100

Organizational Behauiour

. Ghapter Five

PrnsoN nr.rrY SrRucruRE

Personality is composed of external traits and no two individuals possess identical characteristics, Since the days of Plato, scholars of personality have been trying to isolate personality traits. Howevcr; abou: 100 years ago a few personality experts tried to catalogue and condense the many personality

traits that had been described over the years. They found thousands of
in Raget's

words

Thesaurus and Webster's Dictionary representing personality characteristics. Thr:y arranged these words into 171 clusters, then further reduced them to five abstract personality dimensions using rare sophisticated techniques. A recent investigation identified the same fivc. dimensions, as the 'Big Five'personality dirnensions.23 As Fig"5.5 shows, these five dimensiorrs include extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, ernotional stability, and openness lo experience.

Dimension

Characleristics of a person scoring positively on the dimension

Extroversi"n reflects a person's comfort level with relationships. Extroverts are sociablc talkative, assertive, and open to establishing new relationships, Introverts are less soeiable, I talkative, less assertive, and more reluctant to begin relationships.

J7f""rurg$refers to a person"s ability to get along with others. Highly agreeable value harmony more than they value having their say or their way" The are cooperative and trusting
of others"
People who score low on agreeableness focus more on their own needs then the needs of othe Conscientiousness refers to the number of goals that a person focuses on" A highly conscientir person focuses on relatively few goals at one time. He or she is likely to be organized, systematic, careful, thorough, responsible, self-disciplined; and achievement-oriented" A person with a low conscientious nature tends to focus on a higher number of goals at one time" Consequently, the individual is more disorganized, careless, and irresponsible, as well as less thorough and self.

'

disciplined. Emotional stability focuses on an individual's ability to cope with stress" The individual with positive emotional stability tends to be calm, enthusiastic, and secure" A person with low emotional

stability tends to be nervous, depressed, and insecure

Ghapter Five " PersonalitY

Openness addresses one's range of interests. Extremely open people are fascinated by novelty ,,nt-im6y-ation. They are willing to listen to new ideas and to change their own ideas, beliefs, and lttitudes in response to new information. On the other hand, people with low levels of openness tcnd to be less receptive to new ideas and less willing to change their minds" They also tend to have

{O1

iewer and narrow interests and be less curious and creative' The .Big Five' framework continues to attract the attention of both researchers and managers" 'I'5c potential value of this framework lies in the fact that it eRcompasses and integrates a set of lrtid that appear to te valid predictors of certain behaviours in certain situations. However" the ..Ilig Five' model: primarily based on research conducted in the US. Its generalization to other
:

q:uttures, therefore, presents unanswered questions.

iAYsns-Bntccs lNDtcAToR-

\-/,/'

itu,.ing the 1920s, the Swiss psychologist Carl Jung proposed a personality theory that, as stated years later, the mother elrrtier, identifies the way people prefer to perceive their environment" Twenty and Isable Briggs-Myers develoPed tle Mf3rl-Briggs Type *rr4 daughter team of Katherine Briggs rrrlicator (MBTI), a personality test that measures each of the traits of Jung's model. '--Mainly used in the ernployee hiring process, MBTI measures how people prefer to focus their process 1.;ntion (Lxtroversion versus introversion), collect infqrmation (sensing versus intuition)" world (judging to the other rrcl evaluate information (thinking versus feeling), and orient themselves perceiving). Extroversion and introversion have been discussed in the eadier section" The trrsus
:r dimensions are examined below"2a

Sensitivity/intuil!-on Some people like collecting information" Sensing types use an organized and, preierably, quantitative details. In contrast, intuitive people collect rfiffiicqffictual intuition, ormation non-ry.t"*utically. they rely more on subjective evidence" as wellas on their Alta and draw quiek il'*r"n inspiration. Sensors are capable of synthesizing large volumes,of rirc!usions" ileedless it is to say, the work of management demands a eombination of intuitive and ing abilities. (Read Exhibit 5"1 for more details). Thinking types rely on the rational cause-effeet logie and-seientifie method 'fhi ,TJ[6riuns. They weigh the evidence objeetively and unemotionally" Feeling types" instead, Uiril; their choices aif;ect others" They weigh the options against their personal values rnorc th rational logic. one I good manger uses both mind (thinking) and heart (feeling)" Itis toq well=known that how just as much as the logic of ,uf,ou, dec-ision can determine the suecess of its implementation " gecision. The realities of organizational life often evoke emotions that play a dominant role in iiiag"r,, behaviour. Fear of iailure, fear of the laws, excitement about a product, compassion #ptoyee, anger at another person, and the like, are but examples of emotional forces that in the day=to-day life of
a

firm.b

.Perceivers' and 'Jgdges' can be sources of conflict,,in orggnizati.ons"

MBIT is useful in team building besides helPing in employees

hiring

Chapter Five r

PersonalitY

{03

ividuals in positions of authority.26 events are either with in e af Control Locus of control refers to an individual's belief that u"evo,,nc oo":t.":111o1,91f:i:l lo"u, of control) or aie determilga -u1jorc1 traiis are manifested in different behaviours.which are significant tf..se personality

,e-tffi"rnal ii;""";il
&gers.

by external as been proved that externals (those who believe that errents are determined

Lscus of control refers to an individual's belief that either events are in gne's control or
not

;;--i;

more 's control): Internals typically have rnore control over their own behaviour, are externals' ieeking information to mate dicisions, and are mofe aetive soc!{ly than and Table 5"7 5.6 reveals the difference between internals and externals more clearly, tlre relationships between locus of control and job performance" Nicolo Machiavelli' s111 Machiavellianism, a term derived ffom the writings of people, Machiavellians would be prong to participate ffi'r'p.op"nsity io manipulate ur" atso aaept at-interpersonal game-playing, power tactics, and .r-p"riii.r. it "y organizations.l? influence systems in

events are -r--^r ^- aL^:-:^L^ +L^- i-+-*aalo /thace rwhn helieve that eventS aie gs, agd are less involved on their jobs than internals (those who believe

Iuarri"a with their jobs, have higher absenteeism rates, are more alienated from .

