Session 5.

Conflict management
Session guide: Conflict management Reading note: Conflict management DATE TIME FORMAT Plenary participatory lecture TRAINER OBJECTIVES At the end of this session, participants should be able to understand and appreciate: 1. Why conflicts arise in organizations. 2. Conditions leading to conflict. 3. Effects of conflicts. 4. Elements and stages in the conflict process. 5. Ways to deal with conflict situations: response styles and conflict resolution behaviour. 6. Strategies for managing conflicts. INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS Exhibit 1 Exhibit 2 Exhibit 3 Exhibit 4 Exhibit 5 Exhibit 6 Exhibit 7 Exhibit 8 Exhibit 9 Exhibit 10 Why conflicts arise Conditions leading to conflict situations in organizations Effects of conflict Stages in the conflict process Elements of a conflict Theories of conflict management Ways to deal with conflict situations Response styles to conflict situations Conflict-resolution behaviour Strategies for managing a conflict

Exhibit 11 Exhibit 12

Common types of conflict in research organizations Sources of conflict in a research organization

REQUIRED READING Reading note: Conflict management

BACKGROUND READING None.

SPECIAL EQUIPMENT AND AIDS Overhead projector and chalkboard

Session guide: Conflict management

Ask participants: "What is a conflict?" "Why does it arise?" "How is it resolved?" Encourage participants to share their experiences of different types of conflict in their organizations. Some of these may have been resolved, while others would have remained unresolved. What effects had these conflicts on the working of the organization? After a brief discussion on these issues, observe that, as interdependence increases, conflicts are bound to increase. There are several reasons for conflicts to arise. Some of these may be difficult to identify. Conflict is a 'clash of interests, values, actions, views or directions.' Show EXHIBIT 1 and point out that disagreement among people is the underlying basis of conflict. People disagree because they see things differently, want different things, have thinking styles which encourage them to disagree, or are predisposed to disagree. Conflict situations arise because of fear, force, fair or funds. Fear is an imaginary concern for future. Force of any kind initiates and concludes conflicts. Fair is the sense of fairness, which determines the moral values of an individual. Tangible as well as intangible costs may provoke conflict, and also help towards its resolution. Interpersonal conflicts arise because of differences in personality, perceptions, status and ideological and philosophical outlooks. Other causes of conflict can be communication gaps; personality differences; substandard performance; disputes over approaches, responsibility and authority; lack of cooperation; or competition for limited resources. Show EXHIBIT 2 and discuss the main conditions which influence an organization towards conflict situations. Observe that very often these situations cannot be easily changed. Show EXHIBIT 3 and discuss the effects of conflicts on an organization. Conflict situations result in negative and positive effects. They may help diffuse more serious

conflicts, stimulate a search for new facts or resolution, increase group cohesion and performance, and demonstrate the power or ability of the conflicting parties. Conflicts could hinder smooth working or the decision making process, or create competing coalitions or reduce productivity. Show EXHIBIT 4 and discuss the various stages - from inception to end - through which a conflict evolves. Show EXHIBIT 5 and discuss elements of a conflict. Power, organizational demands and worth are three important elements of conflict. Power is the capacity and means to make people work. Organizational demands relate to job performance expectations. Worth is the self-esteem of an individual. Show EXHIBIT 6. There are two theories of conflict management. Traditional theory considers people involved in conflict situations as trouble makers. Modern theory considers conflict as a natural and inevitable outcome of human interaction. Conflict situations often lead to the generation of new ideas and change. From here on, the discussion should focus on conflict resolution. Show EXHIBIT 7. Fight, negotiation, problem solving and design are four ways of dealing with a conflict situation. Fight is not a healthy and positive approach. Negotiation is compromise, with a third party playing an important role. Problem solving entails identifying causes of conflict and removing them. The design approach uses conflict as a situation and attempts to resolve it through creativity. Responses to conflict situations vary. Show EXHIBIT 8 and discuss the three main categories of response style. These are addressers, concealers or attackers. Addressers take risks and try to resolve conflicts. Addressers may be 'first steppers' or 'confronters,' depending upon the desire to resolve the conflict. Concealers conceal their feelings and do not work towards resolution of conflicts. They may be 'feeling swallowers,' 'subject changers' or 'avoiders.' Attackers attack either up-front or behind-the-back. EXHIBIT 9 shows five different types of conflict handling behaviour: competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding and accommodating. Competing has high concern for personal goals and low concern for relationships. Collaborating is the search for a mutually satisfactory solution. It involves high cooperation and low confrontation. Compromising is a mid-way solution, best suited to situations where the conflicting parties are relatively equal in power and have mutually independent goals. Avoiding is delaying or ignoring the conflict in the hope that over time the conflict situation will resolve itself. Accommodating is a search for common ground. It involves high cooperation and low confrontation. Strategies for managing conflict include styles, improving organizational practices, special roles and structure, and confrontation techniques. Show EXHIBIT 10 and discuss each of these strategies. Show EXHIBIT 11 and discuss different types of conflicts in a research organization. Conflicts may arise because of goal incompatibility, barriers to goal achievement, competition for use of limited resources, inter-personal differences, project priorities, or other causes related to research activities (EXHIBIT 12). The underlying cause of most conflicts is lack of communication. Before concluding the session, once again discuss conflicts in research organizations. Observe that when scientists face conflict situations, they tend to assert themselves

through collaboration or competition. If assertion fails, they may attempt to compromise. If that too fails, they may either accommodate or avoid. In order to prevent undesirable group behaviour, the research manager needs to promote organizational strategies such as establishing a committee of scientists that encourages cooperation. Managing conflict is a major responsibility of managers. To create a dynamic and healthy environment in the organization, conducive to effective working, the research manager should deal skilfully with conflict situations. This can only be done if she or he understands the scientists fully, i.e., their problems, interests, limitations and the factors motivating them. EXHIBIT 1 WHY CONFLICTS ARISE People differ, so they: see things differently want different things have different thinking styles, which prompts them to disagree are predisposed to disagree have different personalities have different status have ideological and philosophical differences have different goals have different approaches are influenced by fear, force, fairness or funds EXHIBIT 2 CONDITIONS LEADING TO CONFLICT SITUATIONS IN ORGANIZATIONS Ambiguous jurisdictions Conflict of interest Communication barriers Dependence on one party Differentiation in organization Association of the parties Behaviour regulation Performance expectations Competition for limited resources

Lack of cooperation Unresolved prior conflicts EXHIBIT 3 EFFECTS OF CONFLICTS Positive effects: Diffuses more serious conflicts Stimulates a search for new facts or resolutions Increases group cohesion and performance Demonstrates measure of power or ability

Negative effects: Hinders smooth working Hampers the decision making process Causes the formation of competing coalitions Reduces productivity Source: Filley, 1975. EXHIBIT 4 STAGES IN THE CONFLICT PROCESS Conflict situation Awareness of the situation Realization Manifestation of conflict Resolution or suppression of conflict After-effects of the conflict situation EXHIBIT 5 ELEMENTS OF A CONFLICT POWER ORGANIZATIONAL DEMANDS WORTH EXHIBIT 6 THEORIES OF CONFLICT

Traditional theory conflicts are caused by trouble-makers conflicts are bad conflicts should be avoided or suppressed

Contemporary theory conflicts are inevitable between human beings conflicts are often beneficial conflicts are the natural result of change conflicts can and should be managed Source: Kirchoff and Adams, 1982. EXHIBIT 7 WAYS TO DEAL WITH CONFLICT SITUATIONS FIGHT NEGOTIATE SOLVE THE PROBLEM DESIGN Source: De Bono, 1985. EXHIBIT 8 RESPONSE STYLES IN CONFLICT SITUATIONS Addressers First steppers Confronters

Concealers Feeling swallowers Subject changers Avoiders

Attackers Up-front Behind-the-back Source: Turner and Weed, 1983.

EXHIBIT 9 CONFLICT-RESOLUTION BEHAVIOUR COMPETING COLLABORATING COMPROMISING AVOIDING ACCOMMODATING Source: Thomas and Kilman, 1974. EXHIBIT 10 STRATEGIES FOR MANAGING CONFLICTS Styles Improving organizational practices Special roles and structure Confrontation techniques Source: Tosi, Rizzo and Carroll, 1986. EXHIBIT 11 COMMON TYPES OF CONFLICT IN RESEARCH ORGANIZATIONS Conflicts arise between: research and organizational goals research and administrative personnel scientists and management researchers and outside groups scientists (inter-personal) EXHIBIT 12 SOURCES OF CONFLICT IN A RESEARCH ORGANIZATION Conflicts arise over: Goals Project priorities Interdependence in work Administrative procedures Technical opinions Performance trade-offs Use of limited resources, including human resources Costs Schedules

Personalities Goal incompatibility and barriers to goal accomplishment Strong barriers to communication Past history Source: Ivancevich, Szilagyi and Wallace, 1977.

Reading note: Conflict management

Why conflicts arise Conditions creating conflict situations Conflict as a process Effects of conflicts Elements of a conflict Theory of conflict management Response styles Dealing with conflict Ways to resolve conflict Conflict-resolution behaviour Strategies for managing conflicts Conflicts in research organizations Summing up References Conflict is a clash of interests, values, actions, views or directions (De Bono, 1985). Conflict refers to the existence of that clash. Conflict is initiated the instant clash occurs. Generally, there are diverse interests and contrary views behind a conflict, which are revealed when people look at a problem from their viewpoint alone. Conflict is an outcome of organizational intricacies, interactions and disagreements. It can be settled by identifying and neutralizing the etiological factors. Once conflict is concluded it can provoke a positive change in the organization. When we recognize the potential for conflict, we implicitly indicate that there is already a conflict of direction, even though it may not have yet manifested itself as a clash. Confliction is the process of setting up, promoting, encouraging or designing conflict. It is a wilful process and refers to the real effort put into generating and instituting conflict. Deconfliction is the annihilation of conflict. It does not refer to negotiation or bargaining, or even to resolution of conflict: it is the effort required to eliminate the conflict.

