Pedagogia, a research, training, and teaching institute. A fourth international course was given there in 1916, including materials and methods, developed over the previous five years, for teaching grammar, arithmetic, and geometry to elementary school children from six to twelve years of age. [48] In 1917 Montessori published her elementary work in L'autoeducazionne nelle Scuole Elementari (SelfEducation in Elementary School), which appeared in English as The Advanced Montessori Method. [49]Around 1920, the Catalonian independence movement began to demand that Montessori take a political stand and make a public statement favoring Catalonian independence, and she refused. Official support was withdrawn from her programs. [50] In 1924, a new military dictatorship closed Montessori's model school in Barcelona, and Montessori education declined in Spain, although Barcelona remained Montessori's home for the next twelve years. In 1933, under the Second Spanish Republic, a new training course was sponsored by the government, and government support was re-established. In 1934, she published two books in Spain, Psicogeometrica and Psicoarithemetica. [51] However, with the onset of the Spanish Civil War in 1936, political and social conditions drove Montessori to leave Spain permanently. [52] [edit]The Netherlands (19171936) In 1917, Montessori lectured in Amsterdam, and the Netherlands Montessori Society was founded. [53] She returned in 1920 to give a series of lectures at the University of Amsterdam.[54] Montessori programs flourished in the Netherlands, and by the mid1930s there were more than 200 Montessori schools in the country. [55] In 1935 the

headquarters of the Association Montessori Internationale, or AMI, moved permanently to Amsterdam. [56] [edit]The United Kingdom (19191936) Montessori education was met with enthusiasm and controversy in England between 1912 and 1914. [57] In 1919, Montessori came to England for the first time and gave an international training course which was received with high interest. Montessori education continued to spread in the United Kingdom, although the movement experienced some of the struggles over authenticity and fragmentation that took place in the United States. [58] Montessori continued to give training courses in England every other year until the beginning of World War II.[59] [edit]Italy (19221934) In 1922, Montessori was invited to Italy on behalf of the government to give a course of lectures and later to inspect Italian Montessori schools. Later that year Benito Mussolini's Fascist government came to power in Italy. In December, Montessori came back to Italy to plan a series of annual training courses under government sponsorship, and in 1923, the minister of education Giovanni Gentileexpressed his official support for Montessori schools and teacher training. [60] In 1924 Montessori met with Mussolini, who extended his official support for Montessori education as part of the national program. [61] A pre-war group of Montessori supporters, the Societa gli Amici del Metodo Montessori (Society of Friends of the Montessori Method) became the Opera Montessori (Montessori Society) with a government charter, and by 1926 Mussolini was made honorary president of the organization. [62] In 1927 Mussolini established a Montessori teacher training college, and by 1929 the Italian government supported a wide range of Montessori institutions. [63] However, from 1930 on, Montessori and the Italian government came into conflict over financial support and ideological issues, especially after Montessori's lectures on Peace and Education.[64] In 1932 she and her son Mario were placed under political surveillance. [65]. Finally, in 1933, she resigned from the Opera Montessori, and in 1934 she left Italy. The Italian government ended Montessori activities in the country in 1936. [66] [edit]Other countries Montessori lectured in Vienna in 1923, and her lectures were published as Il Bambino in Famiglia, published in English in 1936 as The Child in the Family. Between 1913 and 1936 Montessori schools and societies were also established in France, Germany,

Switzerland, Belgium, Russia, Serbia, Canada, India, China, Japan, Indonesia, Australia, and New Zealand. [67] [edit]The Association Montessori Internationale In 1929, the first International Montessori Congress was held in Elsinore, Denmark, in conjunction with the Fifth Conference of the New Education Fellowship. At this event, Montessori and her son Mario founded the Association Montessori Internationale or AMI to oversee the activities of schools and societies all over the world and to supervise the training of teachers. [68] AMI also controlled rights to the publication of Montessori's works and the production of authorized Montessori didactic materials. Early sponsors of the AMI included Sigmund Freud,Jean Piaget, and Rabindranath Tagore. [69] [edit]Peace In 1932, Montessori spoke on Peace and Education at the Second International Montessori Congress in Nice, France; this lecture was published by the Bureau International d'Education, Geneva, Switzerland. In 1932, Montessori spoke at the International Peace Club in Geneva, Switzerland, on the theme of Peace and Education. [70] Montessori held peace conferences from 1932 to 1939 in Geneva, Brussels, Copenhagen, and Utrecht, which were later published in Italian as Educazione e Pace, and in English as Education and Peace. [71] In 1949, and again in 1950 and in 1951, Montessori was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize, receiving a total of six nominations.[72][73] [edit]Laren, the Netherlands (19361939) In 1936 Montessori and her family left Barcelona for England, and soon moved to Laren, near Amsterdam. Montessori and her son Mario continued to develop new materials here, including the knobless cylinders, the grammar symbols, and botany nomenclature cards. [74] In the context of rising military tensions in Europe, Montessori increasingly turned her attention to the theme of peace. In 1937, the 6th International Montessori Congress was held on the theme of "Education for Peace", and Montessori called for a "science of peace" and spoke about the role of education of the child as a key to the reform of society. [75] In 1938, Montessori was invited to India by the Theosophical Society to give a training course, and in 1939 she left the Netherlands with her son and collaborator Mario.[76]

[edit]19391946:

