Pedro Schuch Mallmann Independent Study on Identity with Dr.

Gordon Dehler 04/24/2007 A Discussion on Identity and Related Topics In the two previous papers I have written (Understanding Identity and some of its Implications to Workers and the Workplace and Connecting the Theory to Practice), Identity was explained and linked to the daily organizational life. However, many topics werent mentioned due to time and space limitations. This paper intends to compensate that through exploring the following subjects: Discussing the concept of multiple identities; Linking trust and identity; Explaining identity and its relation to dirty work; and Giving few insights on work-life balance.

All these issues are very important for one to have a better understanding of organizations and management. I agree that when one makes strategic decisions they must rely on financials and marketing perspectives in order to be a good manager. But if people are disregarded, the decisions made will definitely not be the best. Having the comprehension of what affects constituencies, and considering these issues when taking decisions is what differentiates a good manager from an excellent manager. This is why I am discussing the following topics.

Multiple Identities Even though identity has been studied for over 20 years, it still is in the initial including disagreements on a series of key topics, such as the definition of the subject. I

will focus on the fact that some scholars suggest that there is only one identity within oneself, while others suggest the existence of many identities (Sveningsson & Alvesson, 2003). This topic has been developed over the concept of self-monitoring (Serpe, 1987; Snyder, 1974; and Mehra, Kiduff Brass, 2001), which means that one may shape his or her behavior according to the situation and what one believes others consider an appropriate behavior. The self-monitoring theory considers a high self-monitor as a person that easily shapes ones behavior to match the situation, and a low self-monitor as a person that does not. I disagree when authors develop the concept suggesting that when one changes his or her manners one is actually switching identities. For me this is something that must be considered as a change in roles, not in identities. I perceive self-monitoring as a key aspect of ones social skills, being a very important trait in ones identity. I see identity as a synonym of self, and I cant see one changing selves in every different situation. This would be a pathology (multiple identity), and as a pathology it should be treated. Nevertheless, Mehra, Kiduff and Brass (2001) try to link self-monitoring to organizational life and performance. They propose that employees that are high selfmonitors may assume key position in networks that might help them perform their tasks and advance in their careers. They also propose that high self-monitors tend to have a larger network, which helps their job performance. On the other hand, this larger network demands more maintenance time, which can adversely affect performance. The evidence they found suggests that both aspects, key position in networks and being high selfmonitors, are predictors of high performance. Being in key network positions allows one is able to bridge different groups and, therefore, work with more information. Being high

self-monitor, as explained, suggests a larger network, that has the same effect, but these individuals must be careful with their network size. They must avoid networks that demand all their time to be maintained. Serpe (1987) develops the topic of multiple identities, proposing that one has multiple identities and that there is a hierarchy of identities within oneself. He conducted research that, according to his interpretation, provides an explanation on how this hierarchy is built through individuals higher commitment to a given identity and that this hierarchy defines the probability of identity salience. Identity salience is strongly related to identity hierarchy and suggests that the dominant identity is going to be more salient in ones behavior. The dominant identity usually is the one with higher hierarchy, but it may shift according to the situation. I maintain that what happen in the situation is that roles influence other roles. I propose this through the concept of boundaries within ones identity (Kreiner, Hollensbe & Sheep, 2006b), saying that salient roles have more permeability in others; therefore, they represent a bigger part in ones identity. And I suggest that the concept of identities hierarchy within an individual be adapted to roles hierarchy. On the other hand, I do agree with Ashforth and Johnson (2002) that an organization has multiple identities. An organization usually is a group of people with different subgroups inside it, and each of this group has its own identity, and maybe some of these groups have other groups inside it. Each of these groups has its own identity, and the process goes on until it reaches to a job, which is the smallest identity within an organization. This is represented by the concept of nested identities, and the authors call broader identities higher order identities, and smaller identities lower order identities (I

will use these concepts in this paper). They propose that identities have three key dimensions:

Inclusive/exclusive: this means that an identity might include or exclude others. High order identities are relatively inclusive because they encompass all lower order identities. Thus, the identity of a large organization encompasses whatever divisions, departments, work groups, and jobs comprise the organization (Ashforth & Johnson, 2002, p. 33). Lower order identities are exclusive, as they do not encompass higher order identities and members have to meet certain criteria.