Ghapter Five r personality

t05

il

,t factor in managerial success"2e

positions are dominated by extroverts; thus suggesting that this managerial trait is a

'ent orientaliorl Achievement orientation is yet another personality trait which varies ople and which can be used to predict certain behaviours. :yees with a high need to achieve, continually strive to do things better" They want to obstacles, but they want to feel that their success or failure is due to their own actions rnals)" This means that they like tasks of moderate difficulty. An easy task shall not evoke ; and is, therefore" not liked by high achievers. Similarly, aiask with high risk is nor fk;d 'eople as the failure rates are more" Given the high achievers propensity for tasks where ne can be directly attributed to his or her efforts, the high u.t i"r". too'tt fo, r!"rg", rroximately a 50-50 chance of success. "t
e
ce feedback, and direct relationship between effort and reward. This means that ihe high tend to do better in sales, sports, or in management"

job, high achievers will perform better where there is moderate difficulty, rapid
Self-esteem refers to the feeling of like or dislike of one-self. This trait, naturally

ra

n person to person. Self-esteem is directly related to the desire )steem believe that they have abilities to undertake

Self-esteem
refers to the

ional jobs than those with lower self-esteem.

'

for suecess. people wiih challengingjobs. They tend to choose

feeling of like or dislike of oneself

with low self-esteem are more susceptible to external influence than are those with high ow esteems are dependent on-the receipt of positive evaluations from others. As a result, ore likely to seek approval from others und *nr" prone to eonform to the beliefs and r of those they respect than are high esteems. In managerial positior;, ;;;;;;;;]j eoncerned with pleasing others and therefore, less tit<ity toiate unpopular staqds than
teems"

'teem is also related to w esteems"

ry People

job satisfaction. High esteems are more satisfied with their jobs

differ in their willingRess to take chances. Their propensity to assurne or avoid :n shown to have an impact on how long it takes managers to *at* u a"cirion anJt mation they require before making theii choice. For iristanc", 7t;;*gr;;;;il;; "* ersgnnel exercises that required them to make hiring decisions. High-risk-taking n,"nug"., rapid and used less information in miking their chofces *ran aii i;;"-ril-decisions agers' Interestingly" the decision accuracy was the saine for both the gr;d;. t is generally correct to conclude that managers in organizations are risk aversive, there lividual differences on this dimension. As'a result, it makes ,"r;;;;-;;;";;;; ffi; r.y-"n ro-consider arigning risk-taking prop"nriry *[irp*ine job demands" For T.d tigh-risk-taking propensity may lead to mori eriectiu" p"rrorrnun"" ro, a stoek trader in firm" This type ofjob demands rapid decision-making. dn the rhir r"*"r"iri, ic mighl prove a majorobstacle to accountants perfJrming "t#;;;, auditing activities-" This typ; t be better filled by someone with a low-risk_taking proplnsity. : rrfrg Another personality trait that has recently received increased dttention is called rring" It refers to an individual's ability to adjustLis or her u"rruuioor to external factors" can :if-ai{ i1 sel.cmglitoring They show considerable adaptability in adjusting their I external, situational factors. are highly sensitive to eiternal uni can tehave n different situations- High self-monitors aie "n"" capable of presenting striking eontradictions ir public, personal, and private selves. Low seli-monitois cannotieviate their behaviour. o display their true dispositions and attitude in every situation" hence there is high consistency between who they are and what they do. lr self-monitors tsnd to pay closer attention to the behaviour of others and are more irrforming than are low serf-monitors. we might utro typotri"ri;";il;;;;;f;;i;;;:

Self monitoring
refers to the

individual's ability to adjust his or her behaviour to external factors

106

Organizational Behauiour

Ghapter Five
si ti o

different audiences-

* ur ;T n r ::: i.liilixl'- roles" T.'s :high po ns he re individuals are required to play mulr 1 rg ll The self-monitor
w

is capable

of putting on different

ofaccs!

+w'|inallr"thereistheTypeApersonalityandTypeBpersonality.
easv

^ I ype A personality typifies a perSofl wr often hostile una irriruut"" opposite ," ,r.hli'always in a hurry, is extremely competitive,
going.lhbk;"8;;;;i-'ln"i'fu:

ffi.lr"hlf[:X,t,,

*r,. i,

reraxed, incompetenr,

1.

Are always movino" walking' and eating rapiclly;

most events take place;
Feel. impatient with

2. 3.

