Academic English

Style Of Language or Register Continuity & Signposting Referencing & Bibliographies

Characteristics Of Academic English

Formal - avoids slang or colloquial terms Avoids short terms/ contractions Objective - written in third person, not first Foregrounds the ideas/ arguments, not the writer Arguments built on evidence, not unsupported assertions

Writing Academic English

Its obvious that theres loads of evidence to back up what McKinley has said.

This is not how we write academically - the language is informal, opinionated & lacks objectivity. A better formulation would be.
It seems clear that the evidence supporting McKinleys claims is both significant and substantial. See for example; Brown, 2002: 34; Davis & Holt 2000:27; Appleton 1999:104.

I agree with Roberts & Saunders, its not good enough to rehash old (and very dodgy) arguments we need a fresh look at this.

As stated by Roberts & Saunders (1999: 345) new research is needed in this area: our current knowledge is based on outdated & unsatisfactory hypotheses. The company will need to spend loads of money on a more happening image. The stuff it sells at present only appeals to nerdy anorak types and old people. A major marketing makeover is necessary if the company is to achieve a more dynamic and modern image. Sales of the current product range are too dependent on conservative single males and the elderly. I think that the way Stevens & Moore did their experiment was not very good. A lot of people were freaked by the lab set up which, in my opinion, must have affected the way they answered the questions. One criticism of Stevens & Moores experiment relates to their methodology. The

laboratory conditions created a tense, possibly frightening atmosphere, which may have influenced their subjects responses to questions. The Enron scandal is an example of how quickly a
company once held to be a beacon of corporate America can become a financial basket case sinking into a quagmire of corruption and lies. The resulting chaos cries out for tighter financial regulation and raises questions about the over-cosy relationship between the company and the Bush administration.
The Enron scandal illustrates the transitory nature of corporate respectability: the companys reputation, once one of the USAs biggest and most respected corporations, was destroyed by the corrupt and criminal activities of its top executives. The outcome strengthens the case for tighter regulation: not just in terms of accountancy/ auditing procedures, but also checks on the relationship between corporate America and the government.

In my opinion the Hutton report was a complete whitewash. I think Lord Huttons conclusions were outrageously biased in favour of the government he seems to have gone out of his way to ignore the evidence collected by the inquiry. A stitch up like this always happens when the establishment investigates itself.

Many commentators have found Huttons conclusions difficult to reconcile with the evidence before him. He appears to have given the government the benefit of the doubt on all of the key issues. There are several precedents for government commissioned enquiries resulting in similar outcomes.

Continuity & Signposting

You write for a reader - you must make clear when you; are introducing new ideas are reviewing ideas previously considered are previewing material to be covered later in the text are concluding or summarising For example when introducing.. The essay will now consider/ evaluate etc or The discussion will now turn to. or There are two important concepts to be discussed here, namely reliability, & validity. Introductions: Give An idea of sequence Firstly the essay will examine.secondly it will consider....& finally it will evaluate. The essay is written in three sections, each of which considers a different theoretical perspective. Namely these are.. Concluding A review of the available evidence strongly suggests that.

In conclusion, both models can contribute positively to research in this domain. However Cobbs approach is more suited to small scale studies, Bruner is more concerned with the wider perspective.

References & Bibliographies

The reader can identify if the sources relied upon are being used correctly. It also allows the reader to easily access your sources for their own followup research It allows the reader to evaluate your use of critical analysis and your writing skills. It avoids the possibility of plagiarism this occurs when you fail to acknowledge a source thus presenting someone elses ideas as your own.

References & Bibliographies

There are two main systems for referencing
Harvard method Footnote or Cambridge method

Whichever method is adopted you need to

give author(s) name(s)when you are using other peoples ideas/ data in the text of your essay report (short ref.) give full details of all references used at the end of the text

Harvard Method: In The Essay Cottrell (1999:35) states that Self-belief and the right conditions for learning are both vital in developing as a learner. This shows how to use a direct quote - note the speech marks. In brackets we state the year the text was published & the page the quote can be found on. Harvard Method: In The Essay An indirect quote (citation) is displayed as shown below. Cottrell (1999:4) argues that the learning process can be hampered if the student is stressed or bored.

Harvard Method: In The Essay If the text we are referencing has more than two authors we dont need to give all their names in the short ref, as shown below. Currently, the most common theme of adult learning theory is that to be effective, teaching must be learner centred and self directed (French et al 1999:97). Harvard Method: In The Essay
Secondary citation

This occurs when the author of your main source refers to another writers work. For example: It is important that universities help students to adapt to the new learning environment (Bett 1994, cited by French et al 1999:47).

Harvard Method: In The Essay It is generally better to go to the primary source, in this instance Bett. however this may not always be possible. You must always cite the source you have actually read. In this case therefore, the reference would be French et al. Harvard Method: In The Essay Internet Sources Give the author & short web address in the essay. Recent research by David Barnes, (bbc.co.uk) indicates that... Footnote or Cambridge Method: In the Essay Cottrell states that Self-belief and the right conditions for learning are both vital in developing as a learner1.

Currently, the most common theme of adult learning theory is that to be effective, teaching must be learner centred and self directed (French et al 1999:97)2.

Full References Format for Harvard & Footnote/ Endnote conventions are the same EXCEPT
Harvard references are listed alphabetically by author Endnote references run in ascending numerical sequence

Full References For A Book Braverman, H. (1974) Labor and Monopoly Capital: the degradation of work in the twentieth century, London, Monthly Review Press Full References If a book has more than one edition, make clear in the references which edition you have used Handy, C. (1981, 2nd edn) Understanding Organizations, Harmondsworth, Penguin Books Full References For A Single Author's Chapter In An Edited Collection Reeder, D. (1979) 'A recurring debate: education and industry' in Bernbaum, G. (ed.) Schooling in Decline', London, Macmillan

Full References For Articles in Journals Pollert, A. (1998) 'The flexible firm: fixation or fact', Work, Employment and Society, 2(3) pp. 281-316

Full References Online Journals/ Periodicals Cohen, P. (1999) News: against the odds, it worked. New Scientist, (12/07/99), http://www.newscientist.com/ns/970712/nmars.html (accessed 01/08/00) Full References Government Publications DES (1985) Better Schools, London, HMSO
Note that Official Publications are almost always published by government departments & authorship attributed to that department.

Full References General Internet Sources Muir, J (2006) Iraq Heading Towards Precipice http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/4786660.stm (Accessed 09/03/06)