Why conflicts arise

In most organizations, conflicts increase as employees assert their demands for an increased share in organizational rewards, such as position, acknowledgment, appreciation, monetary benefits and independence. Even management faces conflicts with many forces from outside the organization, such as government, unions and other coercive groups which may impose restrictions on managerial activities.

Conflicts emanate from more than one source, and so their true origin may be hard to identify. Important initiators of conflict situations include: (i) People disagree. People disagree for a number of reasons (De Bono, 1985). (a) They see things differently because of differences in understanding and viewpoint. Most of these differences are usually not important. Personality differences or clashes in emotional needs may cause conflicts. Conflicts arise when two groups or individuals interacting in the same situation see the situation differently because of different sets of settings, information pertaining to the universe, awareness, background, disposition, reason or outlook. In a particular mood, individuals think and perceive in a certain manner. For example, the half-full glass of one individual can be half-empty to another. Obviously both individuals convey the same thing, but they do so differently owing to contrasting perceptions and dispositions. (b) People have different styles, principles, values, beliefs and slogans which determine their choices and objectives. When choices contradict, people want different things and that can create conflict situations. For example, a risk-taking manager would be in conflict with a risk-minimizing supervisor who believes in firm control and a well-kept routine. (c) People have different ideological and philosophical outlooks, as in the case of different political parties. Their concepts, objectives and ways of reacting to various situations are different. This often creates conflicts among them. (d) Conflict situations can arise because people have different status. When people at higher levels in the organization feel indignant about suggestions for change put forward from their subordinates or associates, it provokes conflict. By tolerating and allowing such suggestions, potential conflict can be prevented. (e) People have different thinking styles, which encourages them to disagree, leading to conflict situations. Certain thinking styles may be useful for certain purposes, but ineffectual or even perilous in other situations (De Bono, 1985). (f) People are supposed to disagree under particular circumstances, such as in sports. Here conflict is necessary, and even pleasurable. (ii) People are concerned with fear, force, fairness or funds (De Bono, 1985). (a) Fear relates to imaginary concern about something which might happen in the future. One may fear setbacks, disgrace, reprisal or hindrances, which can lead to conflict situations. (b) Force is a necessary ingredient of any conflict situation. Force may be ethical or emotional. It could be withdrawal of cooperation or approval. These forces are instrumental in generating, strengthening and terminating conflicts. (c) Fairness refers to an individual's sense of what is right and what is not right, a fundamental factor learnt in early childhood. This sense of fairness determines the moral values of an individual. People have different moral values and accordingly appreciate a situation in different ways, creating conflict situations. (d) Funds or costs can cause conflict, but can also force a conclusion through acceptable to the conflicting parties. The cost of being in conflict may be measurable (in money

terms) or immeasurable, being expressed in terms of human lives, suffering, diversion of skilled labour, neglect or loss of morale and self esteem. (De Bono, 1985).

Conditions creating conflict situations

According to Kirchoff and Adams (1982), there are four distinct conflict conditions, i.e., high stress environments, ambiguous roles and responsibilities, multiple boss situations, and prevalence of advanced technology. Filley (1975) identified nine main conditions which could initiate conflict situations in an organization. These are: (i) Ambiguous jurisdiction, which occurs when two individuals have responsibilities which are interdependent but whose work boundaries and role definitions are not clearly specified. (ii) Goal incompatibility and conflict of interest refer to accomplishment of different but mutually conflicting goals by two individuals working together in an organization. Obstructions in accomplishing goals and lack of clarity on how to do a job may initiate conflicts. Barriers to goal accomplishment arise when goal attainment by an individual or group is seen as preventing another party achieving their goal. (iii). Communication barriers, as difficulties in communicating can cause misunderstanding, which can then create conflict situations. (iv) Dependence on one party by another group or individual. (v) Differentiation in organization, where, within an organization, sub-units are made responsible for different, specialized tasks. This creates separation and introduces differentiation. Conflict situations could arise when actions of sub-units are not properly coordinated and integrated. (vi) Association of the parties and specialization. When individuals specialized in different areas work in a group, they may disagree amongst themselves because they have different goals, views and methodologies owing to their various backgrounds, training and experiences. (vii) Behaviour regulation. Organizations have to have firm regulations for individual behaviour to ensure protection and safety. Individuals may perceive these regulations differently, which can cause conflict and negatively affect output. (viii) Unresolved prior conflicts which remain unsettled over time create anxiety and stress, which can further intensify existing conflicts. A manager's most important function is to avoid potential harmful results of conflict by regulating and directing it into areas beneficial for the organization.

Conflict as a process
Conflict is a dynamic process. In any organization a modest amount of conflict can be useful in increasing organizational effectiveness. Tosi, Rizzo and Carroll (1986) consider the stages involved in the conflict process, from inception to end, as sequential in nature, namely: (i) the conflict situation, (ii) awareness of the situation,

(iii) realization, (iv) manifestation of conflict, (v) resolution or suppression of conflict, and (vi) after-effects of a conflict situation.

Effects of conflicts
Conflict situations should be either resolved or used beneficially. Conflicts can have positive or negative effects for the organization, depending upon the environment created by the manager as she or he manages and regulates the conflict situation. Positive effects of conflicts Some of the positive effects of conflict situations are (Filley, 1975): Diffusion of more serious conflicts. Games can be used to moderate the attitudes of people by providing a competitive situation which can liberate tension in the conflicting parties, as well as having some entertainment value. In organizations where members participate in decision making, disputes are usually minor and not acute as the closeness of members moderates belligerent and assertive behaviour into minor disagreements, which minimizes the likelihood of major fights. Stimulation of a search for new facts or resolutions. When two parties who respect each other face a conflict situation, the conflict resolution process may help in clarifying the facts and stimulating a search for mutually acceptable solutions. Increase in group cohesion and performance. When two or more parties are in conflict, the performance and cohesion of each party is likely to improve. In a conflict situation, an opponent's position is evaluated negatively, and group allegiance is strongly reinforced, leading to increased group effort and cohesion. Assessment of power or ability. In a conflict situation, the relative ability or power of the parties involved can be identified and measured. Negative effects of conflicts Destructive effects of conflicts include: impediments to smooth working, diminishing output, obstructions in the decision making process, and formation of competing affiliations within the organization. The overall result of such negative effects is to reduce employees' commitment to organizational goals and organizational efficiency (Kirchoff and Adams, 1982).

Elements of a conflict
Organizational conflicts usually involve three elements, which have to be appropriately matched through necessary organizational arrangements in order to resolve the conflict (Turner and Weed, 1983). Power is the capacities and means that people have at their disposal to get work done. Power includes budgetary discretion, personal influence, information, time, space, staff

size and dependence on others. If used efficiently, power creates an atmosphere of cooperation, but can generate conflicts when misused, withheld or amassed. Organizational demands are the people's expectations regarding a person's job performance. Usually such expectations are high, and making them rather unrealistic. When these expectations are not fulfilled, people feel disheartened, angry, let down or cheated. Consequently, conflict situations can arise. Worth refers to a person's self-esteem. People want to prove their worth in the organization. Superiors control employees' pay, performance rating, performance and appraisal, etc. How much of these are received by a person reflects their worth. An individual may also feel loss of worth if some basic needs are not fulfilled. Generally, conflicts arise from mismatches between power, organizational demands and feelings of personal worth.

Theory of conflict management

Conflict is defined as disagreement between individuals. It can vary from a mild disagreement to a win-or-lose, emotion-packed, confrontation (Kirchoff and Adams, 1982). There are two theories of conflict management. The traditional theory is based on the assumption that conflicts are bad, are caused by trouble makers, and should be subdued. Contemporary theory recognizes that conflicts between human beings are unavoidable. They emerge as a natural result of change and can be beneficial to the organization, if managed efficiently. Current theory (Kirchoff and Adams, 1982) considers innovation as a mechanism for bringing together various ideas and viewpoints into a new and different fusion. An atmosphere of tension, and hence conflict, is thus essential in any organization committed to developing or working with new ideas.

Response styles
People may appreciate the same situation in different ways, and so respond differently. It is therefore necessary to understand the response styles of the people involved so as to manage conflicts properly. According to Turner and Weed (1983), responses can be classified as follows: Addressers are the people who are willing to take initiatives and risk to resolve conflicts by getting their opponents to agree with them on some issues. Addressers can either be first-steppers or confronters: - First-steppers are those who believe that some trust has to be established to settle conflicts. They offer to make a gesture of affability, agreeableness or sympathy with the other person's views in exchange for a similar response. - Confronters think that things are so bad that they have nothing to lose by a confrontation. They might be confronting because they have authority and a safe position, which reduces their vulnerability to any loss. Concealers take no risk and so say nothing. They conceal their views and feelings. Concealers can be of three kinds:

- Feeling-swallowers swallow their feelings. They smile even if the situation is causing them pain and distress. They behave thus because they consider the approval of other people important and feel that it would be dangerous to affront them by revealing their true feelings. - Subject-changers find the real issue too difficult to handle. They change the topic by finding something on which there can be some agreement with the conflicting party. This response style usually does not solve the problem. Instead, it can create problems for the people who use this and for the organization in which such people are working. - Avoiders often go out of their way to avoid conflicts. Attackers cannot keep their feelings to themselves. They are angry for one or another reason, even though it may not be anyone's fault. They express their feelings by attacking whatever they can even, though that may not be the cause of their distress. Attackers may be up-front or behind-the-back: - Up-front attackers are the angry people who attack openly, they make work more pleasant for the person who is the target, since their attack usually generates sympathy, support and agreement for the target. - Behind-the-back attackers are difficult to handle because the target person is not sure of the source of any criticism, nor even always sure that there is criticism.