1. 2. 3"

the rate at whieh

Never sulfer from a sense of time urgency with its accornpanying impatience; Feel no need to display or discuss either achievements or accomplishments unless such exposure is demanded by the Play for fun and relaxation, rather than to exhibit their superiority at any eost;

5. fre obsessed with nu ,, ; ; .#il,J H I iil Ti! l'*

to think or do two or rnore .Strive -:hings at once; 4. Cannot cope with leisure;

n"ffi
"Tir"iHli

4"

Can relax without guilt"

.1**.

organizati hardworking. But it isitre Type nr";"#':iil:ts? Tvpe As are no doubr highly connpetirive tb ru rl8 --'- to the top of the organization. tOp Of OrganizatiOn. Type As will make fltosf 6rr^^- - r AS Will merr. mnar srrnnoooG,r ^ ^^r nis paia-aoxffi;il"#:i,"'r',".T:t;"'#:3:1r1. and seniorexecutives are usuauy type Bs" of Tvpe sf TYPe As to trade off qualitv Executive positions usuallv ro qualiry of effort fo, oo, eno rn rha^^ --", 'y for quan ur* *r." rarher those who are ractful than to those who are rnerety hast ,"t to those who are merely "i and to those who are ri,r,"r, usir"

now do the two perform in

,r"riry;;;;;#;T:l fiffiffi:#l

i";;;;;,[:r]1?l".,ile,

"r"utiu"

PrRson*aury AND OB
Understanding personalities is important bec and attitudes" Fersonaliry personality affects behaviour, as welr as pe ,yp*. 'ui.JffiT:: personality types tend relations and retaliation. peopte with to get aiong ;;i;;;.-Tlman lrk, while personality opposites do not, though there are exe nrofiles ,.rc rr6a,r +^ -_.

indicato-r of periorma[ceindicator periorma"*, rhorroh personality tests to

,.*|"ffi

"nor.,or* "noa-.r,," and rhe Iife sciences are bur has taken" At this point

explored, with an

ilo::-j""l inisan organizational contexr onry" The need general. more significant than comprehending -rrr organiz;t;;;" uespite comprehend the real nrr,,r. a"aiou, utt"rnpti, experts have nor ueen aute ti nature of personalir"" #o"lfl'll serious attemDts- exnerfs heve nnr heen rhlc tn ^raar-^--i:ttre beginning of recordei problems that have confronted 11|ce o.w_n nature. Attempts the most sienificant has been the riddle of their to answer
vqriat., ot"on""oll -? ut" countless and a great manv avenres have heen sreat many avenues traue ueen variety ^r ^^- *t^are being emploved along the way. Astrology, prrirosoptry, t";#;;&LPts " in history, il;ffiI'fdirections that the quesr ro understand ho*un nutui" Iese avenues have proved to be dead ends; while others

,n: conceor of personarity is not rhe concept ro o* ", "".X"1,::::l*:r:n "^_ I:: l'0.".^,indirg tru-un characteristics, persona.lityin thecontextof

,'i:Xf :#"H:::1".*:?:1d#::T'::#.';T,#li:Tf,::il,"; ir :^ ffi;Tiil:: -^-productive than others. Conscientiousness i* , filo::,*-.,han orhers. Conscientiour";Jl;-; only dimension. en ^1e u.t*"",.trr""*olffi;. Many organizations admi the worker arld the job. job
i*'"""n

..

;;;**.';":i:1:f .il;;il lr""oot un

h;;;;;iilil

r#E:i&si4.%--

Chapter Six .
11

Perception ctnd Attributian

715

rlist:uss, in detail, perception-how illr'tl loPics"

it occurs, how it is an important element in oB

rN: MEANINC AND

t,

flt l,tt;t t tox

Pq1qg_p*tignjs thg

the individua], the object, and thq.qiluation. Any definition of perceprion 1i,11,,",,."d by tlrese three elements. Let us consider some popular definitions: d,,ri,,i,r :3.11a, ludl of perceptiott is concerned with identifying the processes through which we i{ttlr,t'l,,ut and organile sensory information to produce our conscious experience of objects ,g'uJ utri urt relationshiP'2 is the process of receiving infonnation about and. making sense of the world I'1,rc(ption us. It involves decidirug which information to notice, how to categoriTe this 1,r,,,,,,r1 ",rr,!itrnrution, and how to interpret it within the framework of our existing knowledge.s includes all those processes by which an individ.ual receives information about !tt,rception t,nvironrnent-seeing, hearing, feeling, tasting, and smelling. The study of these perceptual tltt: shows that theirfunctioning is affected by three classes of variables:the obiects ttr()ccsses 't,r events being, perceived, the environment in which perception occurs, and the individual
d t ti

perception is understood as the act of seeing what is there to be seen. But what is ie tr.rrrrs.

what is there to

.act o{ seeing

'

6e seen

ng the Pe rce iv ing

"a

contains all the three elements of perception. lrst definition

Seruemncs |oN ANo

organisms and their physical environment. It focuses on describing the ontact between various forms of sensory stimulation and how these inputs are registere.-d by If,ip U"t*t"n The raw sensory inputs are of no consequence-they need to be processed and ory orgunt" the job of perception" Thus, sensation,is the first step in the perceptual process. rrj" Tt ir is steps constitute the total,pgrceptual process ,n and other
rd

