This reference is a work in progress.

I have compiled this reference from various sources:

Analytical Mechanics, 7th ed. by Fowles and Cassiday
Wolfram Mathworld
Wikipedia.org
Introduction to Electrodynamics, 3rd ed. by David J. Griths
Any errors or additions please send me an e-mail at i.am.brian.ford@gmail.com
Series Expansions
Taylor Series
A Taylor series is a series expansion of a function about a point. A one-dimensional Taylor
series expansion of a real function f(x) about a point x = a is given by:
f(x) = f(a) + (x a)f

(a) +
(x a)
2
2!
f

(a) +
(x a)
3
3!
f
(3)
(a) + +
(x a)
n
n!
f
(n)
(a)
f(x) =

n=0
(x a)
n
n!
f
(n)
(a)
MacLaurin Series
A MacLaurin series is nothing more than a Taylor series expansion about x = 0:
f(x) = f(0) + (x)f

(0) +
x
2
2!
f

(0) +
x
3
3!
f
(3)
(0) + +
x
n
n!
f
(n)
(0)
where
f
(n)
(x) =
d
n
dx
n
f(x)
Binomial Series
The most general form:
(x + a)

k=0
_

k
_
x
k
a
k
where the binomial coecient is:
_

k
_
=
!
( k)!k!
The series converges for

x
a

< 1.
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Often Used Expansions
e
x
= 1 + x +
x
2
2!
+ =

n=0
x
n
n!
for all x
sin x = x
x
3
3!
+
x
5
5!
=

n=0
(1)
n
(2n + 1)!
x
2n+1
for all x
cos x = 1
x
2
2!
+
x
4
4!
=

n=0
(1)
n
(2n)!
x
2n
for all x
sinh x = x +
x
3
3!
+
x
5
5!
+ =

n=0
x
2n+1
(2n + 1)!
for all x
cosh x = 1 +
x
2
2!
+
x
4
4!
+ =

n=0
x
2n
(2n)!
for all x
ln(1 x) =

n=1
x
n
n
for 1 x < 1
ln(1 + x) =

n=1
(1)
n+1
x
n
n
for 1 < x 1
tan x = x +
x
3
3
+
2
15
x
5
+ for |x| <

2
Complex Exponential
Setting x = i in the expansion for e
x
becomes:
e
i
= 1 + i +
i
2

2
2!
+
i
3

3
3!
+
because i =

1:
i
n
=
_

_
+1 : n = 0, 4, . . .
1 : n = 2, 6, . . .
+i : n = 1, 5, . . .
i : n = 3, 7, . . .
then:
e
i
=
_
1

2
2!
+

4
4!

_
+ i
_


3
3!
+

5
5!

_
= cos + i sin
from the series for cosine and sine.
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Useful Approximations
For small x, the following approximations are often used
e
x
1 + x
sin x x
cos x 1
1
2
x
2

1 + x 1 +
1
2
x
1
1 + x
1 x
1
1 x
1 + x
The last three are based on the binomial series and can be extended for other values of the
exponent:
(1 + x)
n
= 1 + nx +
1
2
n(n 1)x
2
+
Trigonometric Functions
Circular and Hyperbolic Functions
The following relations are useful
cos =
e
i
+ e
i
2
sin =
e
i
e
i
2i
cosh =
e

+ e

2
sinh =
e

2
tanh =
sinh
cosh
=
e

+ e

Relations between Circular and Hyperbolic Functions

sin i = i sinh
cos i = cosh
sinh i = i sin
cosh i = cos
Derivatives
d
d
sin = cos
d
d
sinh = cosh
d
d
cos = sin
d
d
cosh = sinh
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Trigonometric Identities
cos
2
+ sin
2
= 1
1 + tan
2
= sec
2

1 + cot
2
= csc
2

sin( ) = sin cos cos sin

cos( ) = cos cos sin sin
tan( ) =
tan tan
1 tan tan
sin 2 = 2 sin cos
cos 2 = cos
2
sin
2

tan 2 =
2 tan
1 tan
2

sin
2

2
=
1
2
(1 cos )
cos
2

2
=
1
2
(1 + cos )
tan
2

2
=
1 cos
1 + cos
sin + sin = 2 sin
_
+
2
_
cos
_

2
_
cos + cos = 2 cos
_
+
2
_
cos
_

2
_
tan tan =
sin( )
cos cos
Hyperbolic Identities
cosh
2
sinh
2
= 1
tanh
2
+sech
2
= 1
coth
2
csch
2
= 1
sinh( ) = sinh cosh cosh sinh
cosh( ) = cosh cosh sinh sinh
tanh( ) =
tanh tanh
1 tanh tanh
sinh 2 = 2 sinh cosh
cosh 2 = cosh
2
+ sinh
2