Montessori in India

An interest in Montessori had existed in India since 1913, when an Indian student attended the first international course in Rome, and students throughout the 1920s and 1930s had come back to India to start schools and promote Montessori education. The Montessori Society of India was formed in 1926, and Il Metodo was translated into Gujarati and Hindi in 1927. [77] By 1929, Indian poetRabindranath Tagore had founded many "Tagore-Montessori" schools in India, and Indian interest in Montessori education was strongly represented at the International Congress in 1929. [78]Montessori herself had had a personal association with the Theosophical Society since 1907. The Theosophical movement, motivated to educate India's poor, was drawn to Montessori education as one solution. [79] [edit]Internment in India Montessori gave a training course at the Theosophical Society in Madras in 1939, and had intended to give a tour of lectures at various universities, and then return to Europe. [80] However, when Italy entered World War II on the side of the Germans in 1940, Britain interned all Italians in the United Kingdom and its colonies as enemy aliens. In fact only Mario Montessori was interned, while Montessori herself was confined to the Theosophical Society compound, and Mario was reunited with his mother after two months. The Montessoris remained in India in Madras and Kodaikanal until 1946, although they were allowed to travel in connection with lectures and courses. [edit]Elementary material, Cosmic Education, and Birth to Three During her years in India, Montessori and her son Mario continued to develop her educational method. The term "cosmic education" was introduced to describe an approach for children aged from six to twelve years that emphasized the interdependence of all the elements of the natural world. Children worked directly with plants and animals in their natural environments, and the Montessoris developed lessons, illustrations, charts, and models for use with elementary aged children. Material for botany, zoology, and geography was created. Between 1942 and 1944 these elements were incorporated into an advanced course for work with children from six to twelve years old. This work led to two books: Education for a New World and To Educate the Human Potential. [81] While in India, Montessori observed children and adolescents of all ages, and turned to the study of infancy. In 1944 she gave a series of thirty lectures on the first three years

of life, and a government recognized training course in Sri Lanka. These lectures were collected in 1949 in the book What You Should Know About Your Child.[82] In 1944 the Montessoris were granted some freedom of movement and traveled to Sri Lanka. In 1945 Montessori attended the first All India Montessori Conference in Jaipur, and in 1946, with the war over, she and her family returned to Europe. [83] [edit]19461952:

The Last Years

In 1946, at the age of 76, Montessori returned to Amsterdam, but she spent the next six years travelling in Europe and India. She gave a training course in London in 1946, and in 1947 opened a training institute there, the Montessori Centre. After a few years this centre became independent of Montessori and continued as the St. Nicholas Training Centre. Also in 1947, she returned to Italy to re-establish the Opera Montessori and gave two more training courses. Later that year she returned to India and gave courses in Adyar and Ahmedabad. These courses led to the book The Absorbent Mind, in which Montessori described the development of the child from birth onwards and presented the concept of the Four Planes of Development. In 1948 Il Metodo was revised again and published in English as The Discovery of the Child. In 1949 she gave a course in Pakistan and the Montessori Pakistan Association was founded. [84] In 1949 Montessori returned to Europe and attended the 8th International Montessori Congress in Sanremo, Italy, where a model classroom was demonstrated. The same year, the first training course for birth to three years of age, called the Scuola Assistienti all'infanzia (Montessori School for Assistants to Infancy) was established. [85] She was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize. Montessori was also awarded the French Legion of Honor, Officer of the Dutch Order of Orange Nassau, and was the recipient of an Honorary Doctorate of the University of Amsterdam. In 1950 she visited Scandinavia, represented Italy at the UNESCO conference in Florence, presented at the 29th international training course in Perugia, gave a national course in Rome, published a fifth edition of Il Metodo with the new title La Scoperta del Bambino (The Discovery of the Child), and was again nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize. In 1951 she participated in the 9th International Montessori Congress in London, gave a training course in Innsbruck, was nominated for the third time for the Nobel Peace Prize. Montessori died of a cerebral hemorrhage in Noordwijk aan Zee, the Netherlands, at the age of 81. [86] [edit]Educational

Philosophy and Pedagogy

Main article: Montessori Education

[edit]Early

influences

Montessori's theory and philosophy of education were initially heavily influenced by the work of Jean Marc Gaspard Itard, douard Sguin, Friedrich Frbel, and Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, all of whom emphasized sensory exploration and manipulatives. [87][88] Montessori's first work with mentally disabled children, at the Orthophrenic School in 19001901, used the methods of Itard and Seguin, training children in physical activities such as walking and the use of a spoon, training their senses by exposure to sights, smells, and tactile experiences, and introducing letters in tactile form. [89]These activities developed into the Montessori Sensorial materials. [90] [edit]Scientific

pedagogy

Montessori considered her work in the Orthophrenic School and her subsequent psychological studies and research work in elementary schools as scientific pedagogy, a concept current in the study of education at the time. She called for not just observation and measurement of students, but for the development of new methods which would transform them. Scientific education, therefore, was that which, while based on science, modified and improved the individual. [91] Further, education itself should be transformed by science: The new methods if they were run on scientific lines, ought to change completely both the school and its methods, ought to give rise to a new form of education. [92] [edit]Casa

dei Bambini

Working with non-disabled children in the Casa dei Bambini in 1907, Montessori began to develop her own pedagogy. The essential elements of her educational theory emerged from this work, described in The Montessori Method in 1912 and in The Discovery of the Child in 1948. Her method was founded on the observation of children at liberty to act freely in an environment prepared to meet their needs.
[93]

