Basic Networking Knowledge

TOPICS
# # # # # # # # # INTRODUCTION COMPUTING MODELS NETWORK CLASSIFICATION NETWORK SERVICES TRANSMISSION MEDIA PHYSICAL LAYER NETWORK TOPOLOGIES NETWORKING PROTOCOLS NETWORKING HARDWARE
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Network
Define Computer Networking Networking is the sharing of information and services. Computer networking provides the communication tools to allow computers to share information and abilities.
By a computer network we mean an interconnected set of autonomous computers. By autonomous we mean each of them can function independent of the others.
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Network
A network consists of two or more computers that are linked in order to share resources (such as printers and CD-ROMs), exchange files, or allow electronic communications. The computers on a network may be linked through cables, telephone lines, radio waves, satellites, or infrared light beams.

Computing Models and Network Development

Computer networking are based on the following computing models :-

Distributed computing Collaborative computing

Computing models
The following computing models are used to categorize the way networking services are provided:

Client/Server Client/Network

Centralized Computing
In the centralized computing model, large centralized computers, called mainframes, are used to store and organize data. People enter data on mainframes using local devices called terminals.

In centralized computing, the mainframe provides all the data storage and computational abilities; the terminal is simply 9 a remote input/output device.

Distributed Computing
In distributed computing, personal computers (PCs) have their own processing capabilities In the distributed computing model, the application is divided into tasks, and each task is assigned to a computer for processing . The results of the processing can be 10 sent as data to other computers.

Collaborative Computing

Collaborative computing (also called cooperative processing) is a type of distributed computing using networked computers that collaborate by sharing processing abilities .
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 Collaborative computing allows computers to request processing resources from other computers as needed. Collaborative computing distributed computing. is a form of

Collaborative computing allows tasks to be shared by computers as needed. Distributed computing assigns each task to a single computer. Both use networked computers with processing capabilities; and both divide applications into tasks.
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Client/Server Computing
In the client/server computing model, several clients (PCs) are connected to a server (PC)... In the client/server model : Processing capabilities are distributed across multiple, machines . Clients request services from servers. The server performs some of the processing for the client. Applications used in a client/server network can be split into a front end that runs on the client and a back 13 end that runs on the server.

In Client/server model, the following can be use

Standalone (non-networked) applications such as a spreadsheet program or a word processing program that runs on the client but saves its data on the server . A database application that provides a client interface for requests and a search engine on the server that locates records stored on one or more servers Programs, such as an email system, that use the server to share information
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Computer Network Classifications

Local Area Network (LAN) Metropolitan Area Networks (Man) Wide Area Networks (WAN)

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LANs
These are privately-owned communication systems that cover a short distance i,.E A BUILDING OR A CAMPUS OF BUILDINGS. Variety of devices including computers, terminals, peripheral devices and sensors are used to link using a LAN. LANs OPERATE AT A HIGH SPEED (i.E 10 mbps OR MORE AND HAVE A VERY LOW ERROR RATE (1:1011).

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Local Area Network (LAN)

A LAN is normally contained within a building or campus and typically uses communication links that are owned and maintained by the group whose data the LAN carries . LAN transmission speeds are often measured in megabits per second (mbps ).
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MAN
These can be considered as a bigger version of a LAN, typically covering a city. It can be either public or privately owned. Although LAN technology can be used in man, it has been distinguished as a separate type of network, because of the specific standard known as distributed queue double bus (DQDB) that has been adopted for man. The DQDB comprises of two unidirectional buses for connecting computers
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Wan

Wan encompasses a large geographical area, often a country or a sub-continent, or the entire globe. Communication is usually done through public communication systems such as telephone network. As a consequence, data transfer rate in WAN is low (several kb/s). Error rate is much higher (1000 times that of lan), which requires use of suitable error handling technique.
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Wide Area Networks (WAN)

A wide area network (WAN) comprises multiple LANs. WANs interconnect LANs that can be at opposite sides of a country or located around the world. WANs often use telephone or satellite communication . Access to WAN links is often leased from a WAN services vendor who is responsible for maintaining the communication equipment. For most WAN links, the transmission speed attainable over the available bandwidth is 21 measured in kilobits per second (kbps).