^ nl]for

of confusion about the terms pe rception and. sensation. Often, they are used as Ereatdeal the sake of clarity, it may be stated that the study of sensation is eoncerned with the

ent was in progress" One kittEn was strappe{ into a basket and ca#iiii,around by an active ,n a rotating arm during the experimenthl:,peiiodg.'(See Fig.6;'1f.The active kitten had the iiew and developed normal perception;:iirhefe.ai:the passive.kitten remained effectively

rclarification of perception is, or Learnt-? tngl|gl,question relating to the it is inherite4, It'is suggq-sted that ndrmat Beicgffion.f$..t1+ipnle extent learnt. In one or nor two kittens,.were brought iri'the'dark except durig.fij,[re period when the sn16l stud!,

This is a patterned area with a steep drop in the middle, which is covered by glass to r fall from the cliff. Both animals and human infants behaved in the same way by avoiding

young animals and human infants were exposed to a visual oother experiment,

cliff

(see

1ia". fn" results of this experiment suggest that perception is either innate or learned at a

ly

stage in the development

of

the animal or human.5

RslNr@qry
the third definition given above, perception is influenced by the perceiver, the rstood from situation (see Fig.6.3). All these will be explained in subsequent sections in this the

nd contexts' n different

144

O rg

anizatio nal

ehav

iour

Cha

pter

Si

organized and interpreted based ,rt organs. Most stimuli are scieened out; the rest are the process are covert and overt behav information-processing activities. The outcomes of RscrMNs Snmutt
bombarded with various stimrrli' Living as we are in the world of objeets, we are constantly t*:1!ll*:"f stimuli enter our organism through the sensory organs-vision'ttearing' organs perceive i]l tttt[ these organs- Sensory kinaesthesis"- Sti*ofiu." ,"l.iri by us through have physicat objects, they also perceive events or ob]ects that

Fig'6"4showsthattheperceptualprocessbeginswhenstimuliarereceivedthrouglt

iJil[},.[.'J";irr#"

"Y:::1""::'il of certain stimuti, but our behaviour reveals that we are often sutrji:i to us' They may be internal their influence"6 Similarly, stimuli need not L" "*t"..,ut ":"-:^1.":1: and chei

U:"11"T::::,1

;ffi*#il;i
stimularion,

energy from object. ,frui onl can l-T,':1"-:f:5I",:-:5:11 behaviour-influc through the digesrive sysrem, and glands secreting When deprived of se to receive stimuli' hormones. External or internal, human beings continue eonfusion, and emotional disturbance' a people #i;; i;;; disorientltion,

mechanical energv *ilil ilil;;, sound waves,Internal t",lt or_pressure, smell and taste'

ffi:iJffiu;;J;

people tend to engage in w vulnerable to persuasion and pressure. Under these eireumstances' off depression by dwelling on past experiences' we focus on external stimuli i Though stimuli may be external or internal to the organism, chapter.

SerecnNe Srrvtuu
accepted-by it' Some stimuli are notieed Not aU the stimuli received by the human organism are to bc tuned on while"she r;*i others are screened out..A girl may always """0 u ,i"ttistor ]: b rr"r lessons even as the electronic device beside her ", film songs. A nurse working in a post-operative eare might n pair.inq nea.bylYet a smau nashing red right on the

;Hrd'il^nrnrrr, "";;;;;J
starion console

iffi#fffi;;;",;;;;';r;;-;;;k#
the body"

i'""* 1l::Y']:ll:::::','jt:i:t:

"."iiJi them are external and others are internal several factors influence seleetive attention. some of
i1!ue1;in9 selection are n nxternat Factors Inf"luencing selecticn: The external factors and familiarity' location, eolour, size, contrastf repetition, motion" and novelty and whelli.er it invol Nature: By nature we mean whether the.objTt.is ]]*il :::tditory
pictures, people,
more readily and that a rhyming auditory passage attracts attention as a narrative.T

i. irnn;aiut"rv n"ti.*au""""saiitig1ars 1y1a qati:nt':.I111!^t9i:T:,!,:*; called sele cting stimwlli o.r selective.attertti;
r"a6ired by oor."r,u"-, is

., *l;;-li;i;;;iii.;;*; thaipictures :11*:'-*:.11q^X::::::i"'Y;1lll"ifl ne'i ;, #ffi ;l;,;," o r i n u n i -ate ob j e t s alo ffi :'fi"'"'J,""Pl?,rffi r " than the same passage presented

;il,Hii;

;;;

is not possible in a newspaper or a magazine' the eyes and in tfre cenire of a page. When this location lower portion" and the o"f u pug" is more favourable than one in the
a position in the upper

Location:Thebestlocationofavisualstimulusforattractingattentionisdirectlyinthefrontof fortion

left hand side receive,

e

*or. .i

attenti'pn than the right hand side"8

i
I

Kinaesthesisisthesense whereone'slimbsandbodyareinspace-theway.inwhichyoucanknowwhereyourhandorfoot joints of the body' These are toealed throulhout the muscles' and as, cven in pitch darkness. The kinaesthesis receptJrs of our limbs and of difficult parts of our body' the relative positions and movements
sensors inform us of

shapter

&ix. ."Perception bnd Attribution

t'! s

il,Ir.' Colour is used to attract attention and portray realism. In a rnass of black a1d white, a ifiTl'colour catches the eye. When colour is still a novelty, as with newspapers till recently, {jrttt ot a cue, a single colour to an advertisement will enhance its attention-getting value.
rcrc. l{igh technology products such as cameras are usually produced in black or methylic ;tlllrough some have been marketed with a less serious, more sporry image, in bright primary iE--S,rrtrc-products, such as cars, come in a variety of colours, but others su.h asiooihpaste, a lirrrited range of colours. It would be incongruous to use black toothpaste"e

!lll' can be used to emphasize the attractive features of a product or to create a suitable

llte work environment, colour can be used to enhance lighting effects, for creating pleasant ililirrgs, and for putting across and reinforcing safety messages.
tr has a psychological impact on an individual. It is well known that some colours act as a lnd others act as a depressant. A dark blue ceiling may appear to be refreshing to begin ul"ter sometime the apparent coldness may become an irritant. Table 6"1 brings outihe ol' dil'ferent of colours.