Montessori

came to the conclusion that the children's spontaneous activity in this environment revealed an internal program of development, and that the appropriate role of the educator was to remove obstacles to this natural development and provide opportunities for it to proceed and flourish. [94] Accordingly, the schoolroom was equipped with child-sized furnishings, "practical life" activities such as sweeping and washing tables, and teaching material that Montessori had developed herself. Children were given freedom to choose and carry out their own

activities, at their own paces and following their own inclinations. In these conditions, Montessori made a number of observations which became the foundation of her work. First, she observed great concentration in the children and spontaneous repetition of chosen activities. She also observed a strong tendency in the children to order their own environment, straightening tables and shelves and ordering materials. As children chose some activities over others, Montessori refined the materials she offered to them. Over time, the children began to exhibit what she called "spontaneous discipline". [95] [edit]Further

development

Montessori continued to develop her pedagogy and her model of human development as she expanded her work and extended it to older children. She saw human behavior as guided by universal, innate characteristics in human psychology which her son and collaborator Mario Montessori identified as "human tendencies" in 1957. In addition, she observed four distinct periods, or "planes", in human development, extending from birth to six years, from six to twelve, from twelve to eighteen, and from eighteen to twentyfour. She saw different characteristics, learning modes, and developmental imperatives active in each of these planes, and called for educational approaches specific to each period. Over the course of her lifetime, Montessori developed pedagogical methods and materials for the first two planes, from birth to age twelve, and wrote and lectured about the third and fourth planes. [edit]Works Montessori published a number of books, articles, and pamphlets during her lifetime, often in Italian, but sometimes first in English. According to Kramer, the major works published before 1920 (The Montessori Method, Pedagogical Anthropology, The Advanced Montessori MethodSpontaneous Activity in Education and The Montessori Elementary Material), were written in Italian by her and translated under her supervision. [96] However, many of her later works were transcribed from her lectures, often in translation, and only later published in book form. Montessori's major works are given here in order of their first publication, with significant revisions and translations.

(1909) Il Metodo della Pedagogia Scientifica applicato all'educazione infantile nelle Case dei Bambini

revised in 1913, 1926, and 1935; revised and reissued in 1950 as La scoperta del bambino

(1912) English edition: The Montessori Method: Scientific Pedagogy as Applied to Child Education in the Children's Houses (1948) Revised and expanded English edition issued as The Discovery of the Child (1950) Revised and reissued in Italian as La scoperta del bambino

(1910) Antropologia Pedagogica

(1913) English edition: Pedagocial Anthropology

(1914) Dr. Montessori's Own Handbook

(1921) Italian edition: Manuale di pedagogia scientifica

(1916) L'autoeducazione nelle scuole elementari

(1917) English edition: The Advanced Montessori Method, Vol. I: Spontaneous Activity in Education; Vol. II: The Montessori Elementary Material.

(1922) I bambini viventi nella Chiesa (1923) Das Kind in der Familie (German)

(1929) English edition: The Child in the Family (1936) Italian edition: Il bambino in famiglia

(1934) Psico Geomtria (Spanish)

(2011) English edition: Psychogeometry

(1934) Psico Aritmtica

(1971) Italian edition: Psicoaritmetica

(1936) L'Enfant(French)

(1936) English edition: The Secret of Childhood (1938) Il segreto dell'infanzia

(1948) De l'enfant l'adolescent

(1948) English edition: From Childhood to Adolescence (1949) Dall'infanzia all'adolescenza

(1949) Educazione e pace

(1949) English edition: Peace and Education

(1949) Formazione dell'uomo

(1949) English edition: The Formation of Man

(1949) The Absorbent Mind

(1952) La mente del bambino. Mente assorbente

(1947) Education for a New World

(1970) Italian edition: Educazione per un mondo nuovo

(1947) To Educate the Human Potential

(1970) Italian edition: Come educare il potenziale umano

(October 20, 1859 June 1, 1952) was an American philosopher, psychologist and educational reformer whose ideas have been influential in education and social reform. Dewey was an important early developer of the philosophy of pragmatism and one of the founders of functional psychology. He was a major representative of progressive education and liberalism[2][3] Although Dewey is known best for his publications concerning education, he also wrote about many other topics, including experience, nature, art, logic, inquiry, democracy, and ethics. In his advocacy of democracy, Dewey considered two fundamental elementsschools and civil societyas being major topics needing attention and reconstruction to encourage experimental intelligence and plurality. Dewey asserted that complete democracy was to be obtained not just by extending voting rights but also by ensuring that there exists a fully formed public opinion, accomplished by effective communication among citizens, experts, and politicians, with the latter being accountable for the policies they adopt.[citation needed]
Contents
[hide]

1 Life and works 2 Functional psychology 3 Pragmatism and instrumentalism

o

3.1 Epistemology

4 Logic and method

o

4.1 Aesthetics

5 On democracy 6 On education 7 On journalism 8 On humanism 9 Social and political activism 10 Other interests 11 Criticism