Dealing with conflict

Conflicts are inescapable in an organization. However, conflicts can be used as motivators for healthy change. In today's environment, several factors create competition; they may be differing departmental objectives, individual objectives, competition for use of resources or differing viewpoints. These have to be integrated and exploited efficiently to achieve organizational objectives. A manager should be able to see emerging conflicts and take appropriate pre-emptive action. The manager should understand the causes creating conflict, the outcome of conflict, and various methods by which conflict can be managed in the organization. With this understanding, the manager should evolve an approach for resolving conflicts before their disruptive repercussions have an impact on productivity and creativity. Therefore, a manager should possess special skills to react to conflict situations, and should create an open climate for communication between conflicting parties.

Ways to resolve conflict

When two groups or individuals face a conflict situation, they can react in four ways (De Bono, 1985). They can: Fight, which is not a beneficial, sound or gratifying approach to dealing with a conflict situation, as it involves 'tactics, strategies, offensive and defensive positions, losing and winning grounds, and exposure of weak points.' Fighting as a way of resolving a conflict can only be useful in courtroom situations, where winning and losing becomes a by-product of the judicial process. Negotiate, towards a settlement with the other party. Negotiations take place within the prevailing situation and do not involve problem solving or designing. Third-party

roles are very important in bringing the conflicting parties together on some common ground for negotiations. Problem solve, which involves identifying and removing the cause of the conflict so as to make the situation normal again. However, this may not be easy. It is also possible that the situation may not become normal even after removing the identified cause, because of its influence on the situation. Design, which is an attempt towards creativity in making the conflict situation normal. It considers conflicts as situations rather than problems. Designing is not confined to what is already there, but attempts to reach what might be created given a proper understanding of the views and situations of the conflicting parties. The proposed idea should be appropriate and acceptable to the parties in conflict. A third party participates actively in the design process rather than being just a an umpire.

Conflict-resolution behaviour
Depending on their intentions in a given situation, the behaviour of conflicting parties can range from full cooperation to complete confrontation. Two intentions determining the type of conflict-handling behaviour are assertion and cooperation: assertion refers to an attempt to confront the other party; and cooperation refers to an attempt to find an agreeable solution. Depending upon the degree of each intention involved, there can be five types of conflict handling behaviour (Thomas and Kilman, 1976). They are: Competition is a win-or-lose style of handling conflicts. It is asserting one's one viewpoint at the potential expense of another. Competing or forcing has high concern for personal goals and low concern for relationships. It is appropriate in dealing with conflicts which have no disagreements. It is also useful when unpopular but necessary decisions are to be made. Collaboration aims at finding some solution that can satisfy the conflicting parties. It is based on a willingness to accept as valid the interests of the other party whilst protecting one's own interests. Disagreement is addressed openly and alternatives are discussed to arrive at the best solution. This method therefore involves high cooperation and low confrontation. Collaboration is applicable when both parties desire to solve the problem and are willing to work together toward a mutually acceptable solution. Collaboration is the best method of handling conflicts, as it strives to satisfy the needs of both parties. It is integrative and has high concern for personal goals as well as relationship. Compromise is a common way of dealing with conflicts, particularly when the conflicting parties have relatively equal power and mutually independent goals. It is based on the belief that a middle route should be found to resolve the conflict situation, with concern for personal goals as well as relationships. In the process of compromise, there are gains and losses for each conflicting party. Avoidance is based on the belief that conflict is evil, unwanted or boorish. It should be delayed or ignored. Avoidance strategy has low cooperation and low confrontation. It is useful either when conflicts are insignificant or when the other party is unyielding

because of rigid attitudes. By avoiding direct confrontation, parties in conflict get time to cool down. Accommodation involves high cooperation and low confrontation. It plays down differences and stresses commonalities. Accommodating can be a good strategy when one party accepts that it is wrong and has a lot to lose and little to gain. Consequently, they are willing to accommodate the wishes of the other party.

Strategies for managing conflicts

Tosi, Rizzo, and Carroll (1986) suggested four ways of managing conflicts, namely through: Styles. Conflict handling behaviour styles (such as competition, collaboration, compromise, avoidance or accommodation) may be suitably encouraged, depending upon the situation. Improving organizational practices. After identifying the reason for the conflict situation, suitable organizational practices can be used to resolve conflicts, including: - establishing superordinate goals, - reducing vagueness, - minimizing authority- and domain-related disputes, - improving policies, procedures and rules, - re-apportioning existing resources or adding new, - altering communications, - movement of personnel, and - changing reward systems. Special roles and structure. A manager has to - initiate structural changes needed, including re-location or merging of specialized units, - shoulder liaison functions, and - act as an integrator to resolve conflicts. A person with problem-solving skills and respected by the conflicting parties can be designated to de-fuse conflicts. Confrontation techniques. Confrontation techniques aim at finding a mutually acceptable and enduring solution through collaboration and compromise. It is done in the hope that conflicting parties are ready to face each other amicably, and entails intercession, bargaining, negotiation, mediation, attribution and application of the integrative decision method, which is a collaborative style based on the premise that there is a solution which can be accepted by both parties. It involves a process of defining the problem, searching for alternatives and their evaluation, and deciding by consensus.

Conflicts in research organizations

Conflict in a research organization, and for that matter in any other organization, may be between individuals, intra-group or inter-group, with conflict due to: research and organizational goals, research and administrative personnel, individual researchers,

scientists and management, and researchers and client groups. Such conflicts may arise for many reasons (Ivancevich, Szilagyi and Wallace, 1977): Within a research group, differences arise over project priorities, the sequence of activities and tasks. Administrative procedures and practices, which delay procurement of the necessary inputs and supplies required for research activities. Such conflicts get intensified because of the contradictory nature of personnel, dispersion of authority, deficient communication, and varying perceptions. Technical opinions, performance norms and related issues lead to disagreements. The more the uncertainty in any task, the greater is the need for further information. If information is withheld or controlled by one of the parties in an interacting group, suspicion is created and conflict generated. A very common cause of conflict in research organizations is competition between interacting groups over use of limited resources available for scientific work. Allocation of limited resources often generates conflict since one group is likely to feel that it is not receiving a fair share of organizational resources in comparison with other groups. Conflicts also arise over composition and staffing of research teams, particularly when personnel from other areas are to be included. Sometimes conflicts can arise over competing claims for use of land for experiments. Cost estimates from support areas regarding work, breakdown, use of structures, etc., can create conflict situations. A lengthy research process, where intermediate outputs of research are difficult to measure, conflicts over anticipations regarding performance are not uncommon. Disagreements over the timing, sequence and scheduling of project-related tasks and overall management of research are usual in research organizations. Disagreements over inter-personal issues caused by personality differences, particularly when interacting groups are highly inter-dependent, can lead to conflict situations. When one group fails to fulfil the expectations of the other group, or acts improperly, a conflict situation may arise. Past record of conflicts between the interacting groups, such as departmental rivalries.

Summing up
Conflicts are inevitable in any organization. A modest level of conflict can be useful in generating better ideas and methods, inspiring concern and ingenuity, and stimulating the emergence of long-suppressed problems. Conflict management strategies should aim at keeping conflict at a level at which different ideas and viewpoints are fully voiced but unproductive conflicts are deterred. Stimulation of conflict situations is appropriate if the research manager identifies conditions of 'group-think.' Group-think is a situation where conflict rarely occurs because of high group cohesion, which results in poor decision and inadequate performance. Group-think prevails when there are lot of 'yes men' in a group, with the

result that there is no serious appraisal of the situation and new ideas are not suggested. Group members attach greater importance to popularity, tranquillity and peace in the group rather than to technical ability and proficiency. Members are disinclined to verbalize their unbiased views in order to avoid hurting the feelings of other members of the group. Decisions are accepted as they are, adversely affecting organizational productivity. A manager can choose several remedies to avoid group-think (Irving, 1971). A conflict situation can be induced by supporting individualistic thinking or favouring individual competition. Individualistic thinking can be initiated in the group by including some group members who can freely express their views, which can encourage and prod others to do the same. Competition between individuals can be enhanced by acknowledging and rewarding the better performers. Conflict situations can also be introduced by making some organizational changes, such as transferring some group members, redefining roles, and helping the emergence of new leadership. A manager can also create a conflict situation by delivering shocks, such as by reducing some existing perks of the members of the organization. After stimulating the conflict situation, a manager should: identify the likely source of the conflict situation, calibrate the productiveness of the situation, and neutralize the unproductive conflict situation. Basic problems in inter-group behaviour are conflict of goals and communication failures, A basic tactic in resolving conflicts, therefore, is to find goals upon which scientists or groups can agree, and to ensure proper communication and interaction. Some conflicts arise because of simple misconceptions, which can be overcome by improved communication. A manager should manage conflicts effectively rather than suppress or avoid them. To manage them, a manager needs to ask 'What?' and 'Why?' - and not 'Who?' - to get at the root of a problem. In the process of resolving conflicts, many problems can be identified and solved by removing obstacles and creating a new environment of individual growth. If conflicts are not managed properly, they can be damaging, as they waste a lot of energy and time, and invoke tension, which reduces the productivity and creativity of those involved.

Session 6. Conflict management case study: Dr Agadir

Session guide: Dr Agadir Case study: Dr Agadir DATE TIME

FORMAT Small-group discussions and plenary participatory lecture TRAINER OBJECTIVES At the end of this session, participants should be able to apply to a case situation various concepts pertaining to management of conflict, and understand them better.