Abstract/concrete: this proposes that higher order identities are vaguer, in that they must include a diverse array of lower order identities. The larger the organization, the more abstract its identity will be, due to the higher number of lower order identities. Organizational identities are often defined as mission statements, values, operating principles, major strategies, goals, and favored traditions. On the other hand, lower order identities are more concrete, in that they represent the expected behavior through which high order identities are present. For example, an organizational identity may espouse the importance of customer service, but it is the front-line service agents who must translate that value into specific behavior (Ashforth & Johnson, 2002, p. 34).

Distal/proximal: this means that an identity can have either an indirect and delayed impact on individuals or a direct and immediate impact. Higher order

identities tend to be relatively distal, while lower order identities tend to be relatively proximal In organization situations, identity salience is defined by lower order identities, as they are closer to individuals and are more concrete than higher order identities. Also, in a daily basis, individuals tend to meet more with members of the same organization than with members from other organizations; therefore, they are approached more in terms of their workgroups or job than in terms of their organization. Another reason is that the organization identity is common for all of its members in the organization, so it is not a differentiation aspect of self as a lower order identity. Another reason is the flattening of the post-modern organizations, which has increased lateral communication, thus increasing individuals sense of belonging to a given organizational level. However, the fact that higher order identities tend to be less salient does not reduce their importance. In fact, the more salient a higher order identity is, the more individuals will behave according to organizations identity. Therefore, organizations looking for empowering employees must assure that the organizational identity is salient, so that employees will act individually towards the achievement of the same objectives. Although there are difference in salience, Ashforth and Johnson suggest that a shift in salience may be easy for individuals, as higher order identities are a more inclusive, abstract, and distal version of lower order identities, there tends to be at least some overlap in the content of nested identities (Ashforth & Johnson, 2002, p. 39). Besides this overlap, the fact that identification to a given level of the organization tends to generalize to other levels, increasing identification with the organization as a whole. This tends to happen because one might see the organization as the home for ones

local identity. Another reason why shifting identities salience may be easy is that individuals tend to understand situations where they must behave according to a lower order identity or to a higher order identity, and with increased experience they tend to do this easier. It is important to say that salience shift will take place when the situation demands so; for example, a marketing manager probably will assume a marketing department perspective in a managers meeting, but in an interview with the press he or she will assume the organization position. One aspect of nested identities is that it is related to an organizational formal structure; therefore, it does not encompass the identities of informal networks. The concept of cross-cutting identities, on the other hand, covers both formal and informal network identities attached to social categories. Formal cross-cutting identities may be ones task force, committee, or union club, while informal may include common interest social groups, demographic clusters and so on. Like lower order identities, cross-cutting identities tend to be relatively exclusive, concrete, and proximal. Also, salience shift may be relatively easy for both formal and informal cross-cutting identities as well in situations where there is overlap. A clear situation where there tends to be some conflict is between professional and union identities, where one usually has opposite opinions. However, research does suggest that it is possible to have overlap between both identities (Ashforth & Johnson, 2002, p. 43). A final concept that must explained is of identities simultaneously salient, which proposes that social identities do not have to be salient at a single time. Rather, more than one may be salient at the same time. However, it is important to make it clear that social identities are different than personal identities. Social identities can be multiple and their

salience within an individual affects his or her roles, and the overlap among them. Personal identity cannot be multiple in a healthy person. One may act differently according to the situation, but one will always be true to what one is. This different behavior is only the action of different roles.

Linking Trust and Identity I have already presented the idea that identification is a tool managers can use to improve employees trust in the organization and workmates; therefore, reducing turnover. Kramer (2002), tell us that trust is something that one usually take for granted, and that once this trust is disturbed, it claims our immediate attention. According to him, social scientists have argued that trust plays a crucial role in the productive and efficient exchange of valuable resources among interdependent actors pursuing diverse goals within an organization (Kramer, 2002). The author focus on the impact identity has on trust, and he proposes that identification enhances both propensities to trust others in the organization and to engage in acts of trust when one interacts with others. On the other hand, identification leads one to perceive a member of the same group more positively than a non group member even when they behave the same. This is good, but this biased opinion, a totally normal one, may not be the best for the organization. The trust one shows toward others that identified to the same organization is a reflection of the fact that they construed such acts as decisions with symbolic and expressive meaning for them. We can also say that through identification one is able to find his or her place within a social context, and that this security allows one to confer trust on others.