12 Academic awards 13 Honors 14 Publications 15 Works about Dewey 16 See also 17 References 18 External links

[edit]Life

and works

Dewey was born in Burlington, Vermont, to a family of modest means.[4] Like his older brother, Davis Rich Dewey, he attended the University of Vermont, from which he graduated (Phi Beta Kappa)[5] in 1879. A significant professor of Dewey's at the University of Vermont was Henry A. P. Torrey, the son-in-law and nephew of former University of Vermont president Joseph Torrey. Dewey studied privately with Torrey between his graduation from Vermont and his enrollment at Johns Hopkins University.[6][7] After two years as a high-school teacher in Oil City, Pennsylvania and one teaching elementary school in the small town of Charlotte Vermont, Dewey decided that he was unsuited for employment in primary or secondary education. After studying with George Sylvester Morris, Charles Sanders Peirce, Herbert Baxter Adams, and G. Stanley Hall, Dewey received his Ph.D. from the School of Arts & Sciences at Johns Hopkins University. In 1884, he accepted a faculty position at the University of Michigan (1884 88 and 188994) with the help of George Sylvester Morris. His unpublished and now lost dissertation was titled "The Psychology of Kant." In 1894 Dewey joined the newly founded University of Chicago (18941904) where he developed his belief in an empirically based theory of knowledge, becoming associated with the newly emerging Pragmatic philosophy. His time at the University of Chicago resulted in four essays collectively entitled Thought and its Subject-Matter, which was published with collected works from his colleagues at Chicago under the collective title Studies in Logical Theory (1903). During that time Dewey also initiated the University of Chicago Laboratory Schools, where he was able to actualize the pedagogical beliefs that provided material for his first major work on education, The School and Social Progress (1899). Disagreements with the administration ultimately caused his resignation from the University, and soon thereafter he relocated near the

East Coast. In 1899, Dewey was elected president of the American Psychological Association. From 1904 until his retirement in 1930 he was professor of philosophy at both Columbia University and Columbia University's Teachers College.[8] In 1905 he became president of the American Philosophical Association. He was a longtime member of the American Federation of Teachers. Along with the historian Charles A. Beard, economists Thorstein Veblen and James Harvey Robinson, Dewey is one of the founders of The New School. Dewey's most significant writings were "The Reflex Arc Concept in Psychology" (1896), a critique of a standard psychological concept and the basis of all his further work; Democracy and Education (1916), his celebrated work on progressive education; Human Nature and Conduct (1922), a study of the function of habit in human behavior; The Public and its Problems (1927), a defense of democracy written in response to Walter Lippmann's The Phantom Public (1925); Experience and Nature (1925), Dewey's most "metaphysical" statement; Art as Experience (1934), Dewey's major work on aesthetics; A Common Faith(1934), a humanistic study of religion originally delivered as the Dwight H. Terry Lectureship at Yale; Logic: The Theory of Inquiry (1938), a statement of Dewey's unusual conception of logic; Freedom and Culture (1939), a political work examining the roots of fascism; and Knowing and the Known (1949), a book written in conjunction with Arthur F. Bentley that systematically outlines the concept of trans-action, which is central to his other works. While each of these works focuses on one particular philosophical theme, Dewey included his major themes in most of what he published. He published more than 700 articles in 140 journals, and approximately 40 books. Reflecting his immense influence on 20th-century thought, Hilda Neatby, in 1953, wrote "Dewey has been to our age what Aristotle was to the later middle ages, not a philosopher, but thephilosopher."[9] Dewey was first married to Alice Chipman. They had six children.[10] His second wife was Roberta Lowitz Grant.[11] The United States Postal Service honored Dewey with a Prominent Americans series 30 postage stamp. [edit]Functional

psychology

See also: History of psychology At University of Michigan, Dewey published his first two books, Psychology (1887), and Leibniz's New Essays Concerning the Human Understanding (1888), both of which

expressed Dewey's early commitment to British neo-Hegelianism. In Psychology, Dewey attempted a synthesis between idealism and experimental science.[12] While still professor of philosophy at Michigan, Dewey and his junior colleagues, James Hayden Tufts and George Herbert Mead, together with his student James Rowland Angell, all influenced strongly by the recent publication of William James' Principles of Psychology (1890), began to reformulate psychology, emphasizing the social environment on the activity of mind and behaviour rather than the physiological psychology of Wundt and his followers. By 1894, Dewey had joined Tufts, with whom he would later write Ethics (1908), at the recently founded University of Chicago and invited Mead and Angell to follow him, the four men forming the basis of the so-called "Chicago group" of psychology. Their new style of psychology, later dubbed functional psychology, had a practical emphasis on action and application. In Dewey's article "The Reflex Arc Concept in Psychology" which appeared inPsychological Review in 1896, he reasons against the traditional stimulus-response understanding of the reflex arc in favor of a "circular" account in which what serves as "stimulus" and what as "response" depends on how one considers the situation, and defends the unitary nature of the sensory motor circuit. While he does not deny the existence of stimulus, sensation, and response, he disagreed that they were separate, juxtaposed events happening like links in a chain. He developed the idea that there is a coordination by which the stimulation is enriched by the results of previous experiences. The response is modulated by sensorial experience. Dewey was elected president of the American Psychological Association in 1899.

John Dewey's USA Stamp

In 1984, the American Psychological Association announced that Lillian Moller Gilbreth (18781972) had become the first psychologist to be commemorated on a United States postage stamp. However, psychologists Gary Brucato Jr. and John D. Hogan later made the case that this distinction actually belonged to John Dewey, who had been celebrated on an American stamp 17 years earlier. While some psychology historians consider Dewey more of a philosopher than a bona fide psychologist, [13] the authors noted that Dewey was a founding member of the A.P.A., served as the A.P.A.'s eighth President in 1899, and was the author of an 1896 article on the reflex arc which is now considered a basis of American functional psychology.[14] Dewey also expressed interest in work in the psychology of visual perception performed by Dartmouth research professor Adelbert Ames, Jr. He had great trouble with listening, however, because it is known Dewey could not distinguish musical pitches - in other words was tone deaf.[15] [edit]Pragmatism

and instrumentalism

Although Dewey referred to his philosophy as "instrumentalism" rather than pragmatism, he was one of the three major figures in American pragmatism, along with Charles Sanders Peirce, who invented the term, and William James, who popularized it. Dewey worked from strongly Hegelianinfluences, unlike James, whose intellectual lineage was primarily British, drawing particularly on empiricist and utilitarian ideas.[16] Neither was Dewey so pluralist or relativist as James. He stated that value was a function not of whim nor purely of social construction, but a quality situated in events ("nature itself is wistful and pathetic, turbulent and passionate" (Experience and Nature). James also stated that experimentation (social, cultural, technological, philosophical) could be used as an approximate arbiter of truth. For example he felt that, for many people who lacked "over-belief" of religious concepts, human life was superficial and rather uninteresting, and that while no one religious belief could be demonstrated as the correct one, we are all responsible for making a gamble on one or another theism, atheism, monism, etc. Dewey, in contrast, while honoring the important function that religious institutions and practices played in human life, rejected belief in any static ideal, such as a personal god. Dewey felt that only scientific method could reliably increase human good.

