1

Tds EQUATIONS
Tds EQUATIONS
2
ENTROPY
We have defined entropy and specific entropy,
S and s, such that
R
T
Q
S S
(

=

2
1
1 2

S is in kJ/K or
Btu/ R.
and
R
T
q
s s
(

=

2
1
1 2

s is in kJ/(kg.K)
or Btu/(lbm.R).
3
Ts DIAGRAM
The specific entropy,
s, of a pure substance
may be determined
from tables, similar
to the way other
specific properties, v,
u, and h, may be
obtained from tables.
s
f
@ T
1
4
Constant
pressure lines
Constant
volume lines
Ts DIAGRAM FOR WATER
5
Ts DIAGRAM vs. Pv DIAGRAM
Recall that the Pv diagram was very
important in First Law analysis, and that

=
2
1
dv P w
Work was the area under the curve.
1
2
P
v
Area
= Work
6
R
T
Q
dS
|
.
|

\
|
=

dS T Q and ds T q = =

= =
2
1
2
1
TdS Q and Tds q
Rearrange,
Integrate,
R
T
q
ds
|
.
|

\
|
=

Ts DIAGRAM
7
TS DIAGRAM (CONT.)
On a TS diagram,
the area under an
internally reversible
process curve
represents the heat
transfer during the
process.
8
Tds EQUATIONS
For a simple closed system, the 1st Law gives:
Tds = du + Pdv TdS = dU + PdV
dU W Q du w q = =
dU dV P dS T du dv P ds T = =
For a reversible process:
9
Tds EQUATIONS (CONT.)
Since h = u + Pv and H = U + PV,
The Tds equations may be written in terms of dh.
) ( ) ( PV H d dV P dS T Pv h d dv P ds T + = + =
Note that d(Pv) = Pdv + vdP and d(PV) = PdV + VdP
Tds = dh vdP TdS = dH VdP
10
Tds EQUATIONS (CONT.)
Entropy is a property. The Tds equations that we
just derived express entropy change in terms of
changes of other properties. Since properties are
independent of the path of a process, reversible or
irreversible, the Tds equations may be used to
calculate the entropy change between any two
states.
TdS = dU + PdV
TdS = dH VdP
Tds = du + Pdv
Tds = dh vdP
11
ENTROPY CHANGE USING
Tds EQUATIONS
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
1
2
1
2
1 2
P
P
ln R
T
T
ln c s s
p
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
1
2
1
2
1 2
v
v
ln R
T
T
ln c s s
v
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
1
2
1 2
T
T
ln c s s
Ideal gases (constant specific heat)
Incompressible substances (constant specific heat)
12
ENTROPY CHANGE USING
Tds EQUATIONS (CONT.)
Ideal gases (with specific heat values that are not constant)
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
1
2
o
1
o
2 1 2
) (
P
P
ln R s s s s
( ) ( ) ( ). T s s and , T s s ,
T
dT
c T s where
T
p 2
o
2
o
2 1
o
1
o
1
0
o
= = =

=
2
1
o
1
o
2
) (
T
dT
c s s
p
o
1
s
o
2
s Note that, and and have the
unit of kJ/(kg.K) or Btu/(lbm.R).
13
TEAM PLAY
Consider nitrogen gas (N
2
). Determine
the change of entropy if the initial
temperature and pressure of the nitrogen
gas are 400 K and 150 kPa, and the final
temperature and pressure are 1,200 K and
300 kPa.
Please express your answer in kJ/(kg.K).
14
SAMPLE PROBLEM
A rigid tank contains 1 lbm of carbon
monoxide at 1 atm and 90F. Heat is
added until the pressure reaches 1.5 atm.
Assuming the carbon monoxide has the
properties of an ideal gas, compute:
(a) The heat transfer in Btu.
(b) The entropy change in Btu/R.
15
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
State 1:
P
1
= 1.0 atm
T
1
= 90

F
A rigid tank with
1 lbm of CO ---
volume is constant
State 2:
P
2
= 1.5 atm
Q
16
ASSUMPTIONS
CO is an ideal gas;
CO in tank is the system;
rigid tank --- no expansion work;
no kinetic energy change;
no potential energy change;
constant specific heats.
17
APPLY 1st LAW
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
PE + KE + U W Q =
0 0 0
For constant specific heats,
( )
1 2
T T mc = Q
v

