Rectification

Introduction










































Registration
















Rectification

Rectification



Raw, remotely sensed image data gathered by a satellite or aircraft are
representations of the irregular surface of the Earth. Even images of
seemingly flat areas are distorted by both the curvature of the Earth and
the sensor being used. This chapter covers the processes of
geometrically correcting an image so that it can be represented on a
planar surface, conform to other images, and have the integrity of a
map.

A map projection system is any system designed to represent the
surface of a sphere or spheroid (such as the Earth) on a plane. There
are a number of different map projection methods. Since flattening a
sphere to a plane causes distortions to the surface, each map
projection system compromises accuracy between certain properties,
such as conservation of distance, angle, or area. For example, in equal
area map projections, a circle of a specified diameter drawn at any
location on the map represents the same total area. This is useful for
comparing land use area, density, and many other applications.
However, to maintain equal area, the shapes, angles, and scale in parts
of the map may be distorted (Jensen, 1996).

There are a number of map coordinate systems for determining location
on an image. These coordinate systems conform to a grid, and are
expressed as X,Y (column, row) pairs of numbers. Each map projection
system is associated with a map coordinate system.

Rectification is the process of transforming the data from one grid
system into another grid system using a geometric transformation.
While polynomial transformation and triangle-based methods are
described in this chapter, discussion about various rectification
techniques can be found in Yang (Yang, 1997). Since the pixels of the
new grid may not align with the pixels of the original grid, the pixels must
be resampled. Resampling is the process of extrapolating data values
for the pixels on the new grid from the values of the source pixels.

In many cases, images of one area that are collected from different
sources must be used together. To be able to compare separate
images pixel by pixel, the pixel grids of each image must conform to the
other images in the data base. The tools for rectifying image data are
used to transform disparate images to the same coordinate system.










257

257










Registration is the process of making an image conform to another
image. A map coordinate system is not necessarily involved. For
example, if image A is not rectified and it is being used with image B,
then image B must be registered to image A so that they conform to
each other. In this example, image A is not rectified to a particular map
projection, so there is no need to rectify image B to a map projection.

Georeferencing



















Latitude/Longitude
























Orthorectification













258

Georeferencing refers to the process of assigning map coordinates to
image data. The image data may already be projected onto the desired
plane, but not yet referenced to the proper coordinate system.
Rectification, by definition, involves georeferencing, since all map
projection systems are associated with map coordinates. Image-to-
image registration involves georeferencing only if the reference image
is already georeferenced. Georeferencing, by itself, involves changing
only the map coordinate information in the image file. The grid of the
image does not change.

Geocoded data are images that have been rectified to a particular map
projection and pixel size, and usually have had radiometric corrections
applied. It is possible to purchase image data that is already geocoded.
Geocoded data should be rectified only if they must conform to a
different projection system or be registered to other rectified data.

Lat/Lon is a spherical coordinate system that is not associated with a
map projection. Lat/Lon expresses locations in the terms of a spheroid,
not a plane. Therefore, an image is not usually rectified to Lat/Lon,
although it is possible to convert images to Lat/Lon, and some tips for
doing so are included in this chapter.



You can view map projection information for a particular file using
the Image Information utility. Image Information allows you to
modify map information that is incorrect. However, you cannot
rectify data using Image Information. You must use the
Rectification tools described in this chapter.



The properties of map projections and of particular map projection
systems are discussed in "Cartography" on page 217 and "Map
Projections" on page 303.

Orthorectification is a form of rectification that corrects for terrain
displacement and can be used if there is a DEM of the study area. It is
based on collinearity equations, which can be derived by using 3D
GCPs. In relatively flat areas, orthorectification is not necessary, but in
mountainous areas (or on aerial photographs of buildings), where a
high degree of accuracy is required, orthorectification is recommended.







Rectification









See "Photogrammetric Concepts" on page 609 for more
information on orthocorrection.


When to Rectify



Rectification is necessary in cases where the pixel grid of the image
must be changed to fit a map projection system or a reference image.
There are several reasons for rectifying image data:





















comparing pixels scene to scene in applications, such as change
detection or thermal inertia mapping (day and night comparison)

developing GIS data bases for GIS modeling

identifying training samples according to map coordinates prior to
classification

creating accurate scaled photomaps

overlaying an image with vector data, such as ArcInfo

comparing images that are originally at different scales

extracting accurate distance and area measurements

mosaicking images

performing any other analyses requiring precise geographic
locations

Before rectifying the data, you must determine the appropriate
coordinate system for the data base. To select the optimum map
projection and coordinate system, the primary use for the data base
must be considered.