Psychological Effeet Aggressive and tiring Restful Exciting Very restful

Excltrng

Temperature Effect Cold Cold Neutral Cold/neutral Very warm Very wdrm Warm
'

Very close Further away Claustrophobic

Further away
Olose Very close Close

Exciting Very stimulating

Hugene McKenna,

op.cit., p,142)

ance engineering staff may pay more attention to a big machine than to a small one, even he smaller one iosts as much and is as important to th"e operation.
0 inch, 160 pound supervisor. In advertising, a

Generally, objects of larger size attract more attention than do smaller ones" The

fv,. lincs in the classified section.ro ,t #*ontras.t: The contrast principle states that external stimuli which stand out against the m thisor which a1e_ not what people are expecting, 'will receive their attention" Fig. 6.5 perceptual principle. The black circle on the right appears larger than the one on the $rntes heeause of the background circles. In fact both black circles are of the same size" In a similar Itier. plant safety signs which have black lettering on a yellow background or white lettering on ql hlt:kground are attention-drawers. Training managers utilize this iactor in organizing training Ii"{rirmes in places far away from work places to create contrast atmosphere. ltlitvcnrcnt; The principle of motion states that a moving object receives more attention than an :r:l thxt is stationary. In a work environment the attention of a workman will be focused more on rrveyor belt than on paintings on walls or illumination. Advertisers capitalize on this principle i'cill.ing signs which incorporate moving parts. lirltetitia\;{he repetition principle states that a repeated external stimulus is more attentionuirtg than a non-repetitive one. The same advertisernent of a product flashed daily on television ir'lcd on the principle of repetition. This principle also explains why supervisors have to give rlions Lo workers over and over again for even simple tasks.
'

foot 4'inch, 260 pound supervisor may receive more attentionfrom his subordinates than a full page spread attracts more attention than !$ft

't2Q

Org anizational

Behauiour. Chapter $ix

Novelty and Famitiarity: The novelty and familiarity- principre **".u, uo ittlntio, setrer. New objects states that "*olnou".l in famliar se*inqs nr r.,r,r 3*1t::x:"r-ll':11"":"un objects in new settings w,r draw,r,"

w rrJ
rTnu*ine

o.

m
iff
the arrenrion trreygi

*,*niion;if;*"-:,X"'r:'ffi'.ll?,TX1Tff:,ffi;J:

il:r::*11ll[:Ji.",:1ff
lnternal factors that influence selection include learning, needs, age, interests and paranoid

ff:i:[1iffiflX*"Hffi.1-".'i,T::t:::::::-:Iii;;;;in"."u."

:rm:::::;;,;;;;;ffiH#;:ffi

,:':ffiJ,:T:

Internal Factors

ffm;il#;#ees,interests,ambivatence,andp*unoiap*..i

selection: Internal factors influencing selection of stimuli i

Bird in the the hand

M.A.C"T.A.V.I.S.H M.A-C-D.O.N.A.L.D

M-A-C.B.E-I-H
M.A-C.H-I-N-E-R-Y

6.6(b)

ls some value in conceiving the two as distinct. Once they have been satisfied, longer influence perception. But if the person has a special-interest, his perception most needs noi: selective at any time.r3 is likely to bc

Chapter Eight

'

Attitudes and VaLues

1G7

of attitudes become multidimensional and tttad in the minds of individuals and as a result
An attitude may involve a prejudice' rc prejudices attitudes? The answer is in the affirmative. considerations to all the evidence' If we are ch we prejudge an issue without giving unbiased of
we may regard him as guilty regardless liced against a person, who is u"""u."d or a crime, something"5 idencel We can.also be prejudiced in favour of
t'X.

II'ONENTS OT: A'TTNUDES

They are: (See Fig 8'1) r general, attitudes comprise three elements'

,i',i,,i
.:1"
r,:i

l.i.il
', llr
,,1

flril;i
rriii,x

l/ /A"g
,1
o

pZ{rn""r,rr-::11:T:.t- tn" feelings' sentiments' moods Derson, event or object; ' 'z . fio{nitir"element - the beliefs, opinion' knowledge' or informationheldbYtheindividual;
behavioural component evaluation of something'6

and emotions about some idea'

ilffiiffi

lrffilli

,ii"' i#;ii
iiHi$i

the predispositions to get on a favorable or unfavorable

Thesethreecomponentsdonotexistorfunctionseparately"Anattituderepresentstheinterplay tendencies with regard to a person' group' an a person's affective, cognitive and behavioural holds a strong'lnegaiive attitude about ent or an issue. for exaripte, suppose that an individual repreSentative of a large firm, : use of nuclear power. During an.employment interview with the generation equipment" I{e powgr nuclear discovers that the company-is u -u3oi supplier of interviewer ( the affective component )' He oiitite for the ight feel a sudden intense "o*iuny" the types of the interviewer uased on beliefs and opinions about ight form a negative "pi"i., "r component)' An important element of ( :rson who would work for such a company the cognitive might be tempted to make an unkind remark rgnition is the evaluative beliefs held by a person" He ( the behavioural component)" , the interviewer or suddenly terminate the interview
ne