T
2
is not known; may
be determined using
the Ideal Gas Law
18
IDEAL GAS EQUATION OF STATE
1
2
1 1
2 2
mRT
mRT
V P
V P
=
Solving for T
2
,
1
1
2
2
T
P
P
T
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
( ) R R
o o
825 460 90
1.0
1.5
= +
|
.
|

\
|
=
19
SOLUTION --- HEAT TRANSFER
( ) R
R lbm.
Btu
lbm Q
o
o
550 825 18 . 0 ) 1 (
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
Btu Q 5 . 49 =
20
SOLUTION --- ENTROPY CHANGE
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
1
2
1
2
1 2
v
v
ln R
T
T
ln c m S S
v
0
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
1
2
1 2
T
T
ln c m S S
v
Since v
2
= v
1
,
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
R
R
ln
R lbm.
Btu
. lbm 1 S S
o
o
o
550
825
18 0 ) (
1 2
R / Btu . S S
o
073 0
1 2
=
21
TEAMPLAY
A thermally insulated 30-ohm resistor receives a
current of 6 A. The mass of the resistor is 0.1
lbm, its specific heat is 0.2 Btu/(lbm.R), and its
initial temperature, is 70F. Express the
temperature of the resistor and the entropy
change functions of time.
What is the entropy change after 3 seconds?
22
ENTROPY
ENTROPY
AND
AND
ENTROPY GENERATION
ENTROPY GENERATION
23
REVIEW
R
T
Q
S S
(

2
1
1 2

Entropy is a property.
R
dS T Q
(

=

2
1
On a TS diagram, the area under an internally
reversible process curve represents the heat
transfer during the process.
Tds equations: Tds = du + Pdv
Tds = dh vdP
24
REVIEW (CONT.)
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
1
2
1 2
T
T
ln c s s
Incompressible substances
Ideal gases
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
1
2
1
2
1 2
v
v
ln R
T
T
ln c s s
v
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
1
2
1
2
1 2
P
P
ln R
T
T
ln c s s
p
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
1
2
o
1
o
2 1 2
) (
P
P
ln R s s s s
25
HEAT TRANSFER DURING AN
INTERNALLY REVERSIBLE PROCESS
T
s
P = constant
1
v = constant
3
2
Area under path
= heat transfer
R
dS T Q
(

=

2
1
R
dS T Q
(

=

3
1
Ts diagram
26
REVERSIBLE ADIABATIC PROCESS
T
s
P = constant
1
v = constant
3
2
Area under path
= heat transfer
0
3
2
2 3
=
(

=

R
T
q
s s

2 3
s s =
A reversible adiabatic process is also called an
isentropic process (isentropic = constant entropy).
2-3 is an isentropic
process, s = constant
Ts diagram
27
CARNOT CYCLE
Carnot cycle includes four reversible
processes:
adiabatic compression process
isothermal heat absorption process
adiabatic expansion processes
isothermal heat rejection process
28
T
s
CARNOT CYCLE
1
4
3
2
Heat absorption, q
H
Heat rejection, q
L
T
H
T
L
Adiabatic
expansion,
q = 0
Adiabatic
compression,
q = 0
29
THERMAL EFFICIENCY
OF CARNOT CYCLE
L H
cycle cycle net
q q
q w w
=
= =
Heat added:
) (
2 3
3
2
23
s s T Tds q q
H H
= = =

Heat rejected:
) (
1 4
1
4
41
s s T Tds q q
L L
= = =

30
THERMAL EFFICIENCY
OF CARNOT CYCLE (CONT.)
(s
3
s
2
) = (s
4
s
1
)
| |
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
2 3
1 4 2 3 41 23
s s T T
s s T s s T q q w
L H
L H net
=
= =
added
net
q
w
=
) (
) ( ) (
2 3
2 3
s s T
s s T T
H
L H

=
H
L H
T
T T ) (
=
H
L
q
q
or
=1
H
L
Carnot
T
T
=1
) (
) (
1
2 3
1 4
s s T
s s T
H
L

