EXPERIMENT III By : - Lalit Prakash Vatsal, Karanbir Kajal, Injarapu Udaysankar TITLE Four Probe Experiment OBJECTIVE To measure

e resistivity of a given sample crystal EXPERIMENT SETUP AND PROCEDURE Apparatus required: 1. 4- Probe arrangement: It has 4 individually spring loaded probes. The probes are collinear and equally spaced. The probes are provided insulated by mounting on a Teflon bush. A stand holds the probes, sample plate and RTD sensor. Leads are provided for voltage and current measurements. 2. Sample: Germanium crystal in the form of a chip. 3. Oven: small oven to vary temperature of the sample from room temperature to 2000C. 4. Measuring Unit for 4 probe setup: contains 3 subunits (i) Oven Controller, (ii) Digital Multi range Voltmeter, (iii) Constant Current Generator. Experimental Procedures: 1. Place sample in the middle of the base plate of the 4 probe arrangement. Apply a very gentle pressure (as the Germanium crystal is very brittle hence there is always a risk of its breaking) on the probes and check the continuity of the probes for proper electrical contacts, and tighten the pipe holding the probes at this position. 2. Connect the outer pair of probe leads (red/black) to the constant current generator supply and inner pair of probes leads (green/yellow) to the voltmeter.

3. Place the 4 probe arrangement in the oven and connect the sensor leads to the RTD connector on the panel. 4. Turn on the mains supply of the 4 probe setup and put the digital panel meter in the current measuring mode so that LED facing mA would glow, and set the current to a desired value (we have taken it as 5mA). 5. Put the digital panel meter in the voltage measuring mode so that LED facing mV would glow to read the voltage between the probes. 6. Switch ON the temperature controller and adjust the temperature to the maximum temperature you want to measure (T should not exceed 410 K) and then turn OFF the temperature controller and measure the potential with falling temperature from a max. value after equal intervals of temperature (say after every 5K) take the readings upto about room temperature.

THEORY The general conventional methods that we use generally for measuring the potential difference between two point such as voltmeters, potentiometers etc are not such efficient or satisfactory in the case of the semiconductors as semiconductors are known to form rectifying contacts (Schottky contacts) with metals. Hence, there is always an error associated with them. There is also a minority carrier injection through some of the current carrying contacts which may lead to an erroneous voltage measurement thereby resistivity will also contain an error. The method of 4 probe overcomes the difficulties mentioned above. It also has some advantages over general conventional methods as it can be used to measure resistivity of samples of different shapes, it can also be employed to measure resistivity of small region within bigger samples. In this manner resistivity of both sides of a p n junction can be measured precisely before material is cut into bars to make devices.

In this method of measuring the resistivity the 4 sharp probes are placed on the flat surface of the material of which the resistivity is to be measured, a current is passed though the two outermost electrodes (probes) and the middle two electrodes (probes) are used to measure the floating potential across them. If the flat surface on which the probes are rest is adequately large and the crystal is big then the semiconductor sample may be considered to be of semi infinite volume. To prevent the minority carrier injection through the contacts, the surface on which the probes are rest is mechanically lapped.

For using the 4 probe method to measure the resistivity, the following assumptions are made: 1. The resistivity of the material is uniform in the area of measurement 2. Minority carriers, if injected by electrodes recombines near the electrodes leaving no contribution to conductivity (i.e. measurement should made on the surfaces having high recombination rate e.g. mechanically lapsed surfaces). 3. Surface on which the probes rest if flat with no surface leakage. 4. 4 probes contacts lie in a straight line. 5. Diameter of contact between the metallic probe and semiconductor should be smaller than the distance between the probes. 6. The boundry between the current carrying electrodes and the bulk material is hemispherical and small in diameter.

OBSERVATION & CALCULATION Given parameters: s = distance between probes = 2mm, w = thickness of crystal = .5mm Now, 0 = where, I = 5mA

And, = [ = =

( ) ( )

Using the above expression we can get the value of (resistivity) at a particular voltage keeping current constant.

TEMPERATURE(K) VOLTAGE(V) 400 0.46 395 0.55 390 0.6 385 0.68 380 0.77 375 0.88 370 0.99 365 1.14 360 1.28 355 1.43 350 1.62 345 1.78 340 1.99 335 2.11 330 2.25 325 2.34 320 2.42 315 2.43 310 2.43 305 2.4 300 2.36

0.2085 0.24928 0.27194 0.3082 0.34899 0.39885 0.4487 0.51669 0.58014 0.64813 0.734242 0.80676 0.90194 0.95633 1.01978 1.060572 1.09683 1.10136348 1.10136348 1.0877664 1.06963696

(1/T)1000 log() 2.5 -0.6809 2.53 -0.6033 2.5641 -0.5655 2.5974 -0.5112 2.6316 -0.4572 2.6667 -0.3992 2.7027 -0.348 2.739763 -0.2868 2.7778 -0.2365 2.8169 -0.1883 2.857143 -0.1342 2.898551 -0.0933 2.9412 -0.0448 2.9851 -0.0194 3.0303 0.00851 3.0769 0.0255 3.125 0.04014 3.1746 0.0419 3.22581 0.041930671 3.2787 0.036536 3.333 0.02924

Using the values of resistivity and temperature, here is the graph between log() and inverse of temperature.

X axis = (1000/T) Y axis = log10

Since,

( )

( ) or log10 = log10(e).(Eg/2kT) log10K where K =

( )

some constant Therefore, slope = Hence, Eg = ( ( ) ( ) ) ( ( ) =

( ) ( )

= 1.3582

( )) = 0.539eV = 8.6357410-20J

Error in calculation of Eg = ((0.67 0.539)/0.67)*100 = 19.5 Hence, by calculating the slope of the log() vs 1/T curve we can find the Eg of the sample material.

RESULT We have found out the resistivity and temperature relationship of a Germanium sample crystal by a graph plotted between log() and inverse of temperature. We also calculated out the energy band gap of the Germanium sample crystal (0.539eV with an error of 19.5 ).