tanh 2 =
2 tanh
1 + tanh
2

sinh
2

2
=
1
2
(cosh 1)
cosh
2

2
=
1
2
(cosh + 1)
tanh
2

2
=
cosh 1
cosh + 1
sinh + sinh = 2 sinh
_
+
2
_
cosh
_

2
_
cosh + cosh = 2 cosh
_
+
2
_
cosh
_

2
_
tanh + tanh =
sinh( + )
cosh cosh
The del

Operator
The

operator is a vector dierential operator. Let denote a scalar eld, and

A a vector
eld. Common operations performed with del include
grad()

div(

A)

A
curl(

A)

A
The Laplacian of

The Vector Laplacian of

A

A
The Directional Derivative of

u,

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Cartesian coordinates
Let denote a scalar eld,

A denote a vector eld.
d

l = dx x + dy y + dz z d = dxdy dz
Gradient:

=

x
x +

y
y +

z
z
Divergence:

A =
A
x
x
+
A
y
y
+
A
z
z
Curl:

A =
_
A
z
y

A
y
z
_
x +
_
A
x
z

A
z
x
_
y +
_
A
y
x

A
x
y
_
z
Laplacian:
2
=

2

x
2
+

2

y
2
+

2

z
2
Spherical polar coordinates
Let denote a scalar eld,

A denote a vector eld.
d

l = dr r + r d

+ r sin d

d = r
2
sin dr d d
Gradient:

=

r
r +
1
r

+
1
r sin

Divergence:

A =
1
r
2

r
(r
2
A
r
) +
1
r sin

(sin A

) +
1
r sin
A

Curl:

A =
1
r sin
_

(sin A

)
A

_
r
+
1
r
_
1
sin
A
r

r
(r A

)
_

+
1
r
_

r
(r A

)
A
r

Laplacian:
2
=
1
r
2

r
_
r
2

r
_
+
1
r
2
sin

_
sin

_
+
1
r
2
sin
2

2
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Cylindrical polar coordinates
Let denote a scalar eld,

A denote a vector eld.
d

l = ds s + s d

+ dz z d = s ds ddz
Gradient:

=

s
s +
1
s

+

z
z
Divergence:

A =
1
s

s
(s A
r
) +
1
s
A

+
A
z
z
Curl:

A =
_
1
s
A
z

z
_
s +
_
A
s
z

A
z
s
_

+
1
s
_

s
(s A

)
A
s

_
z
Laplacian:
2
=
1
s

s
_
s

s
_
+
1
s
2

2
+

2

z
2
Conversions between coordinate systems
Spherical and Cartesian
x = r sin cos
y = r sin sin
z = r cos
r =
_
x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
= tan
1
_
_
x
2
+ y
2
z
_
= tan
1
_
y
z
_
x = sin cos r + cos cos

sin

y = sin sin r + cos sin

+ cos

z = cos r sin

r = sin cos x + sin sin y + cos z

= cos cos x + cos sin y sin z

= sin x + cos y
Cylindrical and Cartesian
x = s cos
y = s sin
z = z
s =
_
x
2
+ y
2
= tan
1
_
y
x
_
z = z
x = cos s sin

y = sin s + cos

z = z
s = cos x + sin y

= sin x + cos y
z = z
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Vector Identities
Triple Products
Let

A,

B,

C be vector elds.

A (

B

C) =

B (

C

A) =

C (

B) (1)

A(

B

C) =

B(

A

C)

C(

B) (2)
Product Rules
Let and be scalar elds.

() = (

) + (

) (3)

B) =

A(

B) +

B(

A) + (

A

)

B+ (

B

)

A (4)

(

A) = (

A) +

A (

) (5)

B) =

B (

A)

A (

B) (6)

(

A) = (

A)

A(

) (7)

B) = (

B

)

A(

A

)

B+

A(

B)

B(

A) (8)
Second Derivatives

A) = 0 (9)

) = 0 (10)

A) =

(

A)
2

A Vector Laplacian (11)

Fundamental Theorems
Note that d is a dierential element of volume, da is a dierential element of area as a vector,
and d

l is a dierential element of length as a vector.

Fundamental Theorem for Path Integrals
(Path Independence, Gradient Theorem):
_

b
a
(

) d

l = (

b) (a)
Divergence Theorem (Gauss Theorem):
_
V
(

A) d =
_
S

A da
Stokes Theorem (Circulation, Curl Theorem):
_
S
(

A) da =
_
C

A d

l
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