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS None.

REQUIRED READING Case study: Dr Agadir

BACKGROUND READING None.

SPECIAL EQUIPMENT AND AIDS Overhead projector and chalkboard

Session guide: Dr Agadir

The third cocoa project Dr Agadir Dr Swanson's dilemma Annex 1: The Cocoa Research Institute of Savana The case of Dr Agadir provides an opportunity to understand causes of conflict situations in research organizations, and ways and means of managing such situations. The conflict discussed in the case is not uncommon in a research organization. Often such conflicts remain unresolved, creating adverse organizational effects. They influence team-work and affect research outputs. While management would like to resolve such conflicts, they are often difficult to resolve. Using the reading note on Conflict management from Module 4 - Session 5, participants should first discuss the case in small groups. During the case discussion in the plenary

session, the resource person should use, at appropriate places, the concepts discussed in the reading note. To initiate discussion on the case, the resource person should ask participants about various types of conflict which arise in research organizations, their causes, and the manner in which they are resolved. What has caused the conflict in the case situation? Could it have been avoided? Has it been managed properly? Would participants handle it differently? How? At the end of the session, the resource person may wish to emphasize that conflicts are not necessarily bad. If managed properly, they can be used to reinforce commitment to the organization.

Case study: Dr Agadir

The letter from the plant pathology department was very strong. It concluded by observing: "If this is the attitude of the biochemistry department, we shall have no research in collaboration with them as of now. Not only do they lack a healthy attitude towards collaborative work, they have often refused to share achievements. Now they want to stifle our work on cocoa swollen shoot virus, notwithstanding the fact that we have been working on it for over a decade. We would of course continue our work in this area, but without the biochemistry department." Dr (Mrs) Swanson, Executive Director, Cocoa Research Institute of Savana (CRIS), put down the letter and was quite annoyed. She had known that there was trouble between the biochemistry and plant pathology departments, or rather between two senior scientists of these departments. She had not expected it to reach this level. There had been several instances of conflicts between the scientists and their divisions, but the conflicts had never reached boiling point. They were usually resolved amicably, even before the executive director took note of them. Mostly the conflicts arose over allocation of plots for experiments, budgetary allocations and participation in international conferences. Scientists designed their experiments in consultation with the statistician. They would then apply for a plot of land, providing a drawing of the area for laying out the experiment. The request would be considered by the plots committee, consisting of the heads of the research divisions and head of the plantation division. Each division had a certain land area allocated to it, and it could use that land for its experiments as agreed upon within the division. The plots committee simply took note of that. Difficulties arose when the land belonging to some other division was sought, and in particular when the other division did not want to release its land. In the recent past there were some problems with the plant breeding department over a large piece of land on which a cocoa plantation had stood from the very beginning of the institute. The plantation had to be destroyed because of a large-scale disease infestation which was impossible to cure. When the land was cleared, almost all other divisions put in a request for parts of the land for their experiments. The plant breeding department resented these requests, and there were heated discussions in the plots committee. The issue was somehow resolved satisfactorily within the plots committee. The plant breeding department retained most of the land, although a small part was temporarily allocated to other divisions for their experiments.

Objections were often raised by scientists when an area proposed for use in an experiment was considered by them to be unsuitable. For example, all experiments on virus studies had to be conducted on land at the edge of the experimental farm so as to isolate them from other experiments, otherwise they might be a source of infection and spread the virus diseases. In such cases, a scientist had to give up a preferred location. Frequently the scientists asked for a larger area than was necessary for their experiments. In those cases, the statistician - who was a permanent invitee to the meetings of the plots committee - was asked to review the experimental design with the scientists. When the plots committee denied the request for allocation of a particular plot, for whatever reason, it helped find another plot. Occasionally a proposed experiment might not be appropriate for a particular purpose, even though the scientist proposing the experiment might insist on it. Such cases were also resolved through peer intervention within the division concerned. Conflicts over allocation of funds were not unusual, with every division trying to get more so that its research programme could proceed smoothly. Participation in international conferences also led to some conflict among the competing scientists. Conflicts over sharing of scientific material and equipment were not uncommon. But all such conflicts were temporary, and had never affected the work culture of the institute. However, the conflict between the plant pathology and biochemistry departments was different. It was a conflict between two departments which had always collaborated in the past. It was a conflict between two senior scientists who had worked together on the same problem over a decade, and had jointly published their work in respected journals. For some strange reason, friends had become foes. In the process, they had vitiated to some extent the research environment of the institute (see ANNEX 1).

The third cocoa project

In 1984, the institute was preparing a five-year plan of activities to be included in the third phase of the World Bank-assisted Savana Cocoa Project. In the context of CRIS, the project aimed to enhance CRIS's capacity to carry out research on which to base expanded production of cocoa and coffee. The sub-components of the project were: upgrading the Tofa station and central services, and improving basic services at the substations, establishing a CRIS off-station-trials unit, and staff development. Some investments to start new trials were also contemplated. The total proposed cost of the project was a modest $US 6.5 million. This investment was intended to be catalytic. Each division had submitted its plan of activities to the research committee. The research programme on virus purification and detection appeared in the work plans of both the plant pathology and the biochemistry divisions. That would not have been a problem but for the ensuing discussion. The head of the plant pathology division had qualified his division's programme by stating that they would work on the cocoa swollen shoot virus problem 'as and when they found time.' While this was being discussed by the members of the research committee, several other issues also cropped up. The head of the plant pathology division had to respond to several queries on the proposed research programme

of his division. He had many answers to give, but could provide only a few clarifications. Yet he had very strongly questioned the proposal of the biochemistry department to work on cocoa swollen shoot virus problem. He contended that this was an area in which his department had been working for almost a decade, and, while the biochemistry department was involved in some small measure, this was not a major activity, neither in the past nor could it be in the future. This was essentially phytopathological work. On hearing this, the head of the biochemistry department was stunned. He could not keep quiet, but reacted rather angrily. In the acrimonious debate which then took place, both heads had lauded the role of their own department while belittling the other department. The other members of the research committee knew well that the work had been, in fact, a collaborative research activity between Dr Agadir, a biochemist, and Dr Ouadda, a plant pathologist, under the auspices of their respective departments. Somehow this relationship had gone sour. The research committee had subsequently written to the head of the plant pathology department seeking an explanation from him as to what was meant by the qualification that they would work on the cocoa swollen shoot virus problem 'as and when they had time.' The research committee never received a reply. In one of the meetings, the research committee approved research on cocoa swollen shoot virus as a major activity of the biochemistry department. No decision was taken on the request of the plant pathology department as the committee was still waiting for a reply to its earlier communication. Meanwhile, the two departments were exchanging acrimonious letters.

Dr Agadir
(as narrated by Dr Agadir) Dr Agadir joined CRIS as a Research Assistant (now re-designated as Assistant Research Officer) in 1965. That was soon after he had obtained his first degree in biochemistry. He was put in what was then the chemistry division, which comprised both soil science and biochemistry. The biochemistry wing was at that time mainly engaged in research on cocoa swollen shoot virus, in collaboration with the pathology division. Collaboration between various research divisions was part of the culture of the institute, as it was always necessary, particularly so between plant pathology and biochemistry. There had been close collaboration between the virologists, breeders and biochemists in the study of screening techniques, detection of infection, symptomatology, etc., for research studies on cocoa swollen shoot virus. Dr Agadir was asked to work on various aspects of the cocoa swollen shoot virus purification problem. His work during the period 1965-66 was published in a respected professional journal. In September 1966, Dr Agadir went to the University of Sheffield to do a doctoral programme. He successfully defended his research thesis in 1969, was awarded his PhD, and returned to the institute. He was then promoted to research officer. Dr Asmera, the then director of CRIS, suggested several research problems to Dr Agadir. He selected four problems: (i) pesticide residues in cocoa beans, (ii) cocoa bio-products (pectin and cocoa husk), (iii) cocoa swollen shoot virus purification, and

(iv) nutrition of mealy bugs. The last problem was in fact suggested by a Swedish biologist who was interested in rearing mealy bugs artificially and feeding them on a liquid diet. He was keen to know the most desired composition of the diet. The interest in mealy bugs arose because they are the vectors of cocoa swollen shoot virus. By 1972, Dr Agadir had published in several scientific journals. His work on mealy bugs and pectin was well received. These were independent publications. By then, Dr Agadir was working as the main biochemist since Mr R.H. Wode, who was part of an Overseas Development Administration (ODA) technical team from the United Kingdom, had left for Rustberg at about the time Dr Agadir returned from Sheffield in 1969. Dr Agadir recalls that his collaborative work with Dr Ouadda began in 1969 when the latter suggested a research project on factors which affected virus multiplication and symptom development in cocoa. This problem was originally suggested to Dr Ouadda by the chief of the ODA team. Since this involved research in biochemistry, both Dr Ouadda and Dr Agadir teamed up. Together they published some research papers. Dr Ouadda left for the University of Dublin to do a PhD. From 1971 to 1974, while Dr Ouadda was away, Dr Agadir continued to work on cocoa swollen shoot virus purification. The plant pathology department was providing infected material, such as cocoa beans and leaves, but no pathologist was involved directly in the research work. Dr Agadir faced several impediments in his work. He felt that the head of the ODA technical team, himself a plant pathologist, did not want him to work on cocoa swollen shoot virus. The ODA team had been working on cocoa swollen shoot virus for many years without making much progress. In contrast, Dr Agadir was already claiming remarkable progress. The ODA team brought back Dr C.H. Cantor to continue work on cocoa swollen shoot virus. Dr Cantor came as a plant pathologist and not as a biochemist. Dr Agadir recalls various impediments that were put in the way of his work during this period. He was no longer easily receiving supplies of infected material from the plant pathology department. One morning he found his experimental boxes thrown out of the greenhouse. Notwithstanding these difficulties, Dr Agadir continued his work with the help of a technician in the biochemistry department. He even published two papers in the Savana Journal of Agricultural Sciences. Dr Agadir had sent the draft of these papers to Dr Ouadda, who was still in Dublin doing his PhD. Dr Ouadda was a junior author of both these papers. The paper on pectin had another co-author, from the University of Savana at Zaka. Dr Ouadda returned to CRIS in 1974 after gaining his PhD. At about that time, in 1974, Dr Agadir went to Munich, together with the then director and head of the plant breeding division, to attend an international conference on Cocoa Fermentation and Quality. One of the conference papers was presented by Dr Barling, on using the electron microscope to study fermentation. Dr Agadir wondered if the same technique could be used for studying virus multiplication in cocoa beans. Dr Barling suggested that the best person to answer this question would be Dr Lizzermann, an electron microscopist at Biologische Bundesanstalt fr Land- und Forstwirtshaft (BBA), at Braunschweig, Germany. In fact, they travelled together to Braunschweig. Dr Agadir was disappointed to learn from Dr Lizzermann that cocoa swollen shoot virus was difficult to study as it did not attain a high