=
31
CARNOT CYCLE
T
s
Heat absorption
Heat rejection
Area = ,W
net
,
= ,Q
H
, ,Q
L
,
Area = ,Q
L
,
1
2 3
4
s
1
, s
2
s
3
, s
4
T
L
T
H
32
EXAMPLE PROBLEM
A Carnot cycle operates with steam as the
working medium. At the end of the adiabatic
compression, the pressure is 15 bars and the
quality is 20%. The steam expands from 15 bars
as a saturated vapor to 1 bar. Find
(a) the efficiency of the cycle;
(b) the net work done per cycle in kJ/kg.
33
Ts DIAGRAM
T
s
P = 1 bar
Sat. vapor
line
Sat.
liquid line
P = 15 bars
4 3
1 2
Carnot Cycle
T = T
sat @ 15 bars
= 198.32C
T = T
sat @ 1 bar
= 99.63C
34
THERMAL EFFICIENCY
Thermal efficiency of a Carnot Cycle
H
L
Carnot
T
T
=1
Since T
H
= 198.32C and T
L
= 99.63C,
K . .
K . .
) 15 273 32 198 (
) 15 273 63 99 (
1
+
+
=
2093 0. =
35
NET WORK DONE PER CYCLE
Since = |W
net
| / |Q
H
| and |Q
H
| = T
H
S, the
net work done is
) ,557.64 1 ( 2093 0
) 1410 3 4448 6 ( ) 47 471 ( 2093 0
) (
kJ/kg .
K . kg
kJ
. . K . .
S T W
H net
=
=
=
kJ/kg . W
net
0 326 =
36
EFFECT OF IRREVERSIBLE HEAT
TRANSFER ON PERFORMANCE
Let us consider an air conditioner that is used to
maintain the air temperature inside a house at
75F while the outdoor air temperature is 100F.
What is the maximum COP of the air conditioner?
If there is a temperature difference of 10F
between the air and the refrigerant, what is the
maximum COP of the air conditioner?
37
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
Outdoor air at T
H
= 100F
Condenser at (T
H
+ 10F)
Evaporator at (T
L
10F)
Indoor air at T
L
= 75F
Work
Compressor
Air conditioner
38
COEFFICIENT OF PERFORMANCE
OF AIR CONDITIONER
Maximum COP or Carnot COP, assuming reversible heat
transfer:
40 21
) 535 560 (
535
o
o
.
R
R
T T
T
LR HR
LR
Carnot
=

=
Ideal COP of refrigerator, taking into consideration T =
10F between air and refrigerant:
67 11
) 525 570 (
525
o
o
.
R
R
T T
T
L H
L
=

=
A reduction
of about 45%!
39
ENTROPY GENERATION
Since for an irreversible
cycle,
Consider a cycle 1-2-1. A is the path of an irreversible
process, and B is the path of a reversible process, between
states 1 and 2.
A
B
1
2
0 <

T
Q
0
1
2
2
1
<
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
.
|

\
|

B A
T
Q
T
Q
I
T
Q
S S
|
.
|

\
|
>

2
1
1 2
) (

B A
T
Q
T
Q
|
.
|

\
|
<
|
.
|

\
|

2
1
2
1

) (
1 2
S S
I = irreversible
40
ENTROPY GENERATION (CONT.)
Introducing a term called entropy generation, such that
gen
I
S
T
Q
S S +
|
.
|

\
|
=

2
1
1 2
) (

Entropy generation;
always > 0 for any
irreversible process.
Entropy change of
the system; may be
+ or .
Net entropy transfer to the
system as a result of heat
transfer; may be + or .
S
gen
0
41
PRINCIPLE OF
INCREASE OF ENTROPY
For an adiabatic system, Q = 0,
> for irreversible processes,
= for reversible processes.
0 ) (
1 2
S S
The entropy always increases. This is called
the Principle of Increase of Entropy.
Considering the Universe as an isolated,
adiabatic system, the total entropy in the
Universe always increases.
42
ENTROPY RATE BALANCE,
ENTROPY RATE BALANCE,
ISENTROPIC PROCESSES,
ISENTROPIC PROCESSES,
AND
AND
ISENTROPIC EFFICIENCIES
ISENTROPIC EFFICIENCIES
43
ENTROPY RATE BALANCE
FOR A CONTROL VOLUME
Entropy may be transferred or convected into and
out of an open system or (a control volume). The
entropy rate balance equation becomes
gen e e i i
cv
S s m s m
T
Q
dt
dS
&
& &
&
+ + =