Sveningsson and Alvesson (2003) did an in depth study with a single manager, analyzing her behavior in an organization going through a merger. This manager, had problems with her new role, being assigned only process control duties while she wanted to manage culture and creativity, something closely related to her department (R&D). She went through a process of disidentification with the company; therefore, not supporting the companys initiatives, while positioning herself against these ideas. As a result, she created a situation of lack of trust within. Consequently, we can propose that, analogous to Kramer proposal, disidentification is related to lack of trust, and this lack of trust may create relationship problems within an organization, affecting its work environment, productivity, and efficiency.

Dirty Work and Identity An interesting topic to understand is dirty work and its relation to identity. Dirty work can be explained as occupations perceived by society as physically, socially, or morally tainted. Dutton, Dukerich, and Harquail (1994) propose that identification with an organization is, among other aspects, related to how one perceives society opinion on the given organization. Therefore, the dirty work situation raises the question on how identification works when individuals know that their occupations have a social stigma. Ashforth, Kreiner, Clark, and Fugate (2007) try to tackle this issue from dirty work occupation managers perspective, explaining challenges they face, and practices they might take to counter taint. Having to deal with a more troublesome identification problem, leads managers to the problem of having to deal with high turnover in case they cant handle the stigma issue well. Also, these managers have to deal with all the routine

issues while dealing with understanding the stigma situation, which requires a different set of skills that would be necessary for a usual situation. Furthermore, the authors mention that they expected managers to be distanced from the stigma, due to their higher position in the organization, but this proposition did not hold, as managers try to be close to their subordinates. Being in tainted occupations, managers must to do the best they can to improve employees identification with the profession, and in this process managers identify more with the employees, resulting in managers suffering as much stigma as their subordinates. In order to reduce the perceived problem in working in a tainted occupation, managers may engage in different tactics: occupational ideologies; social buffers; confronting clients and the public; and defensive tactics. Through occupational ideologies one tries to give a more salutary meaning to his or her occupation. This can be done through reframing the meaning; that is, transforming the meaning attached to a job by adding positive value and/or by neutralizing the negative value. Social buffers mean that individuals might look for a social network that will offer support and protection from the wider public which has a preconceived idea on the occupation. But this social buffer might end up isolating one from other social groups and roles; therefore, creating the problem of overidentification. Another tactic is confronting clients and the public, which means using not only a combative approach toward clients and public, but rather the use of humor, counter stereotypical behavior, quiet resistance and so on to explicitly or implicitly show others that their actions and ideas in relationship to the given dirty work job are not appropriate.

Defensive tactics refer to a variety of passive actions that focus more on adapting to the situation than changing it. One of the possible defensive tactics is avoiding the attributions and/or elements of the job that appear to be dirty, which I see as a temporary solution. This is because, one will not be able to avoid these issues for all their life, and if one does, he or she is very likely to be unhappy with this part of life. Gallows humor is another tactic, and it can be used to dull the sharp edge of taint, to enhance self-esteem, to create distance from clients or ones role, and to relieve the stress associated with dirty work and public attributions of dirtiness (Ashforth, Kreiner, Clark, & Fugate, 2007, p. 164). Other defensive tactic is accepting that some events cannot be affect by one person, and that one must not get attached with the issue. This is related to ones expectation towards the job, mainly in occupations that deal with home violence, drug addiction and so on, and accepting that one cannot change the whole world by oneself. Other defensive tactics include: social comparison, which is the comparison with worst situations; condemning condemners, through which one blames the individuals that condemned one for ones problems; and distancing from the role as a way to protect one from the dirtiness of the job.