,il

,1,,,

!;u;li

iillri

,tii
,i

tll

,lri

ABC

lUioost"

ri

'hethreecomponentsofattitudedescribedaboveconstitute,whatiscalled'theABCmodel"the and cognition' The significance of the rree letters ."rp""tiu"if s,".airg for affect, behaviour

,168

Organizational Behauioul. " C&apter

Eigltt

ABe model of
attitudes eomprises three components: cognition,

affection and
l-behaviour

model is that to thoroughly understand an attitude, one must assess all the three componcir{iu, for example, one wants to evaluate one's employees attitudes towards flexitirne. One worllrl determine how they feel about flexitime (affect), whether they would use flexitime (lrr:t and what they think abou,t the policy (cognition). Unfortunately most techniques ot' ut attitudes focus only on cognitive component.

Fig 8.2 presents the three components of attitudes in terms of work environment firctr stimuli trigger cognitive (thoughts), affective (emotional), and behavioural responses"

STIMUTI Work related factors

"My supervisor is unfaif' Cognition "Having a fair supervisor is imporant to me"

Affeet

"l don't like my superuisor''

Behaviour

**-*-+

"1

am going to request a

transfe/'

(Source: John M. Ivancevich and Michael T"

ion, Organisatianal Behaviour and Managem.ent, p"L20l

FonnerroN oI Arrr
lndividuals acquire attifudes from several sourees but the point to be stressed is that ttre atti
are acquired but not inherited" The most important sources of acquiring attitudes are direct cxperi

with the object, association, family, neighbourhood, eeonomic and social positions, and
comrnunication" (See Fig 8.3)

Dircct Experience rvith the Objcct: Attitudes can develop from a personally rewarding or punishi experience with an objeet. Employees form attitudes about jobs on their previous experiences. example" if everyoqe who has held a job has been promoted within six months, current job ho ard likely to believe that they will also be promoted within six months. Attitudes fonned on expe are difficult to change.T
Classical Conditioning and Attitudes: One of the basie processes underlying attitude formatiorr ean be explained on the basis of learning principles" The same classical conditioning proeesses that made Pavlov's dogs salivate at the sound of a bell can explain how attitudes are acquired. People develop associations between various objects and the emotional reactions that accompany them. For instance, many soldiers who were stationed in the Persian Gulf during the war with Iraq reported that they never wanted to sit on a sandy beach again. Put another way, the soldiers formed negative attitudes towards sand" Similarly, positive associations can develop through classical conditioning"
We may come to hold positive attitude towards a particular perfume because a favourite model wears it"

Advertisers make use of the principles of classical conditioning of attitudes by attempting to link a product they want consumers to buy with a positive f'eeling or event. For example, many ads

Ghapter Sixtee*r ' Leadershiq

3fi7
LeadershiP is the abilitY to influence the

:,,
1!1 'liotrs

iE'iE i:l{:lll {him the and ciies &u t :,,, ptges of bibfiog'upt'V

--^L^-c volume fact that a comprehensive

concludes

summarl!

";ing research on

litr Future

nll#ti'"'

f:L'*" ;;;;'

chapter 2500 studies' Yet the last

far as understanding leadership

behaviour o{
others

nniltp lurs been made'2

uittrlllrrtarrtdefinitionsonleadershipfromtheexistingliterature.Thesedefinitions i.'r!'lclrdcrship' enthusiastically rn ' 1 1-:--' ^+t'o*< to work er' arucl helping others r i* "the process of encauraging

H?11'i'o'li,'rr.t""3

,. :r..^t.,"Lonrco is directing the actit he ir;irectingtlrcactivitiesof "l/rc behaviour of an individual when titt rs

agrowp

fl-ea'5
i1A "tt

essence of and whieh eonstitutc the through all these definitions :il14t run
i,,',,',i?i

" f,'i',',:,?::'f.:;,-,:".:,:r;
I

, /-r- ^ t ^-,lac\ influ.ences others to work retationship inwhich one ner111!t!L':::',1,'f*Tr:":;;,/ or group 6 sroup'6 tiader and

{;;;:';;;'i*iiiin'

rWln$

means" lp changed throughnon-coercive hieving a shared goal. of ac 'bol ls e avi.o, is eaused with an objeetive E'boltavtour whieh ^ ,... , ^- ^L^canr, a se t of qualities or eharacteristics others (leader) possesses fn influencing as ih" opening case *es t* influence others' es to rn,uenu' uluwrl nnore people" two or *^rp np^nleIt involves interactfion between a group phenomenon" is

individual ers to the ability of one the behaviour of others' is exercised to ehange

to influence others'

austru.

indieates'

rT

MNNECEMENT
tl r ' i ^-^ so elosely related that the distinctions which are ^^ ^l^eplrr of thenn u' ': 1t*n::i'll3tll,l;" the ";"r' controlling coordinating' direetins and organising'

