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WHAT HAPPENS DURING FERTILIZATION? 1. Recognition Sperm secretes protein that binds to receptors on vitelline layer Vitelline layer: - Glycoprotein layer surrounding plasma membrane of egg - Called the zona pellucida in humans - Ensures same species fertilization 2. Penetration Plasma membranes of sperm and egg fuse Sperm nucleus enters egg 3. Formation of Fertilization Membrane Penetration causes electrochemical change in Vitelline layer Vitelline layer becomes a sperm-blocking Fertilization Membrane 4. Fusion of nuclei Sperm and ovum nuclei fuse Zygote forms with 23 chromosome pairs (human) NOVA Zygote formation PBS

WHAT HAPPENS AFTER THE ZYGOTE FORMS? Rapid cell divisions of zygote(without cell growth) form blastomeres Blastomeres have much less cytoplasm than original zygote Early cleavage characteristics: 1. Embryo polarity develops (except in mammals) Animal pole - Upper pole, contains less yolk - Usually becomes anterior end of embryo Vegetal pole - Lower pole, contains more yolk (stored food) - Heavier, so settles to bottom pole 2. Polar and equatorial cleavage Polar (vertical) cleavage -divide egg pole to pole Equatorial (horizontal) cleavageparallel with equator

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WHAT HAPPENS AFTER THE ZYGOTE FORMS (continued)? 3. Radial and spiral cleavages Radial Cleavage - At 8 cell stage, 4 upper cells directly over 4 lower cells - Characteristic of deuterostomes (ex. echinoderms, chordates) Spiral Cleavage - At 8 cell stage, 4 upper cells sit in grooves between 4 lower cells - Characteristic of protostomes (ex. mollusks, annelids, arthropods) 4. Indeterminate and determinate cleavages Indeterminate - Isolated early cleavage cells can develop into complete embryo - Characteristic of radial cleavage of deuterostomes Ex. Identical twins of humans

Determinate - Isolated early cleavage cells form inviable embryo lacking parts - Characteristic of spiral cleavage protostomes

WHAT HAPPENS AFTER THE ZYGOTE FORMS? Continued cleavage characteristics (beginning at 8 cell stage): Morula Solid ball of blastomeres that results from cleavages Blastula (in mammals, called Blastocyst) Hollowed out morula made of single cell layer Blastocoel fluid filled cavity of morula

Inner Cell Mass (embryonic disc) Group of cells in blastocyst that becomes embryo (source of stem cell lines) Trophoblast Outer layer of blastocyst Embeds into endometrium of uterus Produces HCG (human chorionic gonadotropin) - Maintains progesterone production of corpus luteum Cat ovary

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WHAT IS GASTRULATION? Some cells at or near surface of blastula invaginate (move inward) Forms a three-layered embryo called gastrula Three primary germ layers of gastrula 1. Ectoderm Outer layer; forms skin and nervous system in vertebrates 2. Mesoderm Middle layer; forms skeleton, muscles, circulatory system in vertebrates 3. Endoderm Inner layer; forms lining of digestive tract & respiratory tract in humans

Archenteron Center cavity surrounded by endoderm cells; forms primitive gut Blastopore Opening in archenteron; mouth in protostomes; anus in deuterostomes

Gastrulation PBS

WHAT IS ORGANOGENESIS? Development of organs after cell differentiation First organs to take shape in chordates is notochord and neural tube Notochord Stiff dorsal skeletal rod formed from mesoderm Becomes vertebrae in higher animals Neural Plate Forms from ectoderm above notochord Folds inward, rolling into neural tube which forms brain and Spinal cord Neural tube becomes brain and spinal cord (CNS)

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Figure 20.3

Zygote formation PBS

Figure 20.4