Computer Network Classifications

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Enterprise and Global Networks

A global network is to cover the entire globe, but they cross multiple nations that span the earth. Global networks might not boundaries and can include the networks of several organizations The Internet is a good example of a global network

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Enterprise and Global Networks

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INTERNET
INTERNET IS NOT A SEPARATE KIND OF NETWORK, BUT IT IS A COLLECTION OF NETWORKS OR A NETWORK OF NETWORKS. ONE PRIMARY GOAL OF NETWORKS INTERNET IS TO CONNECT VARIOUS NETWORKS IN A SEAMLESS MANNER. THE GLUE WHICH HOLD VARIOUS NETWORKS TOGETHER IS THE TCP-IP, THAT ALLOWS HOSTS TO COMMUNICATE FREELY ACROSS NETWORK BOUNDARIES. INTERNET ALLOWS VARIOUS APPLICATIONS SUCH AS E-MAIL, FILE TRANSFER, REMOTE LOGIN AS IN NEWS, WORLD WIDE WEB, MULTIMEDIA, ETC.
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NEED OF COMPUTER NETWORKING

ADVANTAGES Speed. Networks provide a very rapid method for sharing and transferring files. Lower Cost. A network of low-cost computers gives much better cost/performance than a single costly mainframe computer.. Besides monetary savings, sharing a program on a network allows for easier upgrading of the program Security. Files and programs on a network can be designated as "copy inhibit," Also, passwords can be established for specific directories to restrict access to authorized users
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Centralized Software Management. All of the software can be loaded on one computer (the file server). This eliminates that need to spend time and energy installing updates and tracking files on independent computers throughout the building Communication medium: It offers a powerful communicating medium among a group of people widely separated. Resource sharing: Most organisations cannot afford enough laser printers, fax machines, modems, scanners, and CDROM players for each computer. However, resources like data, program, costly peripherals or equipments located at distant places can be shared through network.

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Electronic Mail. The presence of a network provides the hardware necessary to install an e-mail system. Electronic mail on a LAN can enable users to communicate with each other. If the LAN is connected to the Internet, users can communicate with others throughout the world Higher reliablility: A computer network offers higher reliability than a centralised computing environment because of the redundancy that can be incorporated both in terms of hardware and software. in the event of failure of one computer, its work-load can be taken over by other computer. Higher flexibility: Computer networks allow communication among heterogeneous systems, which give users better flexibility 28

DISADVANTAGES
Expensive to Install. Although a network will generally save money over time, the initial costs of installation can be prohibitive. Cables, network cards, and software are expensive, and the installation may require the services of a technician. Requires Administrative Time. Proper maintenance of a network requires considerable time and expertise. File Server May Fail. Although a file server is no more susceptible to failure than any other computer, when the files server "goes down," the entire network may come to a halt.
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Cables May Break. Some of the configurations are designed to minimize the inconvenience of a broken cable; with other configurations, one broken cable can stop the entire network. No Privacy As programs and data are shared by many users, this raises the problem of data integrity, security and privacy. No Control In a distributed system there is certain amount of loss of control. It is difficult to enforce standards for software and data.

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Network Services
Network services are the capabilities that networked computers share. Network services are provided by numerous combinations of computer hardware and software. Depending upon the task, network services require data, input/output resources, and processing power to accomplish their
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The three types of service providers and requesters: Servers are classified as service providers. They only provide services. Clients are classified as service requesters. They only request services. Peers can be classified as both a service requester or provider. They provide and request services.
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Network Operating Systems

Network operating systems (NOS) coordinate the activities of multiple computers across a network. The network operating system acts as a director to keep the network running smoothly. The two major types of network operating systems are:

Computer networks are often classified as one of the following types: Peer-to-peer Server-centric

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Peer-to-Peer Networks
Peer-to-peer networks

allow any entity to both request and provide network services. Peer-to-peer network

software is designed so that peers perform the same or similar functions for each
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Advantages & Disadvantages

Less initial expense - No need for a dedicated server. Set-up - An operating system (such as Windows 95) already in place may only need to be reconfigured for peer-topeer operations. Decentralized - No central control for files and applications. Security - Does not provide the security available on a client/server network.