7;':

are terms P;:;"1;t'pi""" ffeership and leadership lGec,me blurred" It i'

ffi :::::.

ffi;;t.g,
is

'..

lql s'
ilTr is thc

authority to earry out these

*':1t":*

influence ' with whieh man' Lgers can and leadership are management-tools .Muoug",., itu,:,,,*f,ip sationalr:"::; tY rloyees to achieve orsani bv virtue of being in 1 I *:::*:offim:;ir;mlt: a i:_il':i,l'iil:T#,;:*:,:",:TrT'H;#,!";;;" i"ua"'"tt'ip orthe ability to influence they may no* pJtt"tt
r, c tr
11

l;::::::ilH';:",",

purpose *," p,o""ss or innuencing ror rhe

or achieving

ManagershiP

and leadershiP

are management
tools with whieh
rRanagers ean inlluenee the behaviour of
emPloYees

but i*iiiQil, ltuve managership'

395
GhaPter Sixteen
n

LeadershiP

are psvchoro gic allv inates and superi ors is a tendencv um-:nP

" lff;;."anding' ffi;;;. it'"'" links ano to promote intergroup

oup in order
SWLT RINEUR5HIP LTEOERSUIP

[t;':;: "lT:;ill l?iXdl;ffi ["[ffi ;

11

re'reneur is

innovative;ii:'H::I'"TrH"Hi$'u1::.T:X'il::; industrv"',X11ff:t;:"':;;;;rating a::|n:"'*un' oI olt associut"o *itt' 'niutl-"ut' circumstances rni. siyle are : '.allv their personrri;'.;;;"ririi.., unarhe on borh
an a person who coverts

to giving A;h*i:*:1'.#$'il"i'H::::1q:Fn'*"""'Y::::""" ,u't ott""t]tl""l"*** --' "|]];"u'*tun"oach

instructions to
or her despite

) A heavy
the

emPloYees' impatience"

that :) A charismatic personality

. others to want to do business with him rL inspires

,; n
,,) A

i)

as possible" gains as quickly consolidate business in different contexts. Anxiety to

than employees' r^^r:nn - :-- dealing with custorners stronger interest in nnuctr rules and regulations' strong dislike for bureaucratic

omeofthesrylesdescribedabovewillbereferredtoagainlatertn(Jlltgrvr."--.-

*
lilt.;;ii;* earlier contributions tintng all tIrE sn'vr /ant even today. -,
p

Ti.",Hl'J;

H[

f; H",,:",1

::;'I,It:l:tiffi "?ffi+H'tl*lihr;ffi'lr':ru*:"*:'"m:il'"I'Il*; is rather

rother" ^r - :^-ohin to another Sionofleader:htq::11

[tll':$r**Hfrmtrt*i:NT+i'*tri$:";'** l;;i;;t""teristics'
or traits' which were

*:{tr}

-,**t
,f ri ,t

hffi
?

*icating personaritv-ol.tLT",ffi:"lJ'#rtf"it""XX"jT; shifted from tt'' shirted rrom the v-' years went by the focus alone". and not on trarts "

il;'s'oon'';

:::;"..

in which the reader More recently the situation

.'i*':ml"J$::1'Tili3;"'Tf;operates has"beenntsr""t'ii"

ffi ;;l;"'Tligivenmuchimportanceltis
r""a"r operates'

ltll.o*

r-""i,i,,i,t"i"ua""ili|'iii;

#;#;iv

Si:,:."heorvw,l important theorrestlit*"*-t";s of leac wc shall discuss a few three import::J:ffi;;; *tt"t it covers pty"h"]:gl:al attributes; r, 'fhe leader and his or her uno*' " no rrre rouowe' "' " .n of al intricare foilowe ' i, The group situation in which over-simplificadon factors represents . ,lir one of these three e:oncentrate on any

j*;il j*::ru;::;[*i[ilfi'ffi
n;'.':'::::;:'::","*,::;:iffiuon"
pages are
:

;;

Gllldtllcnon' following t " "- ^^-^i'ro'c"l in tho i'lft,* trr"o.ies of leadership considered

GhaPter Sixteen " Leadershiq

The Managerial Grid

3S7

t Contingency
dppnoacx

theories

,sides, the famous Theory

X and Theory Y of McGregor has also been considered"

.ait theories of leadership focus on the individual characteristics of successful leaders" make them distinct from followers' ding to the theories, leaders possess a set of traits which emft must, therefore, be made to identify and measure these traits" qualities' Ralph Stogdill' for instance' ttempts were indeed made in the past to identify such

Trait theory focuses on the individual characteristics

of successful
leaders

that successful leaders tend to have the red more than 5000 leadership studies and concluded dng qualities.t4

iJ A strong desire for accomplishment

i) Persistent Pursuit of goals i) Creativity and intelligence

used to solve problems

r) Initiative applied to social situations r) Self-assumed PersonalitY

i) Willingness to accept behavioural consequences i) Low susceptibility to interpersonal stress