concentration in cocoa beans and therefore detecting it with the electron microscope would be difficult. Although Dr Agadir returned to Tofa a bit disappointed, he did not give up. With Dr Ouadda, he wrote a proposal to develop a sensitive method to detect virus in cocoa tissues. Dr Agadir needed a sensitive method to continue his work on the biochemical basis of cocoa swollen shoot virus disease resistance, and Dr Ouadda needed a sensitive method for detection of the virus in the field for his studies on the epidemiology of outbreaks and their control. Since they had a common interest, they teamed up. Besides, they had already worked together on this problem. Apart from that, the plant pathology department would be the one to provide infected material for study. The proposal was sent to the director of BBA. In the meanwhile, Dr Agadir was travelling. First he went to Malaysia on a Commonwealth Fellowship to visit cocoa estates and study bulk fermentation of cocoa. In September 1979 he was at the Tropical Crops Research Institute, London, on a fellowship from the International Atomic Energy Agency to work on pesticide residues in cocoa beans. In January 1980, Dr Agadir went to Braunschweig at the invitation of Dr Pavlo, Director of the Institute of Virology in BBA. Dr Agadir convinced Dr Pavlo that he indeed had a good method for purifying the virus in substantial quantities, which was a necessary prerequisite for developing a sensitive method. By August 1980, Dr Agadir was in BBA on a prestigious fellowship from the Alexander von Humboldt Stifftung, working to develop the much-needed sensitive method, later known as the EnzymeLinked ImmunoSorbent Analysis Technique (ELISA). In August 1980, Dr Ouadda sent the necessary infected material (cocoa beans and leaves) to Braunschweig for Dr Agadir to continue his work. Dr Agadir returned to Tofa in November 1981, after having had some initial success in developing the ELISA technique. Of course, a considerable amount of work remained to be done, but he was elated with the success already achieved. That was when Dr Ouadda became jealous. He knew that after the virus was detected, using the sensitive method, it would open the way for genetic engineering and cloning, and all that would ultimately lead to development of cocoa varieties resistant to cocoa swollen shoot virus. Once the virus was detected it would be possible to determine the genome structure and then find out what part of viral nucleic acid coded for the viral protein. Scientists could then transfer that part of the gene into the plant so that the plant could make the viral proteins and develop resistance to cocoa swollen shoot virus. On his return from the Humboldt fellowship, Dr Agadir felt the need to have the assistance of a junior scientist. His proposal was approved and a junior scientist was recruited, who was subsequently trained in molecular biology, virology and genetic engineering. Dr Agadir was in charge of a staff seminar series before he left for Germany. Since the series had been started by Dr Agadir and Dr Ouadda jointly, Dr Ouadda took over this responsibility. Dr Agadir had expected to be invited to give a seminar on his work in Braunschweig, but he was not and this angered him very much.

In the meantime, one Dr Ollenu joined the institute. He had a PhD in plant pathology. Dr Agadir persuaded him to collaborate with him. But he too backed out after some time, presumably under pressure from his fellow plant pathologists. Dr Agadir was flabbergasted. This negative attitude was delaying his work. He could not understand the reason for this. The roles of the two departments were clearly marked. The plant pathology department had simply to provide the infected material. Instead, it wanted to monopolize all research on cocoa swollen shoot virus. Even though the research committee had not approved the research programme in principle, the department was continuing with it. Instead of using the ELISA technique developed by Dr Agadir, it was using some other method to isolate cocoa swollen shoot virus. The feud between Dr Agadir and Dr Ouadda assumed alarming proportions. For some time they did not even look at each other. Afterwards they started greeting one another, although grudgingly. Things became quiet after Dr Ouadda left for Saudi Arabia on sabbatical leave. However, the two departments continued to exchange acrimonious letters, and collaborative research suffered. Dr Agadir continued his research on cocoa swollen shoot virus, in collaboration with BBA, where part of the genetic engineering work had been done. Dr Agadir had a nagging feeling that Dr Ouadda was not the primary cause of all this trouble, and suspected that he had been provoked into this by other colleagues, who were jealous of Dr Agadir, since Dr Agadir was often praised by the director as a good, hard working researcher, at times - to Dr Agadir's embarrassment - in presence of others.

Dr Swanson's dilemma
Although the feud between Dr Agadir and Dr Ouadda had quietened down with the latter's departure to Saudi Arabia, all was not over. The after-effects were alarming. The two departments continued to exchange hostile letters. Each was trying to be fully selfsufficient, such that all collaborative research had been virtually abandoned. Worse, other departments were also moving in that direction and shunning collaborative research. Earlier, all such conflicts were resolved in the research committee; now they were being directly referred to the executive director, bypassing the research committee. Dr Ouadda was expected to rejoin the institute in another month. It was common knowledge that both Dr Agadir and Dr Ouadda had not buried the hatchet. Dr Swanson knew that something had definitely to be done to stem the vitiating atmosphere in the institute.

Annex 1: The Cocoa Research Institute of Savana

HISTORY The Cocoa Research Institute of Savana (CRIS) was originally established as the Central Cocoa Research Station of the Department of Agriculture, in 1937, upon the recommendation of the Agricultural Advisor to the United Kingdom's Secretary of State for the Colonies. This followed his observation, during a visit in 1935, of a marked decline in cocoa yield in the Eastern Province, the cradle of Savana's cocoa industry. Farms which had been highly productive had become derelict and were gradually being abandoned. Production in the region fell from 120 000 t/year in 1931-37 to a little over 40 000 t/year in 1953-54.

Continuing decline in cocoa production in the region resulting from widespread incidence of disease subsequently led to the founding of the Cocoa Institute of Coastal States (CICS) in 1944. The former Central Cocoa Research Station at Tofa was then selected as the headquarters of CICS, on account of its facilities and its nearness to the diseasedevastated areas. A team of high calibre scientists and administrators, with considerable experience in tropical agriculture, was recruited. There were entomologists, pathologists, botanists, chemists, agronomists and a research director. Initially, rented premises in the town served as temporary laboratory and living quarters for the staff. There was neither electricity, gas nor running water. However, by 1944, permanent buildings were ready. These comprised a large, well-fitted laboratory block, an administration block, and smaller ancillary buildings designed as workshops and storage for equipment. A sub-station was also set up at Badan. CICS was jointly administered as an international research institute serving three adjoining countries. However, it was autonomous within the country of its location. On the attainment of independence and national sovereignty CICS was dissolved in October 1962 as an inter-territorial organization. Each country set up its own institute for cocoa research. Nonetheless, they maintained links with each other, as well as with institutions abroad. The station at Tofa was re-established as CRIS. In the fifty years of its existence, the institute has had a number of changes in administration. It has passed from local to interterritorial control, and subsequently to a succession of national bodies, such as the National Research Council (NRC) in 1962, the Savana Academy of Sciences (SAS) in 1963, and the National Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (NCSIR) in 1969. In the first week of October 1973, barely four years after the formation of NCSIR, the administration of CRIS was changed again and, together with the divisions engaged in the cocoa industry, became a subsidiary of the Savana Cocoa Marketing Board (SOCOBOD). Then, in October 1975, the Ministry of Cocoa Affairs was established, with overall responsibility for the entire cocoa industry, including SOCOBOD. When the ministry was dissolved in 1979, the institute was administered by an interim management committee of SOCOBOD, with a chief executive and two deputies, to be succeeded, in 1981, by a permanent committee. The focus of the research activities had been on cocoa until 1979, when the functions were expanded to include research and investigations into all problems relating to cocoa, cola, coffee, shea nut and other indigenous and introduced tree species which produce fats similar to cocoa butter. Some of these other crops, such as shea nut and the tallow tree, grew under different environmental conditions, but the methods used in extracting and assessing the quality of their fats were not much different from that used on cocoa. Besides, the demand for shea butter for use on its own and in mixture with hydrogenated palm oil in cosmetics and food preparation was increasing. Even though other crops were added, the functions of CRIS remained unchanged, and much of its attention was focused on cocoa. ORGANIZATION The institute was headed by a director, who was responsible for day-to-day management of the institute on behalf of the management committee. The director was assisted by two