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Server-Centric Networks
@ Client/server network operating systems allow the network to centralize functions and applications in one or more dedicated file servers. The File servers provide access to resources and providing security. @ Individual workstations (clients) have access to the resources available on the file servers @ The network operating system provides the mechanism to integrate all the components of the network and allow multiple users to simultaneously share the same resources irrespective of physical location. @ Novell Netware and Windows NT Server are examples of client/server network operating systems.
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Advantages & Disadvantages

Centralized - Resources and data security are controlled through the server. Scalability - Any or all elements can be replaced individually as needs increase. Flexibility - New technology can be easily integrated into system. Interoperability - All components (client/network/server) work together. Accessibility - Server can be accessed remotely and across multiple platforms.

Expense Requires initial investment in dedicated server. Maintenance - Large networks will require staff to ensure efficient operation. Dependence - When server goes down, operations will cease across the network.

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Online, Nearline, and Offline Storage Media

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Computers store data on a variety of magnetic and optic disks, diskettes, and tapes. Online storage media, such as hard disks, are immediately available to the computer. Nearline storage media, such as tape carousels, CD jukeboxes, immediately and so on, are not

available to the computer, but do not require human intervention . Offline storage media, such as removable
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File Update Synchronization

A file service called file update synchronization is one way to identify changes and manage the process of updating the file to ensure its integrity. File update synchronization compares the time and date that corresponding files were saved to determine which is most current. It can also keep track of who has a specific file and if intermediary changes have been made.
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File Update Synchronization

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Network Printing
Typically, only two or three

computers can be directly connected to each printer. On the other hand, network print services allow numerous clients to be serviced by a single printer.
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Advantages of network printing

Reducing the total number of printers can save your organization a substantial amount of money. Having fewer printers reduces the number of devices to buy, maintain, and manage.

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Network Printing

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Network Message Services

Message accessing, services text, include binary, storing, graphic,

and delivering digitized

video, and audio data. Message services communication between computer applications, deal users, with user
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Network message services help you

Exchange computer-generated notes and files Integrate electronic mail with voice mail systems Route and share data using workflow and linked object document applications Organize and maintain user and device information directories
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In this subsection types of messageenabled applications: Electronic mail Integrated electronic mail and voice mail Workgroup applications
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Network Message Services

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Database Replication
Data can be retrieved much more rapidly from local databases than from remote databases .Therefore, it is often more efficient for users to work on a local copy of the data . Replication creates and synchronizes multiple copies of a database over the 50

Distributed Database Replication Methods

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DATA COMMUNICATION CONCEPTS

The primary concern of a computer network is to facilitate exchange of information between any pair of nodes in the network. That involves sending of data in the form of signal from source node to the destination node through A communication channel. The key issues are: The nature of data Physical means used to transfer data Processing of data for efficient communication.

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BLOCK DIAGRAM OF TYPICAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

SIGNAL INPUT

SOURCE NODE

TRANSMITTER

TRANSMISSION CHANNEL

SIGNAL OUTPUT

DESTINATION NODE

RECEIVER

COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

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TRANSMISSION MEDIA In a network of computers, the transmission media provide the physical path for communication among the nodes and the manner in which the nodes are geometrically interconnected is known as its topology. Examples for guided transmission media are twistedpair of wires, co-axial cables and optical fiber

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Pathway for Communication

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Transmission Media
Computer transmission media includes cable and wireless networked technologies that allow

devices to contact one another. Transmission media cannot guarantee that other network devices will understand a message. It can, however, guarantee a message 57