Of the idea of god, Dewey said, "it denotes the unity of all ideal ends arousing us to desire and actions."[17] As with the reemergence of progressive philosophy of education, Dewey's contributions to philosophy as such (he was, after all, much more a professional philosopher than an educator) have also reemerged with the reassessment of pragmatism, beginning in the late 1970s, by philosophers like Richard Rorty, Richard J. Bernstein and Hans Joas. Because of his process-oriented and sociologically conscious opinion of the world and knowledge, his theory is considered sometimes as a useful alternative to both modern and postmodern theory. Dewey's non-foundational method pre-dates postmodernism by more than half a century. Recent exponents (like Rorty) have not always remained faithful to Dewey's original ideas, though this itself is completely consistent with Dewey's own usage of other writers and with his own philosophy for Dewey, past doctrines always require reconstruction in order to remain useful for the present time. Dewey's philosophy has had other names than "pragmatism". He has been called an instrumentalist, an experimentalist, an empiricist, a functionalist, and a naturalist. The term "transactional" may better describe his views, a term emphasized by Dewey in his later years to describe his theories of knowledge and experience. [edit]Epistemology Main article: Knowing and the Known The terminology problem in the fields of epistemology and logic is partially due, according to Dewey and Bentley,[18] to inefficient and imprecise use of words and concepts that reflect three historic levels of organization and presentation.[19] In the order of chronological appearance, these are:

Self-Action: Prescientific concepts regarded humans, animals, and things as possessing powers of their own which initiated or caused their actions. Interaction: as described by Newton, where things, living and inorganic, are balanced against something in a system of interaction, for example, the third law of motion states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

Transaction: where modern systems of descriptions and naming are employed to deal with multiple aspects and phases of action without any attribution to ultimate, final, or independent entities, essences, or realities.

A series of characterizations of Transactions indicate the wide range of considerations involved.[20] [edit]Logic

and method

Dewey sees paradox in contemporary logical theory. Proximate subject matter garners general agreement and advance, while the ultimate subject matter of logic generates unremitting controversy. In other words, he challenges confident logicians to answer the question of the truth of logical operators. Do they function merely as abstractions (e.g., pure mathematics) or do they connect in some essential way with their objects, and therefore alter or bring them to light?[21] Logical positivism also figured in Dewey's thought. About the movement he wrote that it "eschews the use of 'propositions' and 'terms', substituting 'sentences' and 'words'." ("General Theory of Propositions", in Logic: The Theory of Inquiry) He welcomes this changing of referents "in as far as it fixes attention upon the symbolic structure and content of propositions." However, he registers a small complaint against the use of "sentence" and "words" in that without careful interpretation the act or process of transposition "narrows unduly the scope of symbols and language, since it is not customary to treat gestures and diagrams (maps, blueprints, etc.) as words or sentences." In other words, sentences and words, considered in isolation, do not disclose intent, which may be inferred or "adjudged only by means of context." [21] Yet Dewey was not entirely opposed to modern logical trends. Concerning traditional logic, he states: "Aristotelian logic, which still passes current nominally, is a logic based upon the idea that qualitative objects are existential in the fullest sense. To retain logical principles based on this conception along with the acceptance of theories of existence and knowledge based on an opposite conception is not, to say the least, conductive to clearness a consideration that has a good deal to do with existing dualism between traditional and the newer relational logics. (Qualitative Thought 1930) Louis Menand argues in The Metaphysical Club that Jane Addams had been critical of Dewey's emphasis on antagonism in the context of a discussion of the Pullman strike of 1894. In a later letter to his wife, Dewey confessed that Addams' argument was "the most magnificent exhibition of intellectual & moral faith I ever saw. She converted me internally, but not really, I fear.... When you think that Miss Addams does not think

this as a philosophy, but believes it in all her senses & muscles-- Great God... I guess I'll have to give it [all] up & start over again." He went on to add, "I can see that I have always been interpreting dialectic wrong end up, the unity as the reconciliation of opposites, instead of the opposites as the unity in its growth, and thus translated the physical tension into a moral thing... I don't know as I give the reality of this at all,... it seems so natural & commonplace now, but I never had anything take hold of me so."[22] In a letter to Addams herself, Dewey wrote, clearly influenced by his conversation with her: "Not only is actual antagonizing bad, but the assumption that there is or may be antagonism is bad-- in fact, the real first antagonism always comes back to the assumption." [edit]Aesthetics Main article: Art as Experience Art as Experience (1934) is Dewey's major writing on aesthetics. It is, according to his place in the Pragmatist tradition that emphasizes community, a study of the individual art object as embedded in (and inextricable from) the experiences of a local culture. Dewey attempted to justify the idiosyncratic collection of modern art that was assembled by the wealthy Albert C. Barnes at the Barnes Foundation. See his Experience and Nature for an extended discussion of 'Experience' in Dewey's philosophy. [edit]On

democracy

The overriding theme of Dewey's works was his profound belief in democracy, be it in politics, education or communication and journalism. As Dewey himself stated in 1888, while still at the University of Michigan, "Democracy and the one, ultimate, ethical ideal of humanity are to my mind synonymous."[23] With respect to technological developments in a democracy: "Persons do not become a society by living in physical proximity any more than a man ceases to be socially influenced by being so many feet or miles removed from others" John Dewey from Andrew Feenberg's "Community in the Digital Age" His work on democracy influenced one of his students, Dr Ambedkar, who later went on to become one of the founding fathers of independent India.[24]