deputy directors, who were responsible for the coordination of research work and specific administration. In the organizational structure of the institute there were scientific divisions as well as service divisions. Research Division Initially, the institute was organized in five divisions: plant pathology, botany, entomology, agronomy, and soil science/chemistry. The botany division was responsible for breeding and physiology. Subsequent expansion of the work necessitated the establishment of separate plant breeding and physiology/biochemistry divisions. The current research areas of these divisions is shown in Table 1. Since the 1930s, considerable research effort had been directed towards control of cocoa swollen shoot virus disease (CSSV), which was a major limiting factor to cocoa production in Savana1. It was of major importance, considering that cocoa-related revenue accounted for more than 60% of national foreign exchange earnings. 1. Control of CSSV disease in cocoa in Savana depended mainly on removal of infected and contact trees as they were discovered. Eradication of CSSV was not possible because of the difficulty of controlling the mealy bug vector, the severity of the disease in some areas, the presence of latent infection in cocoa and in certain forest trees, the high cost of control by eradicating diseased trees, and farmers' reluctance to embrace this form of control, particularly after the government subsidy for removal of diseased cocoa plants was withdrawn. It appeared that the use of tolerant or resistant cocoa varieties would be the most practical method of controlling the disease. Once the required resistant material was obtained, control of the disease was practically free of charge. For many years, the CSSV resistance breeding programme was dominated by laboratory test methods of various kinds. These helped in selecting many parents relatively less susceptible to CSSV. The current approach recognized that CSSV resistance breeding was a long-term aim whose final solution lay in the careful monitoring of growth and yield data of test plants in variety trials under intensive selection pressure. Therefore a series of field trials were planned, include trials where test plants would be observed for growth and yield over three years, after which the test plants would be graft-inoculated with CSSV and growth and yield records continued until the plants would be uneconomic to maintain. The crosses that gave the highest yield within the economic yield period would be regarded as highly resistant and multiplied in seed gardens for seed production to growers. Other trials would be planted in areas where CSSV was endemic, and left for natural infection and spread of the disease in the types. In non-endemic areas, suitable high-yielding types were already available to growers. The aim was to find cocoa types that were resistant or tolerant to CSSV, combined with good agronomic characters, such as high yield. Table 1 Some current research topics of CRIS Division Agronomy Research foci Spacing/pruning/herbicide trials in cocoa and coffee. Intercropping trials in shea nut.

Seed storage of cola. Entomology Mealy bug studies: biology and control in cocoa. Mirid studies: biology and control in cocoa. Capsid control. Pests, pollinators and other insects of coffee, cola and shea. Pesticide residues in cocoa. Bulk processing to reduce acidity and off-flavours. By-products, such as husk and sweating, in cocoa, shea and tallow. Virus purification and detection in cocoa. Clonal propagation of shea, cola and coffee. Analytical methods for assessing flavour. Inter-specific, high yielding, disease-and-pest resistant crosses in cocoa and coffee. Pest, disease and drought resistance in cocoa. Germplasm studies in cocoa, shea, coffee and cola. Mutation breeding using in vitro culture for cocoa.

Physiology and Biochemistry

Plant Breeding

Plant Pathology (Mycology, Black pod and other fungal diseases of cocoa. Virology and Nematology Sections) Leaf rust and other fungal diseases of coffee. Necrosis virus of cocoa. Field and laboratory studies on CSSV in cocoa. Soil Science Fertilizer requirements in cocoa, coffee, shea and tallow. Soil nutrient studies. Use of by-products of cocoa. Shade, cultivar and fertilizer interactions in cocoa.

Although work was organized in a number of divisions, there had always been an interdisciplinary approach towards fulfilment of the institute's objectives, with close cooperation between different disciplines. It may therefore be said that the divisional organization was more for administrative control than for research organization. The head of each department was normally the researcher with the longest service in the institute. Each department had a team of scientists, assisted by a number of laboratory assistants and field staff. The total number depended on the establishment approved by the management committee, and was related to the approved budget. The research programme was drawn up collectively by the team of research workers in each department. A researcher, upon first engagement, was expected to participate in ongoing projects but could, at a later stage, initiate new work if this fitted into the general objectives of the institute. Research work along any particular line usually involved three stages. Firstly, laboratory investigations, requiring skilled technical staff and specialized

equipment. Secondly, strictly controlled field experiments followed, putting into test the observations and deductions made in the laboratory. Thirdly, field trials were done on farmers' land in different localities and maintained by farmers or at agricultural stations, with the supervision of agricultural field staff. These were to test the validity of the results in the first two stages, and to observe economic effects and farmers' reaction. While the research programme was adhered to fairly closely, latitude was permitted in its execution. Occasionally, work on projects had to be suspended because of absence of staff, inability to procure the necessary equipment on time, or inadequate funds. Facilities CRIS's main station was at Tofa which was some 120 km north of Zaka, the national capital, in an area well suited for cocoa production. The station was well provided with offices, a library and laboratory facilities, and with quarters for all senior staff and most junior staff. The station also provided a number of amenities and services, which had probably contributed importantly to its capacity to retain staff. These included a domestic water supply system, a clinic, a primary school, a staff club and even a golf course! Although many of the buildings were quite old, and maintenance standards had not been kept up, the basic structures were generally sound. The main requirement was for renovation rather than replacement. Recently, a programme of renovation and refurbishment of the buildings and rehabilitation of the roads on the research station had been started, and was expected to be completed soon. Land available for trials at Tofa included the Old Station (28 ha), and the Square Mile (259 ha), acquired in 1945 to accommodate expansion in CICS's activities. Much of the land was currently occupied by long-term trials, while some areas were not suitable for cocoa because of soil or drainage problems. Most of the experimental areas were well maintained by labourers, many of whom had worked on the station for many years and had acquired the necessary skills. CRIS operated sub-stations at Suafa, Nobsu and Belo. Suafa (230 ha) was acquired in 1973 to allow trials which could not be accommodated at Tofa. By 1983, about 40 ha had been developed for cocoa trials, 5 ha for coffee museum plots and clonal trials, and some 20 ha for trials on cola, tallow and Simaruka glauca (an oilseed tree introduced from Central America). There was also a cocoa hybrid seed garden and nursery. Over 70% of the cocoa and coffee trials were destroyed by fire in 1983, and replanting was completed in 1987. The institute had invested heavily in offices, stores and staff housing at Suafa, and there had been a progressive increase in the number of staff employed there (about 200 in 1987) and in related costs. The sub-station suffered because of its distance from Tofa (106 km), which reduced the extent of technical supervision by visiting research staff. According to Tofa staff, the soils and overall conditions were not very suitable for cocoa, and much of the coffee work had already been duplicated at the more accessible station at Nobsu, which was only 18 km from Tofa. Trials involving cocoa, coffee and cola were established by the plant breeding, agronomy and soil science departments, and plant pathology staff were stationed at Nobsu for joint CRIS/CSD trials. Cola, however, appeared to perform reasonably well at Suafa.

The Nobsu sub-station was situated within the much larger area of the CSD Cocoa Station, which also accommodated the training school, seed gardens, field trials, sprayer depot and workshop, and areas allocated to crop introductions. Soils at Nobsu were variable and there were some rock outcrops, but overall conditions were considered to be good. Much additional CSD land was available, including substantial areas of secondary forest and old, badly neglected cocoa in which swollen shoot virus was rife. CRIS owned various buildings at Nobsu, and plans had already been made for further development there. The sub-station at Belo was in the savanna area, some 480 km north of Tofa. It had been developed for research on shea nut, which grew wild in that area. Costs of developing this station had been considerable, as buildings, boreholes and a generator had been provided, and roads had been built on the station to provide access to the shea nut areas. The CSD Cocoa Station at Wadepa, in Eastern Region, was also used as an overflow site, mainly for progeny trials which could not be accommodated at Tofa. Some buildings had been provided there by CRIS, but the scale of operations was smaller than that at the substations. Off-station trials on CSD cocoa stations and on farmers' land were also conducted in collaboration with CSD. CRIS did not own any facilities at these sites and serious problems had arisen in recent years owing to lack of adequate trials maintenance and recording by CSD staff, and inadequate supervision by CRIS researchers owing to lack of transport. Currently there were 1 692 employees of the institute, of whom 131 were classified as senior staff. Of these, 30 posts were occupied by graduate research scientists, of whom almost half had PhDs, mainly from universities in the USA or UK. All staff were Savanians and the institute had received no long-term technical assistance since a large British team was withdrawn in 1978. The institute had not been generating funds, and therefore was not self-financing. Research findings were made available without charge, either through the Extension Service Unit or directly to user agencies. The institute had operated with government subvention under the supervision of a Commodity Board specially set up by the Government. At present, the cost of operating CRIS was fully borne by SOCOBOD. CRIS's recurrent budget was D 281 million, equivalent to $US 3.1 million in 1985-86. This training manual has been prepared as basic reference material to help national research trainers structure and conduct training courses on research management at the institute level. It is intended primarily for managers of agricultural research institutes in developing countries and for institutions of higher education interested in presenting inservice training courses on research management. The manual consists of ten modules, each addressing major management functions including motivation, leadership, direction, priority setting, communications and delegation. The four structural functions of management - planning, organization, monitoring and control, and evaluation - are covered in individual modules. The manual has been designed to support participatory learning through case-studies, group exercises and presentations by the participants.

Session 6. Conflict management case study: Dr Agadir

Session guide: Dr Agadir Case study: Dr Agadir DATE TIME FORMAT Small-group discussions and plenary participatory lecture TRAINER OBJECTIVES At the end of this session, participants should be able to apply to a case situation various concepts pertaining to management of conflict, and understand them better.

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS None.

REQUIRED READING Case study: Dr Agadir

BACKGROUND READING None.