Cable Media
Cable media are wires or fibers that conduct electricity or light. The following examples are covered in this section: Twisted pair cable Coaxial cable Fiber optic cable

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Twisted pair cable

Twisted pair (TP) cable telecommunication cable. uses copper wire as

Because copper is such a good conductor of electrons, copper wires do not constrain electromagnetic signals well. Twisted pair can be used for both Analog and Digital communication Twisting the copper wires reduces cross talk and signal emissions. Each intertwined strand conducts a current whose emitted waves are cancelled out by the other wires 59

Twisted Pair

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TWISTED-PAIR
Characteristics:-Twisted pair can be used for both analog and digital communication. The data rate that can be supported over a twisted pair is inversely proportional to the square of the line length. Maximum transmission distance of 1km can be achieved for data rates up to 1mb/s. For digital signal, repeaters are needed for about 2km. To reduce interference, the twisted pair can be shielded with metallic braid. This type of wire is known as shielded twisted pair(STP) and the other is known as unshielded twisted pair(UTP).

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 The Electrical Industries Association (EIA) popularized a category labeling scheme for five different qualities of twisted pair cable: Category 1 and 2: Voice and low-speed data (less than or equal to 4 Mbps) Category 3: Data (typically 10-16 Mbps, although 100 Mbps is possible) Category 4: Data (less than or equal to 20 Mbps) Category 5: High-speed data (less than or equal to 100 Mbps) Category 3 and Category 5 UTP are commonly used in computer networking. Category 3 is suitable for most computer networks.
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The two types of TP cable are : Unshielded Shielded

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Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable

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Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable

UTP is commonly used in telephone systems. It is widely available and has been largely standardized. The standard connector for unshielded cabling is twisted an pair RJ-45

connector. This is a plastic connector that looks like a large connector telephone-style
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A Common Unshielded Twisted Pair Installation

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Shielded Twisted Pair Cable

A disadvantage of UTP is that it may be susceptible to radio and electrical frequency interference. Shielded twisted pair (STP) is suitable for environments with electrical interference; however, the extra shielding can make the cables quite bulky. Shielded twisted pair is often used on networks using Token Ring topology.
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Shielded Twisted Pair Cable

Today, most TP cable is unshielded, but some forms of shielded twisted pair (STP) still exist. STP is insulated cable that includes bundled pairs wrapped in a foil shielding. Various transmission media specifications from Apple Computer and IBM use STP cable.

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Shielded Twisted Pair

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Shielded Twisted Pair Installation

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Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable (commonly called coax) is made of two conductors that share a common axis, hence the name (co, axis). Typically, the center of the cable is a relatively stiff solid copper wire or stranded wire encased in insulating plastic foam. The foam is surrounded by the second conductor, a wire mesh tube (some include conductive foil wrap), which serves as a shield from interference and signal capture. A tough, insulating plastic tube forms the cover of the cable. 71

Coaxial Cable

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Coaxial cable standards are used in computer networking

The most common types meet one of the following ohm and size standards (ohms are a measurement of the cables resistance to direct or alternating electric currents): 75 ohm RG-6 (used for Satellite TV) 50 ohm RG-8 and RG-11 (used in thick Ethernet specifications discussed later) 50 ohm RG-58 (used in thin Ethernet specifications described later) 75 ohm RG-59 (used for cable TV and cable modems) 93 ohm RG-62 (used for ARC net specifications)
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Common Coaxial Cable Installation

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Fiber Optic Cable

Fiber optic cables can be composed of a single jacketed strand, but often multiple strands are bundled in the center of a cable. Some fiber optic cables also provide an additional metallic, or fiberglass wire to increase cable strength. Optical fibers can be multimode or single mode in nature. Single-mode fiber has been optimized to allow only one light path; multimode fiber allows various light paths. Single-mode fiber has a higher capacity but costs more to produce and use than multimode fiber.
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Fiber Optic Cable

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Type of Fiber-Optic Cable

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Single-Mode and Multimedia Propagation

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A Common Fiber Optic Cable Installation

Multiple lengths of fiber optic cable, when necessary, are spliced together using electric fusion, or mechanical connectors. The opposite ends of the cables are attached to a connection (splice) center or one of the connectivity devices discussed later in this course.