[edit]On

education

Main article: Democracy and Education Dewey's educational theories were presented in My Pedagogic Creed (1897), The School and Society (1900), The Child and the Curriculum (1902), Democracy and Education (1916) and Experience and Education (1938). Throughout these writings, several recurrent themes ring true; Dewey continually argues that education and learning are social and interactive processes, and thus the school itself is a social institution through which social reform can and should take place. In addition, he believed that students thrive in an environment where they are allowed to experience and interact with the curriculum, and all students should have the opportunity to take part in their own learning. The ideas of democracy and social reform are continually discussed in Deweys writings on education. Dewey makes a strong case for the importance of education not only as a place to gain content knowledge, but also as a place to learn how to live. In his eyes, the purpose of education should not revolve around the acquisition of a pre-determined set of skills, but rather the realization of ones full potential and the ability to use those skills for the greater good. He notes that "to prepare him for the future life means to give him command of himself; it means so to train him that he will have the full and ready use of all his capacities" (1897, p. 6).[25] In addition to helping students realize their full potential, Dewey goes on to acknowledge that education and schooling are instrumental in creating social change and reform. He notes that "education is a regulation of the process of coming to share in the social consciousness; and that the adjustment of individual activity on the basis of this social consciousness is the only sure method of social reconstruction" (1897, p. 16). In addition to his ideas regarding what education is and what effect it should have on society, Dewey also had specific notions regarding how education should take place within the classroom. In The Child and the Curriculum (1902), Dewey discusses two major conflicting schools of thought regarding educational pedagogy. The first is centered on the curriculum and focuses almost solely on the subject matter to be taught. Dewey argues that the major flaw in this methodology is the inactivity of the student; within this particular framework, "the child is simply the immature being who is to be matured; he is the superficial being who is to be deepened" (1902, p. 13).[26] He argues that in order for education to be most effective, content must be presented in a

way that allows the student to relate the information to prior experiences, thus deepening the connection with this new knowledge. At the same time, Dewey was alarmed by many of the "child-centered" excesses of educational-school pedagogues who claimed to be his followers, and he argued that too much reliance on the child could be equally detrimental to the learning process. In this second school of thought, "we must take our stand with the child and our departure from him. It is he and not the subject-matter which determines both quality and quantity of learning" (Dewey, 1902, p. 13-14). According to Dewey, the potential flaw in this line of thinking is that it minimizes the importance of the content as well as the role of the teacher. In order to rectify this dilemma, Dewey advocated for an educational structure that strikes a balance between delivering knowledge while also taking into account the interests and experiences of the student. He notes that "the child and the curriculum are simply two limits which define a single process. Just as two points define a straight line, so the present standpoint of the child and the facts and truths of studies define instruction" (Dewey, 1902, p. 16). It is through this reasoning that Dewey became one of the most famous proponents of hands-on learning or experiential education, which is related to, but not synonymous with experiential learning. He argued that "if knowledge comes from the impressions made upon us by natural objects, it is impossible to procure knowledge without the use of objects which impress the mind" (Dewey, 1916/2009, p. 217-218).[27] Deweys ideas went on to influence many other influential experiential models and advocates. Many researchers even credit him with the influence of Project Based Learning (PBL) which places students in the active role of researchers. Dewey not only re-imagined the way that the learning process should take place, but also the role that the teacher should play within that process. According to Dewey, the teacher should not be one to stand at the front of the room doling out bits of information to be absorbed by passive students. Instead, the teachers role should be that of facilitator and guide. As Dewey (1897) explains it: The teacher is not in the school to impose certain ideas or to form certain habits in the child, but is there as a member of the community to select the influences which shall affect the child and to assist him in properly responding to these influences (p. 9).

Thus the teacher becomes a partner in the learning process, guiding students to independently discover meaning within the subject area. This philosophy has become an increasingly popular idea within present-day teacher preparatory programs. As well as his very active and direct involvement in setting up educational institutions such as the University of Chicago Laboratory Schools (1896) and The New School for Social Research (1919), many of Dewey's ideas influenced the founding of Bennington College and Goddard College in Vermont, where he served on the Board of Trustees. Dewey's works and philosophy also held great influence in the creation of the shortlived Black Mountain College in North Carolina, an experimental college focused on interdisciplinary study, and whose faculty included Buckminster Fuller, Willem de Kooning, Charles Olson, Franz Kline, Robert Duncan, and Robert Creeley, among others. Black Mountain College was the locus of the "Black Mountain Poets" a group of avant-garde poets closely linked with the Beat Generation and the San Francisco Renaissance. [edit]On