SPECIAL EQUIPMENT AND AIDS Overhead projector and chalkboard

Session guide: Dr Agadir

The third cocoa project Dr Agadir

Dr Swanson's dilemma Annex 1: The Cocoa Research Institute of Savana The case of Dr Agadir provides an opportunity to understand causes of conflict situations in research organizations, and ways and means of managing such situations. The conflict discussed in the case is not uncommon in a research organization. Often such conflicts remain unresolved, creating adverse organizational effects. They influence team-work and affect research outputs. While management would like to resolve such conflicts, they are often difficult to resolve. Using the reading note on Conflict management from Module 4 - Session 5, participants should first discuss the case in small groups. During the case discussion in the plenary session, the resource person should use, at appropriate places, the concepts discussed in the reading note. To initiate discussion on the case, the resource person should ask participants about various types of conflict which arise in research organizations, their causes, and the manner in which they are resolved. What has caused the conflict in the case situation? Could it have been avoided? Has it been managed properly? Would participants handle it differently? How? At the end of the session, the resource person may wish to emphasize that conflicts are not necessarily bad. If managed properly, they can be used to reinforce commitment to the organization.

Case study: Dr Agadir

The letter from the plant pathology department was very strong. It concluded by observing: "If this is the attitude of the biochemistry department, we shall have no research in collaboration with them as of now. Not only do they lack a healthy attitude towards collaborative work, they have often refused to share achievements. Now they want to stifle our work on cocoa swollen shoot virus, notwithstanding the fact that we have been working on it for over a decade. We would of course continue our work in this area, but without the biochemistry department." Dr (Mrs) Swanson, Executive Director, Cocoa Research Institute of Savana (CRIS), put down the letter and was quite annoyed. She had known that there was trouble between the biochemistry and plant pathology departments, or rather between two senior scientists of these departments. She had not expected it to reach this level. There had been several instances of conflicts between the scientists and their divisions, but the conflicts had never reached boiling point. They were usually resolved amicably, even before the executive director took note of them. Mostly the conflicts arose over allocation of plots for experiments, budgetary allocations and participation in international conferences. Scientists designed their experiments in consultation with the statistician. They would then apply for a plot of land, providing a drawing of the area for laying out the experiment. The request would be considered by the plots committee, consisting of the heads of the research divisions and head of the plantation division. Each division had a certain land area allocated to it, and it could use that land for its experiments as agreed upon within the division. The plots committee simply took note of that. Difficulties arose

when the land belonging to some other division was sought, and in particular when the other division did not want to release its land. In the recent past there were some problems with the plant breeding department over a large piece of land on which a cocoa plantation had stood from the very beginning of the institute. The plantation had to be destroyed because of a large-scale disease infestation which was impossible to cure. When the land was cleared, almost all other divisions put in a request for parts of the land for their experiments. The plant breeding department resented these requests, and there were heated discussions in the plots committee. The issue was somehow resolved satisfactorily within the plots committee. The plant breeding department retained most of the land, although a small part was temporarily allocated to other divisions for their experiments. Objections were often raised by scientists when an area proposed for use in an experiment was considered by them to be unsuitable. For example, all experiments on virus studies had to be conducted on land at the edge of the experimental farm so as to isolate them from other experiments, otherwise they might be a source of infection and spread the virus diseases. In such cases, a scientist had to give up a preferred location. Frequently the scientists asked for a larger area than was necessary for their experiments. In those cases, the statistician - who was a permanent invitee to the meetings of the plots committee - was asked to review the experimental design with the scientists. When the plots committee denied the request for allocation of a particular plot, for whatever reason, it helped find another plot. Occasionally a proposed experiment might not be appropriate for a particular purpose, even though the scientist proposing the experiment might insist on it. Such cases were also resolved through peer intervention within the division concerned. Conflicts over allocation of funds were not unusual, with every division trying to get more so that its research programme could proceed smoothly. Participation in international conferences also led to some conflict among the competing scientists. Conflicts over sharing of scientific material and equipment were not uncommon. But all such conflicts were temporary, and had never affected the work culture of the institute. However, the conflict between the plant pathology and biochemistry departments was different. It was a conflict between two departments which had always collaborated in the past. It was a conflict between two senior scientists who had worked together on the same problem over a decade, and had jointly published their work in respected journals. For some strange reason, friends had become foes. In the process, they had vitiated to some extent the research environment of the institute (see ANNEX 1).

The third cocoa project

In 1984, the institute was preparing a five-year plan of activities to be included in the third phase of the World Bank-assisted Savana Cocoa Project. In the context of CRIS, the project aimed to enhance CRIS's capacity to carry out research on which to base expanded production of cocoa and coffee. The sub-components of the project were: upgrading the Tofa station and central services, and improving basic services at the substations, establishing a CRIS off-station-trials unit, and staff development.

Some investments to start new trials were also contemplated. The total proposed cost of the project was a modest $US 6.5 million. This investment was intended to be catalytic. Each division had submitted its plan of activities to the research committee. The research programme on virus purification and detection appeared in the work plans of both the plant pathology and the biochemistry divisions. That would not have been a problem but for the ensuing discussion. The head of the plant pathology division had qualified his division's programme by stating that they would work on the cocoa swollen shoot virus problem 'as and when they found time.' While this was being discussed by the members of the research committee, several other issues also cropped up. The head of the plant pathology division had to respond to several queries on the proposed research programme of his division. He had many answers to give, but could provide only a few clarifications. Yet he had very strongly questioned the proposal of the biochemistry department to work on cocoa swollen shoot virus problem. He contended that this was an area in which his department had been working for almost a decade, and, while the biochemistry department was involved in some small measure, this was not a major activity, neither in the past nor could it be in the future. This was essentially phytopathological work. On hearing this, the head of the biochemistry department was stunned. He could not keep quiet, but reacted rather angrily. In the acrimonious debate which then took place, both heads had lauded the role of their own department while belittling the other department. The other members of the research committee knew well that the work had been, in fact, a collaborative research activity between Dr Agadir, a biochemist, and Dr Ouadda, a plant pathologist, under the auspices of their respective departments. Somehow this relationship had gone sour. The research committee had subsequently written to the head of the plant pathology department seeking an explanation from him as to what was meant by the qualification that they would work on the cocoa swollen shoot virus problem 'as and when they had time.' The research committee never received a reply. In one of the meetings, the research committee approved research on cocoa swollen shoot virus as a major activity of the biochemistry department. No decision was taken on the request of the plant pathology department as the committee was still waiting for a reply to its earlier communication. Meanwhile, the two departments were exchanging acrimonious letters.

Dr Agadir
(as narrated by Dr Agadir) Dr Agadir joined CRIS as a Research Assistant (now re-designated as Assistant Research Officer) in 1965. That was soon after he had obtained his first degree in biochemistry. He was put in what was then the chemistry division, which comprised both soil science and biochemistry. The biochemistry wing was at that time mainly engaged in research on cocoa swollen shoot virus, in collaboration with the pathology division. Collaboration between various research divisions was part of the culture of the institute, as it was always necessary, particularly so between plant pathology and biochemistry. There had been close collaboration between the virologists, breeders and biochemists in the study of screening techniques, detection of infection, symptomatology, etc., for research studies on cocoa swollen shoot virus.

Dr Agadir was asked to work on various aspects of the cocoa swollen shoot virus purification problem. His work during the period 1965-66 was published in a respected professional journal. In September 1966, Dr Agadir went to the University of Sheffield to do a doctoral programme. He successfully defended his research thesis in 1969, was awarded his PhD, and returned to the institute. He was then promoted to research officer. Dr Asmera, the then director of CRIS, suggested several research problems to Dr Agadir. He selected four problems: (i) pesticide residues in cocoa beans, (ii) cocoa bio-products (pectin and cocoa husk), (iii) cocoa swollen shoot virus purification, and (iv) nutrition of mealy bugs. The last problem was in fact suggested by a Swedish biologist who was interested in rearing mealy bugs artificially and feeding them on a liquid diet. He was keen to know the most desired composition of the diet. The interest in mealy bugs arose because they are the vectors of cocoa swollen shoot virus. By 1972, Dr Agadir had published in several scientific journals. His work on mealy bugs and pectin was well received. These were independent publications. By then, Dr Agadir was working as the main biochemist since Mr R.H. Wode, who was part of an Overseas Development Administration (ODA) technical team from the United Kingdom, had left for Rustberg at about the time Dr Agadir returned from Sheffield in 1969. Dr Agadir recalls that his collaborative work with Dr Ouadda began in 1969 when the latter suggested a research project on factors which affected virus multiplication and symptom development in cocoa. This problem was originally suggested to Dr Ouadda by the chief of the ODA team. Since this involved research in biochemistry, both Dr Ouadda and Dr Agadir teamed up. Together they published some research papers. Dr Ouadda left for the University of Dublin to do a PhD. From 1971 to 1974, while Dr Ouadda was away, Dr Agadir continued to work on cocoa swollen shoot virus purification. The plant pathology department was providing infected material, such as cocoa beans and leaves, but no pathologist was involved directly in the research work. Dr Agadir faced several impediments in his work. He felt that the head of the ODA technical team, himself a plant pathologist, did not want him to work on cocoa swollen shoot virus. The ODA team had been working on cocoa swollen shoot virus for many years without making much progress. In contrast, Dr Agadir was already claiming remarkable progress. The ODA team brought back Dr C.H. Cantor to continue work on cocoa swollen shoot virus. Dr Cantor came as a plant pathologist and not as a biochemist. Dr Agadir recalls various impediments that were put in the way of his work during this period. He was no longer easily receiving supplies of infected material from the plant pathology department. One morning he found his experimental boxes thrown out of the greenhouse. Notwithstanding these difficulties, Dr Agadir continued his work with the help of a technician in the biochemistry department. He even published two papers in the Savana Journal of Agricultural Sciences. Dr Agadir had sent the draft of these papers to Dr Ouadda, who was still in Dublin doing his PhD. Dr Ouadda was a junior author of