If you are doing a government project, the projection may be
predetermined. A commonly used projection in the United States
government is State Plane. Use an equal area projection for thematic
or distribution maps and conformal or equal area projections for
presentation maps. Before selecting a map projection, consider the
following:
















Rectification






How large or small an area is mapped? Different projections are
intended for different size areas.

Where on the globe is the study area? Polar regions and equatorial
regions require different projections for maximum accuracy.








259














What is the extent of the study area? Circular, north-south, east-
west, and oblique areas may all require different projection systems
(Environmental Systems Research Institute, 1992).

When to Georeference
Only

Rectification is not necessary if there is no distortion in the image. For
example, if an image file is produced by scanning or digitizing a paper
map that is in the desired projection system, then that image is already
planar and does not require rectification unless there is some skew or
rotation of the image. Scanning and digitizing produce images that are
planar, but do not contain any map coordinate information. These
images need only to be georeferenced, which is a much simpler
process than rectification. In many cases, the image header can simply
be updated with new map coordinate information. This involves
redefining:





the map coordinate of the upper left corner of the image

the cell size (the area represented by each pixel)

This information is usually the same for each layer of an image file,
although it could be different. For example, the cell size of band 6 of
Landsat TM data is different than the cell size of the other bands.



Use the Image Information utility to modify image file header
information that is incorrect.

Disadvantages of
Rectification

During rectification, the data file values of rectified pixels must be
resampled to fit into a new grid of pixel rows and columns. Although
some of the algorithms for calculating these values are highly reliable,
some spectral integrity of the data can be lost during rectification. If map
coordinates or map units are not needed in the application, then it may
be wiser not to rectify the image. An unrectified image is more spectrally
correct than a rectified image.

Classification

Some analysts recommend classification before rectification, since the
classification is then based on the original data values. Another benefit
is that a thematic file has only one band to rectify instead of the multiple
bands of a continuous file. On the other hand, it may be beneficial to
rectify the data first, especially when using GPS data for the GCPs.
Since these data are very accurate, the classification may be more
accurate if the new coordinates help to locate better training samples.












260












Rectification





Thematic Files

Nearest neighbor is the only appropriate resampling method for
thematic files, which may be a drawback in some applications. The
available resampling methods are discussed in detail later in this
chapter.

Rectification Steps

NOTE: Registration and rectification involve similar sets of procedures.
Throughout this documentation, many references to rectification also
apply to image-to-image registration.

Usually, rectification is the conversion of data file coordinates to some
other grid and coordinate system, called a reference system. Rectifying
or registering image data on disk involves the following general steps,
regardless of the application:

1. Locate GCPs.

2. Compute and test a transformation.

3. Create an output image file with the new coordinate information in the
header. The pixels must be resampled to conform to the new grid.

Images can be rectified on the display (in a Viewer) or on the disk.
Display rectification is temporary, but disk rectification is permanent,
because a new file is created. Disk rectification involves:






rearranging the pixels of the image onto a new grid, which conforms
to a plane in the new map projection and coordinate system

inserting new information to the header of the file, such as the upper
left corner map coordinates and the area represented by each pixel




Resampling
Methods



The next step in the rectification/registration process is to create the
output file. Since the grid of pixels in the source image rarely matches
the grid for the reference image, the pixels are resampled so that new
data file values for the output file can be calculated.

Figure 83: Resampling

GCP





GCP









1. The input image with
source GCPs.

GCP





GCP









2. The output grid, with
reference GCPs shown.










3
.

T
o

c
o
m
p

are the two grids, the
input image is laid over the
output grid, so that the GCPs
of the two grids fit together.










4. Using a resampling method,
the pixel values of the input
image are assigned to pixels
in the output grid.

The following resampling methods are supported in ERDAS IMAGINE:














282



Nearest Neighbor on page 283uses the value of the closest pixel
to assign to the output pixel value.










Rectification
























Bilinear Interpolation on page 284uses the data file values of
four pixels in a 2 2 window to calculate an output value with a
bilinear function.

Cubic Convolution on page 288uses the data file values of
sixteen pixels in a 4 4 window to calculate an output value with a
cubic function.

Bicubic Spline Interpolation on page 290fits a cubic spline
surface through the current block of points.

In all methods, the number of rows and columns of pixels in the output
is calculated from the dimensions of the output map, which is
determined by the geometric transformation and the cell size. The
output corners (upper left and lower right) of the output file can be
specified. The default values are calculated so that the entire source file
is resampled to the destination file.

If an image to image rectification is being performed, it may be
beneficial to specify the output corners relative to the reference file
system, so that the images are coregistered. In this case, the upper left
X and upper left Y coordinate are 0,0 and not the defaults.