journalism

Main article: The Public and its Problems Since the mid-1980s, Deweyan ideas have experienced revival as a major source of inspiration for the public journalism movement. Dewey's definition of "public," as described in The Public and its Problems, has profound implications for the significance of journalism in society. As suggested by the title of the book, his concern was of the transactional relationship between publics and problems. Also implicit in its name, public journalism seeks to orient communication away from elite, corporate hegemony toward a civic public sphere. "The 'public' of public journalists is Dewey's public." Dewey gives a concrete definition to the formation of a public. Publics are spontaneous groups of citizens who share the indirect effects of a particular action. Anyone affected by the indirect consequences of a specific action will automatically share a common interest in controlling those consequences, i.e., solving a common problem. [28] Since every action generates unintended consequences, publics continuously emerge, overlap, and disintegrate. In The Public and its Problems, Dewey presents a rebuttal to Walter Lippmanns treatise on the role of journalism in democracy. Lippmanns model was a basic transmission model in which journalists took information given to them by experts and elites, repackaged that information in simple terms, and transmitted the information to the

public, whose role was to react emotionally to the news. In his model, Lippmann supposed that the public was incapable of thought or action, and that all thought and action should be left to the experts and elites. Dewey refutes this model by assuming that politics is the work and duty of each individual in the course of his daily routine. The knowledge needed to be involved in politics, in this model, was to be generated by the interaction of citizens, elites, experts, through the mediation and facilitation of journalism. In this model, not just the government is accountable, but the citizens, experts, and other actors as well. Dewey also said that journalism should conform to this ideal by changing its emphasis from actions or happenings (choosing a winner of a given situation) to alternatives, choices, consequences, and conditions, in order to foster conversation and improve the generation of knowledge. Journalism would not just produce a static product that told what had already happened, but the news would be in a constant state of evolution as the public added value by generating knowledge. The "audience" would end, to be replaced by citizens and collaborators who would essentially be users, doing more with the news than simply reading it. Concerning his effort to change journalism, he wrote in The Public and its Problems: "Till the Great Society is converted in to a Great Community, the Public will remain in eclipse. Communication can alone create a great community" (Dewey, p. 142). Dewey believed that communication creates a great community, and citizens who participate actively with public life contribute to that community. "The clear consciousness of a communal life, in all its implications, constitutes the idea of democracy." (The Public and its Problems, p. 149). This Great Community can only occur with "free and full intercommunication." (p. 211) Communication can be understood as journalism. [edit]On

humanism

Dewey participated with a variety of humanist activities from the 1930s into the 1950s, which included sitting on the advisory board of Charles Francis Potter's First Humanist Society of New York(1929); being one of the original 34 signatories of the first Humanist Manifesto (1933) and being elected an honorary member of the Humanist Press Association (1936).[29] His opinion of humanism is best summarised in his own words from an article titled "What Humanism Means to Me", published in the June 1930 edition of Thinker 2:

"What Humanism means to me is an expansion, not a contraction, of human life, an expansion in which nature and the science of nature are made the willing servants of human good." John Dewey, "What Humanism Means to Me"[30] [edit]Social

and political activism

As a major advocate for academic freedom, in 1935 Dewey, together with Albert Einstein and Alvin Johnson, became a member of the United States section of the International League for Academic Freedom,[31] and in 1940, together with Horace M Kallen, edited a series of articles related to the infamous Bertrand Russell Case. As well as being active in defending the independence of teachers, and opposing a communist takeover of the New York Teachers' Union,[citation needed] Dewey was involved in the organization that eventually became the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). He directed the famous Dewey Commission held in Mexico in 1937, which cleared Leon Trotsky of the charges made against him by Joseph Stalin,[32] and marched for women's rights, among many other causes. In 1950, Dewey, Bertrand Russell, Benedetto Croce, Karl Jaspers, and Jacques Maritain agreed to act as honorary chairmen of the Congress for Cultural Freedom.[33] [edit]Other

interests

Dewey's interests and writings included many topics, and according to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, "a substantial part of his published output consisted of commentary on current domestic and international politics, and public statements on behalf of many causes. (He is probably the only philosopher in this encyclopedia to have published both on the Treaty of Versailles and on the value of displaying art in post offices.)"[34] In 1917, Dewey met F. M. Alexander in New York City and later wrote introductions to Alexander's Man's Supreme Inheritance (1918), Constructive Conscious Control of the Individual (1923) and The Use of the Self (1932). Alexander's influence is referenced in "Human Nature and Conduct" and "Experience and Nature."[35] As well as his contacts with people mentioned elsewhere in the article, he also maintained correspondence with Henri Bergson, William M. Brown, Martin Buber, George S. Counts, William Rainey Harper, Sidney Hook, and George Santayana.

[edit]Criticism Dewey is considered the epitome of liberalism by many historians,[36][37] and sometimes was portrayed as "dangerously radical."[38] Meanwhile, Dewey was critiqued strongly by American communists because he argued against Stalinism and had philosophical differences with Marx, despite identifying himself as a democratic socialist.[39] Historians have examined his religious beliefs. Biographer Steven C. Rockefeller, traced Dewey's democratic convictions to his childhood attendance at the Congregational Church, with its strong proclamation of social ideals and the Social Gospel.[40] However, historian Edward A. White suggested in Science and Religion in American Thought (1952) that Dewey's work had led to the 20th century rift between religion and science. [edit]Academic

awards

Copernican Citation (1943) Doctor "honoris causa" University of Oslo (1946) Doctor "honoris causa" University of Pennsylvania (1946) Doctor "honoris causa" Yale University (1951) Doctor "honoris causa" University of Rome (1951)

[edit]Honors

John Dewey High School in Brooklyn, New York is named after him.