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Cable Transmission Media Comparison

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RADIO WAVE MICROWAVE INFRARED LIGHT

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Radio Wave

The portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that is usually considered radio frequency (RF) resides between 10 KHz and 1 GHz. This range of radio frequencies includes broadcast bands for : Shortwave radio Very high frequency (VHF) television and FM radio Ultra-high frequency (UHF) radio and television Radio frequencies are divided between regulated and unregulated bandwidths.

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Radio Frequencies

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Wireless LAN

A wireless local area network (LAN) is a flexible data communications system implemented as an extension to, or as an alternative for, a wired LAN. Using radio frequency (RF) technology, wireless LANs transmit and receive data over the air, minimizing the need for wired connections. Thus, wireless LANs combine data connectivity with user mobility.
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Wireless LANs have gained strong popularity in a number of vertical markets including :

the health-care retail manufacturing warehousing academic

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Why wireless?
With wireless LANs, users can access shared information without looking for a place to plug in, and network managers can set up or augment networks without installing or moving wires.

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Wireless LANs Technology Manufacturers of wireless LANs have a range of technologies to choose from when designing a wireless LAN solution. Each technology comes with its own set of advantages and limitations.

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Narrowband Technology
A narrowband radio system transmits and receives user information on a specific radio frequency. Narrowband radio keeps the radio signal frequency as narrow as possible just to pass the information.

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Broad Band/Spread Spectrum Technolo

Most wireless LAN systems use spread spectrum technology, a wideband radio frequency technique developed by the military for use in reliable, secure, missioncritical communications systems. Spread-spectrum is designed to trade off bandwidth efficiency for reliability, integrity, and security.
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 If a receiver is not turned to the right frequency, a spread-spectrum signal looks like background noise. There are two types of spread spectrum radio: Frequency hopping and Direct sequence.

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Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum

Multiple subsets can be used within any frequency range, direct sequence signals can coexist with other signals. Unwanted signals are simply ignored or treated as a spurious signal or noise. Direct sequence signals can be intercepted almost as easily as other RF signals, eavesdropping is ineffective because it is quite difficult to determine which specific frequencies to monitor, retrieve all the chips, identify valid data, and interpret the signal.
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Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum

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Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum

Frequency hopping quickly switches between predetermined frequencies. Both transmitter and receiver must follow the same pattern and maintain complex timing intervals. FHSS appears to be shortduration impulse noise.

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Microwave
Microwave data communication systems exist in two forms: Terrestrial (earth-based) systems Satellite systems

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Microwave Frequencies

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Terrestrial microwave

Terrestrial microwave typically uses directional parabolic antennas that require an unobstructed path or line of sight to other units. Terrestrial microwave signals, commonly in the low GHz frequency range, are generated by a transceiver. They are often used to link separate buildings where cable installation would be Troublesome or more expensive.

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Satellite microwave

Satellite microwave typically uses low GHz frequency range microwaves. They use parabolic antennas located on earth and orbiting satellites

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Infrared Technology

Infrared (IR) : Systems use very high frequencies, (100 Ghz-1000Terahertz) just below visible light in the electromagnetic spectrum, to carry data. Like light, IR cannot penetrate opaque objects, it is either directed (line-of-sight) or diffuse technology. Inexpensive directed systems provide very limited range (3 ft) and typically are used for personal area networks but occasionally are used in specific wireless LAN applications. 99

 Infrared links use LEDs, Laser Diodes, Photodiodes to exchange data between stations

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Transmission Media Connectors

Transmission media connectors attach directly to the transmission media and serve as the physical interface between the media and computing devices. Every medium has one or more physical connectors that you can use.