44
ENTROPY RATE BALANCE
FOR A CONTROL VOLUME (CONT.)
Rate of
change of
entropy
within CV.
Rate of
entropy
transfer
into CV as
a result of
heat
transfer.
Rate of
entropy
generation
due to
irreversi-
bilities in
the CV.
Net rate of entropy
transfer into CV as
a result of mass
flow.
gen e e i i
cv
S s m s m
T
Q
dt
dS
&
& &
&
+ + =

45
ENTROPY RATE BALANCE
FOR A CONTROL VOLUME (CONT.)
gen e i
S s s m
T
Q
&
&
&
+ + = ) ( 0
For steady flow with one inlet and one exit, the
equation becomes
0
For steady flow through an adiabatic system
with one inlet and one exit,
i e
s s 0
i e
s s
or
46
ADIABATIC COMPRESSION
PROCESS ON A Ts DIAGRAM
P
1
P
2
> P
1
s
T
Forbidden
zone
1
2
2a
2

2s

a = actual
s = isentropic
47
ADIABATIC EXPANSION PROCESS
ON A Ts DIAGRAM
P
2
< P
1
P
1
s
T
Forbidden
zone
2
1
2a 2

2s

a = actual
s = isentropic
48
ISENTROPIC PROCESSES
For ideal gases with variable specific heats,
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
1
2
1
o
2
o
1 2
P
P
ln R ) T ( s ) T ( s s s
0 =
If T
1
, P
1
, and P
2
are known, and T
2
is needed,
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
1
2
1
o
2
o
) ( ) (
P
P
ln R T s T s
49
ISENTROPIC PROCESSES (CONT.)
If P
1
, T
1
, and T
2
are known, and P
2
is needed,
] / ) ( [
] / ) ( [ ) ( ) (
1
o
2
o
1
o
2
o
1
2
R T s exp
R T s exp
R
T s T s
exp
P
P
=
(

=
) (
) (
1
2
1
2
1
2
T P
T P
P
P
P
P
r
r
r
r
= =
|
|
.
|

\
| If
] )/ ( [ ) (
o
R T s exp T P
r

Relative pressure
Note: P
r
is not a pressure in spite of its name. It has
no units. P
r
only works for isentropic processes.
Dont try to use it for any other process!
50
TEAMPLAY
Find the final pressure of air that undergoes an
isentropic process from an initial state at 14.7
psia and 60F to a final state at 620F,
(a) using values of s;
(b) using relative pressure values from the
ideal gas table for air.
51
TEAMPLAY
A gas turbine operates adiabatically and reversibly.
At the inlet, the pressure and temperature are 120 psia
and 100F. Find the work output by the turbine for the
following pressures at the exit: 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10
and 0, all in psia.
Turn in the following:
equations;
a table showing values of exit pressure, enthalpy,
temperature, and work;
a plot of turbine work output (ordinate) versus exit
pressure (abscissa).
52
ISENTROPIC PROCESSES (CONT.)
For isentropic processes, there is a similar
relationship for the specific volume ratios:
) (
) (
1
2
1
2
1
2
T v
T v
v
v
v
v
r
r
r
r
= =
As with P
r
, this only applies to isentropic
processes.
53
ISENTROPIC PROCESSES FOR IDEAL GASES
WITH CONSTANT SPECIFIC HEATS (CONT.)
0
1
2
1
2
1 2
=
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
P
P
ln R
T
T
ln c s s
p
Rearranging,
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
1
2
1
2
P
P
ln R
T
T
ln c
p
p
c
R
P
P
ln
T
T
ln
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
1
2
1
2
54
ISENTROPIC PROCESSES FOR IDEAL GASES
WITH CONSTANT SPECIFIC HEATS (CONT.)
p
c
R
P
P
T
T
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
1
2
1
2
k
k
P
P
T
T
1
1
2
1
2