If the output units are pixels, then the origin of the image is the
upper left corner. Otherwise, the origin is the lower left corner.

Rectifying to Lat/Lon

















Nearest Neighbor














Rectification

You can specify the nominal cell size if the output coordinate system is
Lat/Lon. The output cell size for a geographic projection (i.e., Lat/Lon)
is always in angular units of decimal degrees. However, if you want the
cell to be a specific size in meters, you can enter meters and calculate
the equivalent size in decimal degrees. For example, if you want the
output file cell size to be 30 30 meters, then the program would
calculate what this size would be in decimal degrees and automatically
update the output cell size. Since the transformation between angular
(decimal degrees) and nominal (meters) measurements varies across
the image, the transformation is based on the center of the output file.



Enter the nominal cell size in the Nominal Cell Size dialog.

To determine an output pixels nearest neighbor, the rectified
coordinates (xo, yo) of the pixel are retransformed back to the source
coordinate system using the inverse of the transformation. The
retransformed coordinates (xr, yr) are used in bilinear interpolation and
cubic convolution as well. The pixel that is closest to the retransformed
coordinates (xr, yr) is the nearest neighbor. The data file value(s) for
that pixel become the data file value(s) of the pixel in the output image.





283



Advantages Disadvantages
Transfers original data values
without averaging them as the other
methods do; therefore, the
extremes and subtleties of the data
values are not lost. This is an
important consideration when
discriminating between vegetation
types, locating an edge associated
with a lineament, or determining
different levels of turbidity or
temperatures in a lake
(Jensen, 1996).
When this method is used to
resample from a larger to a smaller
grid size, there is usually a stair
stepped effect around diagonal lines
and curves.
Suitable for use before
classification.
Data values may be dropped, while
other values may be duplicated.
The easiest of the three methods to
compute and the fastest to use.
Using on linear thematic data (e.g.,
roads, streams) may result in breaks
or gaps in a network of linear data.
Appropriate for thematic files, which
can have data file values based on
a qualitative (nominal or ordinal)
system or a quantitative (interval or
ratio) system. The averaging that is
performed with bilinear interpolation
and cubic convolution is not suited
to a qualitative class value system.






Figure 84: Nearest Neighbor



(xr,yr)


nearest to
(xr,yr)










































Bilinear Interpolation














284










































In bilinear interpolation, the data file value of the rectified pixel is based
upon the distances between the retransformed coordinate location (xr,
yr) and the four closest pixels in the input (source) image (see Figure
85). In this example, the neighbor pixels are numbered 1, 2, 3, and 4.
Given the data file values of these four pixels on a grid, the task is to
calculate a data file value for r (Vr).







Rectification





d
a
t
a

f
i
l
e

v
a
l
u
e
s

Vm = ------------------ dy + V1





Figure 85: Bilinear Interpolation
1


dy
2
m

dx
r n

(xr,yr)



3




D



4
r is the location of the retransformed coordinate

To calculate Vr, first Vm and Vn are considered. By interpolating Vm and
Vn, you can perform linear interpolation, which is a simple process to
illustrate. If the data file values are plotted in a graph relative to their
distances from one another, then a visual linear interpolation is
apparent. The data file value of m (Vm) is a function of the change in the
data file value between pixels 3 and 1 (that is, V3 - V1).

Figure 86: Linear Interpolation
Calculating a data file value as a function
of spatial distance between two pixels

V3



Vm
V1




(V3 - V1) / D





Y1





Ym





Y3
D
data file coordinates
(Y)

The equation for calculating Vm from V1 and V3 is:


V3 V1
D






Rectification






285

Vn = ------------------ dy + V2
Vr = ------------------- dx + Vm
------------------ dy + V2 -----------------1- dy + V1
Vr = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- dx + ------------------ dy + V1
V1( D dx )( D dy ) + V2( dx )( D dy ) + V3 ( D dx )( dy ) + V4( dx ) ( dy )
Vr = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------





Where:

Yi
Vi
dy

D

= the Y coordinate for pixel i
= the data file value for pixel i
= the distance between Y1 and Ym in the source coordinate
system
= the distance between Y1 and Y3 in the source coordinate
system

If one considers that (V3 - V1 / D) is the slope of the line in the graph
above, then this equation translates to the equation of a line in y = mx +
b form.

Similarly, the equation for calculating the data file value for n (Vn) in the
pixel grid is:


V4 V2
D

From Vn and Vm, the data file value for r, which is at the retransformed
coordinate location (xr,yr),can be calculated in the same manner:


Vn Vm
D

The following is attained by plugging in the equations for Vm and Vn to
this final equation for Vr :



V4 V2 V3 V
D D V3 V1
D D




D2

In most cases D = 1, since data file coordinates are used as the source
coordinates and data file coordinates increment by 1.