The Concern with Work-Life Balance and its Relation to Identity Pfeffer and Sutton (2006) give an interesting approach on how work is not supposed to be different from life. In their first comment that one must not give themselves away to their work, they have implicitly mentioned the self-continuity aspect of identification according to Dutton, Dukerich and Harquail (1994). Also related to selfcontinuity is how companies may have dress codes, which might be so strict to the point

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that one may not be able to decide the color of the tie. The authors also mention that many companies are demanding employees to devote their lives to work, even if that means leaving hobbies and other activities aside; in this topic they are also talking about an identity issue overidentification, a pathology that may have serious consequences (see Understanding Identity and some of its Implications to Workers and the Workplace and Connecting the Theory to Practice). In this process of taking control over employees lives, companies may also want them to behave in a certain way, what until a certain point is ok, but once one must go against ones beliefs something is wrong; again the authors are talking about an issue related to self-continuity. It is also mentioned that some organizations do not want employees to engage into deep friendship relationships, not to mention love relationships with work peers, and some companies even want to create an environment of conflict and competition. These might create a situation where one does not have pleasure in going to work, in fact, one might even hate going to work; therefore, one will not have a reason to seek identification to work. This is due to fact that such situation might bring suffering to the employee, even lowering his or her self-esteem, and this affects two key aspects of identification: self-continuity and self-enhancement. Once more, in talking about work-life balance one is talking about identity theory, even if without mentioning it. Finally, authors mention some benefits of integrating work with the rest of life. In this section they talk about how companies that include the employee into the companys activities, that offer growth opportunities, and that make and effort in making employees perceive different benefits for working in the company, have lower turnover rates and greater employee effort and loyalty. They also talk about bringing employees family and

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friends to be part of the organizations social network, and how that might benefit the organization, sometimes even with free labor. All these issues are pure identification, but said with other words. The authors are just telling the benefits of having highly identified employees, and suggesting that companies must make an effort to achieve this situation.

Conclusion It is clear that identity is a key topic in the managerial world today. The understanding of identity, the concepts related to it, and the consequences it has in an organization offers managers an important tool in building a companys competitive advantage. In this paper I presented different aspects of the business life, and theories that might not seem related at first, but examined, becomes clear that they all share a link with identity theory. The understanding of the concept of multiple identities is still in need of further development, like the understanding of identity, and I hope I have contributed to both. But, the more important for me, is that I have made it clear that, through better understanding of people, managers can make better decisions.

References Ashforth, B.E., Kreiner, G.E., Clark, M.A., & Fugate, M. 2007. Normalizing dirty work: Managerial tactics for countering occupational taint. Academy of Management Journal. Vol. 50, No. 1, 149-174 Ashforth, B.E., & Johnson, S.A. 2002. Which hat to wear? The relative salience of multiple identities in organizational contexts. In Hogg, M.A. & Terry, D.J. (Eds.), Social identity processes in organizational contexts. 31 48. Psychology Press. Dutton, J. E., Dukerich, J. M., & Harquail, C. V. 1994. Organizational images and member identification. Administrative Science Quarterly. Vol. 39: 239 263.

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Kramer, R. M.. 2002. Identity and trust in organizations: One anatomy of a productive but problematic relationship. In Hogg, M.A. & Terry, D.J. (Eds.), Social identity processes in organizational contexts. 167 179. Psychology Press. Kreiner, G. E., Hollensbe, E. C., & Sheep, M. L. 2006b. On the edge of identity: Boundary dynamics at the interface of individual and organizational identities. Human Relation. Vol. 59 (10): 1315 1341. Mehra, A., Kiduff, M., & Brass, D. J. 2001. The social networks of high and low selfmonitors: Implications for workplace performance. Administrative Science Quarterly. Vol. 46: 121 146. Pfeffer, Jeffrey, & Sutton, Robert I. 2006. Is work fundamentally different from the rest of life and should it be? In Hard facts, dangerous half-truths, and total nonsense. 57 84. Harvard Business School Press, MA. Serpe, R. T. 1987. Stability and change in self: A structural symbolic interactionist explanation. Social Psychology Quarterly. Vol. 50, No. 1, 44 55. Snyder, Mark. 1974. Self-monitoring of expressive behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. Vol. 30, No. 4, 526 537. Sveningsson, S., & Alvesson, M. 2003. Managing managerial identities: Organizational fragmentation, discourse, and identity struggle. Human Relations. Vol. 56 (10), 1163 1193.

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