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
Since R/c
p
= (k 1)/k,
This is only applicable to isentropic processes,
and constant values of c
p
, c
v
, and k.
55
ISENTROPIC PROCESSES FOR IDEAL GASES
WITH CONSTANT SPECIFIC HEATS (CONT.)
0
1
2
1
2
1 2
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
v
v
ln R
T
T
ln c s s
v
1
2
1
1
2

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
k
v
v
T
T
Similarly, it may be shown that
k
v
v
P
P
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
1
1
2
k k
v P v P
1 1 2 2
=
or
56
REVIEW
Clausius Inequality.
Definition of entropy, S. Entropy is not a
conserved property. Entropy generation.
Values of s from tables, for ideal gases, and for
incompressible substances.
Entropy balances for closed and open systems.
Tds equations.
Carnot Cycle.
Isentropic processes.
57
TEAMPLAY
Assuming constant specific heats, find the
final pressure of air that undergoes an
isentropic process from initial pressure and
temperature of 14.7 psia and 60F to a final
temperature of 620F.
58
ISENTROPIC EFFICIENCY
OF A COMPRESSOR
The isentropic efficiency of a compressor is defined as
a
s
a
s
compressor
w
w
W
W
=
&
&

1 2
1 2
h h
h h
a
s
compressor

=
1 2
1 2
T T
T T
a
s
compressor

=
For an ideal gas, h = h(T),
Since a compressor requires more power than a
corresponding isentropic compressor, the efficiency
of a compressor is always less than 100% or 1.0.
59
T
s
P
1
Sat. vapor
line
Sat. liquid line
2a
2s
1
P
2
s
2a
> s
2s
T
2a
T
1
T
2s
T
1
ISENTROPIC EFFICIENCY
OF A COMPRESSOR (CONT.)
60
ISENTROPIC EFFICIENCY
OF A PUMP
Similarly, the isentropic efficiency of a pump is defined as
a
s
a
s
pump
w
w
W
W
=
&
&

1 2
1 2
h h
h h
a
s
pump

=
1 2
1 2
T T
T T
a
s
pump

=
For an incompressible liquid,
Since a pump requires more power than a corresponding
isentropic pump, the efficiency of a pump is always less
than 100% or 1.0.
61
ISENTROPIC EFFICIENCY
OF A TURBINE
The isentropic efficiency of a turbine is defined as
s
a
s
a
turbine
w
w
W
W
=
&
&

s
a
turbine
h h
h h
2 1
2 1

=
Since a turbine generates less power than a
corresponding isentropic compressor, the efficiency
of a turbine is always less than 100% or 1.0.
62
T
s
P
2
Sat. vapor
line
Sat. liquid line
2a
2s
1
P
1
T
2a
T
2s
T
1
s
2a
> s
2s
Since T
2a
> T
2s
,
h
1
h
2a
< h
1
h
2s
,
and
turbine
< 1.0.
ISENTROPIC EFFICIENCY
OF A TURBINE (CONT.)
63
ISENTROPIC EFFICIENCY
OF A NOZZLE
The isentropic efficiency of a nozzle, is given by
(

2
) (
2
) (
2
2
2
2
a
s
nozzle
V
V
r
r

64
REVERSIBLE
STEADY FLOW WORK
Consider a steady flow device undergoing an
internally reversible process. The First Law gives
) ( ) ( KE d PE d dh w q + + =
) ( ) ( KE d PE d h d w ds T + + =
) ( ) ( KE d PE d dh ds T w =
Rearranging,
dP v
From one of the Tds equations.
65
REVERSIBLE
STEADY FLOW WORK (CONT.)
If potential and kinetic energy changes are negligible, the
equation becomes
dP v w =

=
2
1
dP v w
For a given process between states 1 and 2,
If the working fluid is incompressible, v is constant,
) (
2 1
P P v w =
66
REVERSIBLE
STEADY FLOW WORK (CONT.)
For an ideal pump, the work required may be expressed as
) (
2 1
2
1
P P v dP v w = =

This is not the same as
expansion/compression work,
which is

2
1
. dv P