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Sample Transmission Media Connectors

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Transmission Media Connector Installation

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In 1977, the International Organization for standardization (ISO) created the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Reference Model. OSI defines standards by which computers can communicate together It describes the architecture, protocols and services required to achieve this goal The reference model serves seven OSI layers they are as follows :105

OSI reference model

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The OSI reference model

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Headers and the OSI Reference Mode Each layer adds its own control information, called a header, which contains that layers requests or information. This header is read and processed by the peer layer.

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Headers and the OSI Reference Model

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OSI Reference Model as a Conceptual Framework

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Physical Layer
The Physical layer is responsible for PHYSICALLY transmitting the data over the communication links It provides the Mechanical, Electrical, Functional and Procedural standards to access the Physical Medium.
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Connection Type Methods

Point-to-point Multipoint

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Connection Type Methods

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Point-to-Point Connections

A point-to-point connection is a direct link between two devices. When you attach a personal computer directly to a printer, you have created a point-to-point link. Another example is the link between two microwave antennas. A direct connection between a computer and a printer is a common example of a point-to-point connection.
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Point-to-Point Connections

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Multipoint Connections

A multipoint connection is a link between three or more devices. Historically, multipoint connections were used to connect one master computer with a series of slave terminals. Multipoint connections share the same bandwidth so the overall capacity is divided among every device connected to the media.

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Multipoint Connections

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Network Topologies
In a network of computers, the manner in which multiple nodes are physically interconnected is referred to as its topology. There are two types of topology: physical and logical. The physical topology of a network refers to the configuration or the actual layout of cables, computers, and other peripherals. Logical topology is the method used to pass the information between workstations.
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Physical Topology Methods

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Common Physical Topologies

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Physical Topologies
Linear Bus Ring Star Mesh Cellular

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Linear Bus
A linear bus topology consists of a main long cable called a
backbone to which network devices are either directly attached or are attached using short drop cables .

Ethernet and Local Talk networks can use a linear bus topology.

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Advantages & Disadvantages

Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus. Requires less cable length than a star topology. Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable. Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable. Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down. Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a large building.
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Typical Bus Topology LAN

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Ring
A physical ring is a circular topology. Each device connects directly to the ring or indirectly through an interface device and drop cable.
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Typical Physical Ring Topology LAN

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Star
A star topology uses a central device with drop cables extending in all directions. Each networked device is connected via a point-topoint link to a hub.
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Physical Star Topology

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Star

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Advantages & Disadvantages

Easy to install and wire. No disruptions to the network when connecting or removing devices. Easy to detect faults and to remove parts. Requires more cable length than a linear topology. If the hub or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled. More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the concentrators.
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Star-Wired Ring
A star-wired ring topology may appear (externally) to be the same as a star topology. Internally, the MAU (multistation access unit) of a star-wired ring contains wiring that allows information to pass from one device to another in a circle or ring. The Token Ring protocol uses a star-wired ring topology.
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Star-Wired Ring

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Tree
A tree topology combines characteristics of linear bus and star topologies. It consists of groups of star-configured workstations connected to a linear bus backbone cable Tree topologies allow for the expansion of an existing network, and enable schools to configure a network to meet their needs.
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Tree

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Advantages & Disadvantages

Point-to-point wiring for individual segments. Supported by several hardware and software vendors. Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used. If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down. More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.
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Mesh Topology
A mesh network has point-to-point connections between every device in the network. Each device requires an interface for every other device on the network, a true mesh topology is not usually considered practical. Unless each workstation frequently sends signals to all other workstations, an excessive amount of network bandwidth is wasted.
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Physical Mesh Topology

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Typical Physical Mesh Topology LAN

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Cellular topology
A cellular topology combines wireless point-topoint and multipoint strategies to divide a geographic area into cells. Each cell represents the portion of the total network area in which a specific connection operates. Cellular topologies exhibit qualities that are very different from cable topologies. For example, devices can roam from cell to cell while maintaining a connection to the network.
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Physical Cellular Topology

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Physical Cellular Topology LAN