;) High

r)

tolerance of ambiguitY Ability to influence other people

x) Ability to structure social interactions till now concentrated mainly on the uniquequalities the personal traits of unsuccessful ccessful leaders. There has been little systematic study of poor temperament' self ,rs. Probably ineffeqtive leadership is asiociated with such qualities as of character and mental health )redness" inability to get along witlh others, lack of vision, lack paranoia, neurosis and procrastination' f"n1, .oat u, ugg.arrion, deplession, disorganization, include associatea yittr ineffective leaders' di,ion, some Jtltudinuifu.tort seem to be "Th3se an objective attitude' (3) lack of a sense of overconcern with morale, (2) failure to maintain good or bad, (5) idealism in ortion, (4) practising;foiuiiru,ion" or seeing others as either iion.making and (6) over eagerness to do the "right" things.
dost of the research on leadership conducted

has been severely critieised 0valuation of the Trait Theory: The trait approach to leadership rany. Some of the limitations of the theory are the following : be no (i) The list of personality traits of successful leaders is too long and there seems topattern no consistent finality about it. Although hundreds of traits have been identified, has emerged"
:

ii) How much of which trait

to the contemporary thinkers on the subject' the 'iv) Contrary to what the theory assumes, leadership effectiveness does not depend upon the task, tho organisation personality of the leader alone. other variables like the situation, the effectiveness of leaders" and the characteristics of followers will equalty determine positions of (v) It is well known that people who fail as leaders and people who never achieve leaders. Thus, for example" leadership often possls, io*" of the same traits as successful

iii)

a successful leader must have is not clear. Furthermore, certain traits, particularly psychological" cannot be quantified' is not acceptable Thetheory assumes that a leader is born and not trained. This assumption

398

rg anizational

Behauiour. Chapter $ixteen

although taller people may generafly be more successful as readers, many ta, licqt neither the inclination the capabitities to be leaders" 10., e, ,r-." ,ume tin,,,, ,,,1 people have risen to positions of tlaaerstrip.

:'"l,Ji,:L::H::;::::?_:j::.yr*^:1"::l,h,1, readers rend ro be consistentry better ad ilffi j;[Til]#,'fi ffil:Xm5"mascurine,una*o,"o":ff"".Tj:#'l',:1fl i

The secand merit relates to the inf'luence of personality on one,s effectivenesr...." personarity, what he fundamentally is as u f"rron, i, un pr"."nr una massive influencc1ii n[ and and with what success, he functiora influer u
ua u
..,.:

one merit relates to the qualities of successful leaders. Focusing on personarity trai(s,

,i
{{

above the surface (his observabl" iceberg that lie, unobservabl",

"The personalitv of man is his inner life, ineluding sueh inner erements as back6 serr.image, rears, roves, hares, philosophv orrire. rn this lll[::,lr?TIi;,lT*mXi*;+1,fg:i;rejufic.es,
sense, a

"u". ,riunug"..,,

,,,

..: However' the manager's inner personality.causes ,spills or over, into rris behaviour whi cooperative or resis cooperarive o, ,.si$ reactions. And, therein-Iies

i. ii#ri,"r#i#::'r'fi1ffi,H"[Ji';lillj;,lJ ",r, b.iloi;;.,,what he do!s); ttl ."rt is his inner life, the 7/r U"f o* *i"".lr'Ou*" ",,

'"":."X::"^i:Xi::::#.,$;r,"1,r,"manager,s","*;::,1,,"fi lii,[::[Jff :,;;i

manasers over rhe vears and based on rhei, exp".i"nc"

llll;,1fl1"f,;:H::#il;.",**li::',::,.:,:til; ;d?#eirher rhe .unug"rt ru,; ;;.";#;:';;."t'ntt

suumitteJirris'o;;",*;;;epr

ffi;:.:.;Iiffir""j#j::,."^l:,,p:,:

;,;,'d;:}:.ililT;
ro severar

thoosand.,.,nl ;"rri;;i#ffffiff:i$"r|,T,f.,rJ":

is in ract, stirr popurar (through researchers)" Arrer not p"p;j;;,*"i##T"Ti,,i_?r#f:jf;:,:?l,l""j ar ""1:l:::-:"-l,""ai,g perhaps most of us believe, to some that there u." inaioiauars who have predispositiori "*f,nt, thev are naturally uruo"., *or" aggressive, more decisive and ::l3i'j:#i:hat more arriculare rh

,"."*'i3;,i1"#,"":ji#.H1"::ljijll":Il,luo*

ffif

,i: Finally' the theorv has certain practical implications also" If leadership then natrons and orEanisations traits could be iaentifri in serecring readers" on ri p tra i ts wo u rd beco m e p or i ri llffi r'"Hf ,:,l"*?il:x j:: managers" presumabry, organisatiJns c i an s o rri ce rs,r ,, ::r.lt ard-s..i"ti", "

*;ril;;;#'##ffi;ii#"r*o j:I$: i:j *ourJ;r;;;r'"::[T"X?'l'ffii,;ifli""r,

Brnluqunar
Behavioural

THEoRtEs

theory focuses on ieader

behaviour while interacting with subordinates and not on his or her traits

the trait oriented research approach differed fror.l in at least,roiuyr. First, actual leader behaviours instead of personal, traits were the main focus' Second, where u, *or, trait studies sought leaders' leader behaviour ttuai", *uni"I;; determine ho*-uJors to separate readers from nonkinds of specific behaviouri ,T:.,1ffii,"rf;:Tffi::ii.j,irru",i", oril,,o*..r. r,,,r,'ir,".oin"rence berween the two approaches

the earry r960,s researchers l9{0's an ernphasis on traits and moved towards trre stu-of of Ieader u"r,uuiou.r. This new

Beginning in the late

and.continuing through

u*u, no,,,j