[edit]Publications Besides publishing prolifically himself, Dewey also sat on the boards of scientific publications such as Sociometry (advisory board, 1942) and Journal of Social Psychology (editorial board, 1942), as well as having posts at other publications such as New Leader (contributing editor, 1949). The following publications by John Dewey are referenced or mentioned in this article. A more complete list of his publications may be found at List of publications by John Dewey.

"The New Psychology" Andover Review, 2, 278-289 (1884) Psychology (1887) Leibniz's New Essays Concerning the Human Understanding (1888)

"The Ego as Cause" Philosophical Review, 3,337-341. (1894) "The Reflex Arc Concept in Psychology" (1896) "My Pedagogic Creed" (1897) The School and Society (1900) The Child and the Curriculum (1902) "The Postulate of Immediate Empiricism" (1905) Moral Principles in Education (1909) The Riverside Press Cambridge Project Gutenberg How We Think (1910) German Philosophy and Politics (1915) Democracy and Education: an introduction to the philosophy of education (1916) Reconstruction in Philosophy (1919) Human Nature and Conduct: An Introduction to Social Psychology Experience and Nature (1925) The Public and its Problems (1927) The Quest for Certainty (1929) The Sources of a Science of Education (1929) The Kappa Delta Pi Lecture Series Individualism Old and New (1930) Philosophy and Civilization (1931) Ethics, second edition (with James Hayden Tufts) (1932) Art as Experience (1934) A Common Faith (1934) Liberalism and Social Action (1935) Experience and Education (1938) Logic: The Theory of Inquiry (1938) Freedom and Culture (1939) Theory of Valuation (1939). ISBN 0-226-57594-2 Knowing and the Known (1949)

See also

The Essential Dewey: Volumes 1 and 2. Edited by Larry Hickman and Thomas Alexander (1998). Indiana University Press The Philosophy of John Dewey Edited by John J. McDermott (1981). University of Chicago Press

Dewey's Complete Writings is available in 3 multi-volume sets (37 volumes in all) from Southern Illinois University Press:

The Early Works: 1892-1898 (5 volumes) The Middle Works: 1899-1924 (15 volumes) The Later Works: 1925-1953 (17 volumes) Posthumous Works: 1956-2009

The Correspondence of John Dewey is available in 4 volumes via online subscription and also in TEI format for university servers. (The CD-ROM has been discontinued). [edit]Works

about Dewey

Alexander, Thomas. John Dewey's Theory of Art, Experience, and Nature (1987) [41] SUNY Press Boisvert, Raymond. John Dewey: Rethinking Our Time. (1997) [42] SUNY Press Campbell, James. Understanding John Dewey: Nature and Cooperative Intelligence. (1995) Open Court Publishing Company Caspary, William R. Dewey on Democracy (2000). Cornell University Press. Crick, Nathan. Democracy & Rhetoric: John Dewey on the Arts of Becoming (2010) University of South Carolina Press. Fishman, Stephen M. and Lucille McCarthy. John Dewey and the Philosophy and Practice of Hope (2007). University of Illinois Press. Garrison, Jim. Dewey and Eros: Wisdom and Desire in the Art of Teaching. Charlotte: Information Age Publishing, 2010. Original published 1997 by Teachers College Press. Good, James (2006). A Search for Unity in Diversity: The "Permanent Hegelian Deposit" in the Philosophy of John Dewey. Lexington Books. ISBN 9780739110614. Hickman, Larry A. John Dewey's Pragmatic Technology. (1992) Indiana University Press. Hook, S. John Dewey: An Intellectual Portrait (1939) Kannegiesser, H. J. "Knowledge and Science" (1977) The Macmillan Company of Australia PTY Ltd Martin, Jay. The Education of John Dewey. (2003) [43] Columbia University Press

Pring, Richard (2007). John Dewey: Continuum Library of Educational Thought. Continuum. ISBN 0-8264-8403-4. Putnam, Hilary. "Dewey's Logic: Epistemology as Hypothesis". In Words and Life, ed. James Conant. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994. Rockefeller, Stephen. John Dewey: Religious Faith and Democratic Humanism. (1994) [44] Columbia University Press Rogers, Melvin. The Undiscovered Dewey: Religion, Morality, and the Ethos of Democracy (2008). Columbia University Press.[45] Roth, Robert J. John Dewey and Self-Realization. (1962). Prentice Hall Rorty, Richard. "Dewey's Metaphysics". In The Consequences of Pragmatism: Essays 1972-1980. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1982. Rud, A. G., Garrison, Jim, and Stone, Lynda (eds.) John Dewey at 150: Reflections for a New Century. West Lafayette: Purdue University Press, 2009. Ryan, Alan. John Dewey and the High Tide of American Liberalism. (1995) [46] W.W. Norton. Seigfried, Charlene Haddock, (ed.). Feminist Interpretations of John Dewey (2001) [47] Pennsylvania State University Press Shook, John. Dewey's Empirical Theory of Knowledge and Reality. (2000) [48] The Vanderbilt Library of American Philosophy Sleeper, R.W. The Necessity of Pragmatism: John Dewey's Conception of Philosophy. Introduction by Tom Burke. (2001) [49] University of Illinois Press. Talisse, Robert B. A Pragmatist Philosophy of Democracy (2007) Routledge Westbrook, Robert B. John Dewey and American Democracy. (1991) [50] Cornell University Press. online edition, the standard scholarly biography White, Morton. The Origin of Dewey's Instrumentalism. (1943). Columbia University Press.

[edit]See

also

List of American philosophers Center for Dewey Studies Democratic education John Dewey Society Inquiry-based science Laboratory school

Learning by teaching League for Independent Political Action