286








Rectification

Advantages Disadvantages
Results in output images that are
smoother, without the stair-stepped
effect that is possible with nearest
neighbor.
Since pixels are averaged, bilinear
interpolation has the effect of a low-
frequency convolution. Edges are
smoothed, and some extremes of the
data file values are lost.
More spatially accurate than nearest
neighbor.
This method is often used when
changing the cell size of the data,
such as in SPOT/TM merges within
the 2 2 resampling matrix limit.

( D xi )( D yi )
---------------------------------------------- Vi
D





Some equations for bilinear interpolation express the output data file
value as:


Vr =


wiVi

Where:

wi is a weighting factor

The equation above could be expressed in a similar format, in which the
calculation of wi is apparent:








Where:




Vr =


4


i = 1

xi

yi

Vi
D

= the change in the X direction between (xr,yr) and the data
file coordinate of pixel i
= the change in the Y direction between (xr,yr) and the data
file coordinate of pixel i
= the data file value for pixel i
= the distance between pixels (in X or Y) in the source
coordinate system

For each of the four pixels, the data file value is weighted more if the
pixel is closer to (xr, yr).




























Rectification




























287











See "Enhancement" on page 459 for more about convolution
filtering.

Cubic Convolution

Cubic convolution is similar to bilinear interpolation, except that:






a set of 16 pixels, in a 4 4 array, are averaged to determine the
output data file value, and

an approximation of a cubic function, rather than a linear function,
is applied to those 16 input values.

To identify the 16 pixels in relation to the retransformed coordinate
(xr,yr), the pixel (i,j) is used, such that:

i = int (xr)
j = int (yr)

This assumes that (xr,yr) is expressed in data file coordinates (pixels).
The pixels around (i,j) make up a 4 4 grid of input pixels, as illustrated
in Figure 87.

Figure 87: Cubic Convolution




(i,j)

(Xr,Yr)










Since a cubic, rather than a linear, function is used to weight the 16
input pixels, the pixels farther from (xr, yr) have exponentially less
weight than those closer to (xr, yr).















288















Rectification

( a + 2 ) x 3 ( a + 3 ) x 2 + 1
f( x ) = a x 3 5a x 2 + 8a x 4a





Several versions of the cubic convolution equation are used in the field.
Different equations have different effects upon the output data file
values. Some convolutions may have more of the effect of a low-
frequency filter (like bilinear interpolation), serving to average and
smooth the values. Others may tend to sharpen the image, like a high-
frequency filter. The cubic convolution used in ERDAS IMAGINE is a
compromise between low-frequency and high-frequency. The general
effect of the cubic convolution depends upon the data.

The formula used in ERDAS IMAGINE is:


4
Vr =
V( i 1, j + n 2 ) f( d( i 1, j + n 2 ) + 1 ) +
n = 1

V( i, j + n 2 ) f( d( i, j + n 2 ) ) +



V( i + 1, j + n 2 ) f( d( i + 1, j + n 2 ) 1 ) +




Where:

i
j

= int (xr)
= int (yr)
d(i,j) = the distance between a pixel with coordinates (i,j) and
(xr,yr)
V(i,j)
Vr
a
f(x)
= the data file value of pixel (i,j)
= the output data file value
= -1 (a constant)
= the following function:























Rectification





0


Source: Atkinson, 1985



if x < 1
if 1 < x < 2
otherwise























289

Advantages Disadvantages
Uses 4 4 resampling. In most
cases, the mean and standard
deviation of the output pixels match
the mean and standard deviation of
the input pixels more closely than
any other resampling method.
Data values may be altered.
The effect of the cubic curve
weighting can both sharpen the
image and smooth out noise
(Atkinson, 1985). The actual
effects depend upon the data being
used.
This method is extremely slow.
This method is recommended when
you are dramatically changing the
cell size of the data, such as in
TM/aerial photo merges (i.e.,
matches the 4 4 window more
closely than the 2 2 window).




































Bicubic Spline
Interpolation



































Bicubic Spline Interpolation is based on fitting a cubic spline surface
through the current block of points. The output value is derived from the
fitting surface that will retain the values of the known points. This
algorithm is much slower than other methods of interpolation, but it has
the advantage of giving a more exact fit to the curve without the
oscillations that other interpolation methods can create. Bicubic Spline
Interpolation is so similar to Bilinear Interpolation that unless you have
the need to maximize surface smoothness, you should use Bilinear
Interpolation.

Data Points

The known data points are an array of raster of m n,























290























Rectification