As a wireless structure, the topology does not depend on the interconnection of cable. Cellular topology relies on the location of wireless media hubs. Devices within the cell communicate with a central station or hub. Hubs are interconnected so that they route data across the network and provide the complete network infrastructure.
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Typical Physical Cellular Topology LAN

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Considerations for Choosing a Topology

Money. A linear bus network may be the least expensive way to install a network; you do not have to purchase concentrators. Length of cable needed. The linear bus network uses shorter lengths of cable. Future growth. With a star topology, expanding a network is easily done by adding another concentrator. Cable type. The most common cable in LAN is unshielded twisted pair (Cat. 5), which is most often used with star topologies.
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Networking Protocols
The most common protocols are:
Ethernet Local Talk Token Ring FDDI

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Ethernet
The Ethernet protocol is by far the most widely used. Ethernet uses an access method called CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection). This is a system where each computer listens to the cable before sending anything through the network. Sometimes, two computers attempt to transmit at the same instant. When this happens a collision occurs. Each computer then backs off and waits a random amount of time before attempting to retransmit. With this access method, it is normal to have collisions. However, the delay caused by collisions and does not normally effect the speed of transmission on the network. The Ethernet protocol allows for linear bus, star, or tree topologies. Data can be transmitted over twisted pair, coaxial, or fiber optic cable at a speed of 100 Mbps.
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Ethernet Cards

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Local Talk
Local Talk is a network protocol that was developed by Apple Computer, Inc. for Macintosh computers. The method used by is called CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance). It is similar to CSMA/CD except that a computer signals its intent to transmit before it actually does so. The Macintosh operating system allows the establishment of a peer-to-peer network without the need for additional software. With the addition of the server version of AppleShare software, a client/server network can be established. The Local Talk protocol allows for linear bus, star, or tree topologies using twisted pair cable. A primary disadvantage of Local Talk is speed. Its speed of transmission is only 230 Kbps.

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Token Ring
The Token Ring protocol was developed by IBM in the mid-1980s. The access method used involves token-passing. In Token Ring, the computers are connected so that the signal travels around the network from one computer to another in a logical ring. A single electronic token moves around the ring from one computer to the next. It simply passes the token on to the next workstation till it reaches the computer which wishes to transmit and receives an empty token, it attaches data to the token. The token then proceeds around the ring until it comes to the computer for which the data is meant. At this point, the data is captured by the receiving computer. The Token Ring protocol requires a star-wired ring using twisted pair or fiber optic cable. It can operate at transmission speeds of 4 Mbps or 16 Mbps.

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FDDI
Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) is a network protocol that is used primarily to interconnect two or more local area networks, often over large distances. The access method used by FDDI involves tokenpassing. FDDI uses a dual ring physical topology. Transmission normally occurs on one of the rings; however, if a break occurs, the system keeps information moving by automatically using portions of the second ring to create a new complete ring. A major advantage of FDDI is speed. It operates over fibre optic cable at 100 Mbps.
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Summary Chart:

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Protocol Summary

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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MEDIUM AND TOPOLOGY

The choice of transmission media and topology cannot be made independently. They together decides the reliability, expandability and performance of the network. The topology used for different media are given by the following table. MEDIUM
TWISTED-PAIR
BASEBAND COAXIAL BROADBAND COAXIAL

TOPOLOGIES
BUS, RING, STAR BUS, RING, STAR BUS, TREE RING, TREE
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OPTICAL FIBRE

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Networking Hardware
File Servers Workstations Network Interface Cards Modems Repeaters Concentrators/Hubs Transreceivers Switches Bridges Multiplexer Routers
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File Servers
A file server stands at the heart of most networks. It is a very fast computer with a large amount of RAM and storage space, along with a fast network interface card. The network operating system software resides on this computer, along with any software applications and data files that need to be shared. The file server controls the communication of information between the nodes on a network. For example, it may be asked to send a word processor program to one workstation, receive a database file from another workstation, and store an e-mail message during the same time period. This requires a computer that can store a lot of information and share it very quickly.
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Workstations
All of the computers connected to the file server on a network are called workstations. A typical workstation is a computer that is configured with a network interface card, networking software, and the appropriate cables. Workstations do not necessarily need floppy disk drives or hard drives because files can be saved on the file server. Almost any computer can serve as a network workstation.
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Network Interface Cards

The network interface card (NIC) provides the physical connection between the network and the computer workstation. A memory buffer inside the network card grabs massages from the computer and holds them until the card can send the message through the cable. Another memory buffer holds messages coming on the network cable until the computer is ready to read the message Most NICs are internal, with the card fitting into an expansion slot inside the computer. Network interface cards are a major factor in determining the speed and performance of a network. It is a good idea to use the fastest network card available for the type of workstation you are using. The three most common network interface connections are Ethernet cards, Local Talk connectors, and Token Ring cards.
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Sample Network Interface Boards

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Network Interface Board Installations

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Ethernet Cards

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MODEM
A modem is a device that converts digital data into analog signal for transmission over telephone line. It involves modulation at the transmitting end and demodulation at the receiving end. The same device can be used to connect remote computers over telephone networks. In some instances, modems can take the place of NICs in connecting a device to a network. For example, you can dial in to your network from a computer with a modem, if a modem and phone connection are available on a device on your network. The following functions are involved in the management of a modem:Dialing Answering Disconnecting
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Modem Installation

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Repeaters
A repeater is a device that boosts a network's signal as it passes through the transmission medium by electrically amplifying the signal it receives and re-broadcasting it. They are used when the total length of your network cable exceeds the standards set for the type of cable being used.

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Repeater Use

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Repeater Installation

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Concentrators/Hubs
Hubs receive transmissions from connected devices and transmit the signals to the other connected devices. The hub organizes the cables and transmits incoming signals to the other media segments. Some network implementations require a central point of connection between media segments. These central points are referred to as hubs, multiport repeaters, or concentrators. Cables from network devices plug in to the ports on the hub.
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 An active hub, which connects medium segments together, regenerates or amplifies signals. Because they generate signals, active hubs can extend the maximum cable length. All computers connected by active hubs still receive signals from all other computers.

A passive hub, which connects medium segments together, does not regenerate or amplify signals. It is not a repeater. The distance limitations on each segment connected to a passive hub are different than those applied to segments connected by active hubs. 169

Hub Installation

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Transceivers
A Transceiver is not a repeater . The function of a transceiver is to connect a single device to the network. There are four types of transceivers, they are:(a)Thick wire transceiver. (b)Thin co-axial transceiver. (c)Twisted pair transceiver. (d)Fibre optic transceiver
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Switches

Switches allow you to avoid the congestion of a shared Ethernet network by permitting you to create individual segments. The improvement in network performance can be dramatic.

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Bridges
A bridge is a device that allows you to segment a large network into two smaller, more efficient networks. A bridge extends the maximum distance of your network by connecting separate network segments. Bridges selectively pass signals from one segment to another based on the physical location of the destination device.

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Bridge Operations

Bridges receive all signals on all segments they are attached to. Determine the segment location of the source and destination devices for each signal received. Retransmit signals whose

source and destination devices are on different segments out the port connected to the
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destination devices segment.

Bridge Installation

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Multiplexers
A transmission media that provides more capacity than a signal can use. To efficiently use the entire transmission media bandwidth, you can install multiplexers. A multiplexer combines two or more separate signals on a transmission media segment.

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Multiplexer Operations

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Routers
A router translates information from one network to another; it is similar to a super intelligent bridge. Routers connect two or more logically separate networks. Each network is identified by its network address, a logical name assigned to it. Each network in an internet work must be assigned a unique network address. 180

Router Operations

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Routers
Routers are typically much more processing intensive than bridges. As a result, their processing speeds (generally measured in packets or blocks of data forwarded per second) are not usually as high. Routers are capable of much more sophisticated path selection. The decision to buy a bridge or a router hinges on specific requirements and the specific network environment.
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Router Installation

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