both these papers. The paper on pectin had another co-author, from the University of Savana at Zaka. Dr Ouadda returned to CRIS in 1974 after gaining his PhD. At about that time, in 1974, Dr Agadir went to Munich, together with the then director and head of the plant breeding division, to attend an international conference on Cocoa Fermentation and Quality. One of the conference papers was presented by Dr Barling, on using the electron microscope to study fermentation. Dr Agadir wondered if the same technique could be used for studying virus multiplication in cocoa beans. Dr Barling suggested that the best person to answer this question would be Dr Lizzermann, an electron microscopist at Biologische Bundesanstalt fr Land- und Forstwirtshaft (BBA), at Braunschweig, Germany. In fact, they travelled together to Braunschweig. Dr Agadir was disappointed to learn from Dr Lizzermann that cocoa swollen shoot virus was difficult to study as it did not attain a high concentration in cocoa beans and therefore detecting it with the electron microscope would be difficult. Although Dr Agadir returned to Tofa a bit disappointed, he did not give up. With Dr Ouadda, he wrote a proposal to develop a sensitive method to detect virus in cocoa tissues. Dr Agadir needed a sensitive method to continue his work on the biochemical basis of cocoa swollen shoot virus disease resistance, and Dr Ouadda needed a sensitive method for detection of the virus in the field for his studies on the epidemiology of outbreaks and their control. Since they had a common interest, they teamed up. Besides, they had already worked together on this problem. Apart from that, the plant pathology department would be the one to provide infected material for study. The proposal was sent to the director of BBA. In the meanwhile, Dr Agadir was travelling. First he went to Malaysia on a Commonwealth Fellowship to visit cocoa estates and study bulk fermentation of cocoa. In September 1979 he was at the Tropical Crops Research Institute, London, on a fellowship from the International Atomic Energy Agency to work on pesticide residues in cocoa beans. In January 1980, Dr Agadir went to Braunschweig at the invitation of Dr Pavlo, Director of the Institute of Virology in BBA. Dr Agadir convinced Dr Pavlo that he indeed had a good method for purifying the virus in substantial quantities, which was a necessary prerequisite for developing a sensitive method. By August 1980, Dr Agadir was in BBA on a prestigious fellowship from the Alexander von Humboldt Stifftung, working to develop the much-needed sensitive method, later known as the EnzymeLinked ImmunoSorbent Analysis Technique (ELISA). In August 1980, Dr Ouadda sent the necessary infected material (cocoa beans and leaves) to Braunschweig for Dr Agadir to continue his work. Dr Agadir returned to Tofa in November 1981, after having had some initial success in developing the ELISA technique. Of course, a considerable amount of work remained to be done, but he was elated with the success already achieved. That was when Dr Ouadda became jealous. He knew that after the virus was detected, using the sensitive method, it would open the way for genetic engineering and cloning, and all that would ultimately lead to development of cocoa varieties resistant to cocoa swollen shoot virus. Once the virus was detected it would be possible to determine the genome structure and then find out what part of viral nucleic acid coded for the viral protein. Scientists could then

transfer that part of the gene into the plant so that the plant could make the viral proteins and develop resistance to cocoa swollen shoot virus. On his return from the Humboldt fellowship, Dr Agadir felt the need to have the assistance of a junior scientist. His proposal was approved and a junior scientist was recruited, who was subsequently trained in molecular biology, virology and genetic engineering. Dr Agadir was in charge of a staff seminar series before he left for Germany. Since the series had been started by Dr Agadir and Dr Ouadda jointly, Dr Ouadda took over this responsibility. Dr Agadir had expected to be invited to give a seminar on his work in Braunschweig, but he was not and this angered him very much. In the meantime, one Dr Ollenu joined the institute. He had a PhD in plant pathology. Dr Agadir persuaded him to collaborate with him. But he too backed out after some time, presumably under pressure from his fellow plant pathologists. Dr Agadir was flabbergasted. This negative attitude was delaying his work. He could not understand the reason for this. The roles of the two departments were clearly marked. The plant pathology department had simply to provide the infected material. Instead, it wanted to monopolize all research on cocoa swollen shoot virus. Even though the research committee had not approved the research programme in principle, the department was continuing with it. Instead of using the ELISA technique developed by Dr Agadir, it was using some other method to isolate cocoa swollen shoot virus. The feud between Dr Agadir and Dr Ouadda assumed alarming proportions. For some time they did not even look at each other. Afterwards they started greeting one another, although grudgingly. Things became quiet after Dr Ouadda left for Saudi Arabia on sabbatical leave. However, the two departments continued to exchange acrimonious letters, and collaborative research suffered. Dr Agadir continued his research on cocoa swollen shoot virus, in collaboration with BBA, where part of the genetic engineering work had been done. Dr Agadir had a nagging feeling that Dr Ouadda was not the primary cause of all this trouble, and suspected that he had been provoked into this by other colleagues, who were jealous of Dr Agadir, since Dr Agadir was often praised by the director as a good, hard working researcher, at times - to Dr Agadir's embarrassment - in presence of others.

Dr Swanson's dilemma
Although the feud between Dr Agadir and Dr Ouadda had quietened down with the latter's departure to Saudi Arabia, all was not over. The after-effects were alarming. The two departments continued to exchange hostile letters. Each was trying to be fully selfsufficient, such that all collaborative research had been virtually abandoned. Worse, other departments were also moving in that direction and shunning collaborative research. Earlier, all such conflicts were resolved in the research committee; now they were being directly referred to the executive director, bypassing the research committee. Dr Ouadda was expected to rejoin the institute in another month. It was common knowledge that both Dr Agadir and Dr Ouadda had not buried the hatchet. Dr Swanson knew that something had definitely to be done to stem the vitiating atmosphere in the institute.

Annex 1: The Cocoa Research Institute of Savana

HISTORY The Cocoa Research Institute of Savana (CRIS) was originally established as the Central Cocoa Research Station of the Department of Agriculture, in 1937, upon the recommendation of the Agricultural Advisor to the United Kingdom's Secretary of State for the Colonies. This followed his observation, during a visit in 1935, of a marked decline in cocoa yield in the Eastern Province, the cradle of Savana's cocoa industry. Farms which had been highly productive had become derelict and were gradually being abandoned. Production in the region fell from 120 000 t/year in 1931-37 to a little over 40 000 t/year in 1953-54. Continuing decline in cocoa production in the region resulting from widespread incidence of disease subsequently led to the founding of the Cocoa Institute of Coastal States (CICS) in 1944. The former Central Cocoa Research Station at Tofa was then selected as the headquarters of CICS, on account of its facilities and its nearness to the diseasedevastated areas. A team of high calibre scientists and administrators, with considerable experience in tropical agriculture, was recruited. There were entomologists, pathologists, botanists, chemists, agronomists and a research director. Initially, rented premises in the town served as temporary laboratory and living quarters for the staff. There was neither electricity, gas nor running water. However, by 1944, permanent buildings were ready. These comprised a large, well-fitted laboratory block, an administration block, and smaller ancillary buildings designed as workshops and storage for equipment. A sub-station was also set up at Badan. CICS was jointly administered as an international research institute serving three adjoining countries. However, it was autonomous within the country of its location. On the attainment of independence and national sovereignty CICS was dissolved in October 1962 as an inter-territorial organization. Each country set up its own institute for cocoa research. Nonetheless, they maintained links with each other, as well as with institutions abroad. The station at Tofa was re-established as CRIS. In the fifty years of its existence, the institute has had a number of changes in administration. It has passed from local to interterritorial control, and subsequently to a succession of national bodies, such as the National Research Council (NRC) in 1962, the Savana Academy of Sciences (SAS) in 1963, and the National Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (NCSIR) in 1969. In the first week of October 1973, barely four years after the formation of NCSIR, the administration of CRIS was changed again and, together with the divisions engaged in the cocoa industry, became a subsidiary of the Savana Cocoa Marketing Board (SOCOBOD). Then, in October 1975, the Ministry of Cocoa Affairs was established, with overall responsibility for the entire cocoa industry, including SOCOBOD. When the ministry was dissolved in 1979, the institute was administered by an interim management committee of SOCOBOD, with a chief executive and two deputies, to be succeeded, in 1981, by a permanent committee. The focus of the research activities had been on cocoa until 1979, when the functions were expanded to include research and investigations into all problems relating to cocoa,

cola, coffee, shea nut and other indigenous and introduced tree species which produce fats similar to cocoa butter. Some of these other crops, such as shea nut and the tallow tree, grew under different environmental conditions, but the methods used in extracting and assessing the quality of their fats were not much different from that used on cocoa. Besides, the demand for shea butter for use on its own and in mixture with hydrogenated palm oil in cosmetics and food preparation was increasing. Even though other crops were added, the functions of CRIS remained unchanged, and much of its attention was focused on cocoa. ORGANIZATION The institute was headed by a director, who was responsible for day-to-day management of the institute on behalf of the management committee. The director was assisted by two deputy directors, who were responsible for the coordination of research work and specific administration. In the organizational structure of the institute there were scientific divisions as well as service divisions. Research Division Initially, the institute was organized in five divisions: plant pathology, botany, entomology, agronomy, and soil science/chemistry. The botany division was responsible for breeding and physiology. Subsequent expansion of the work necessitated the establishment of separate plant breeding and physiology/biochemistry divisions. The current research areas of these divisions is shown in Table 1. Since the 1930s, considerable research effort had been directed towards control of cocoa swollen shoot virus disease (CSSV), which was a major limiting factor to cocoa production in Savana1. It was of major importance, considering that cocoa-related revenue accounted for more than 60% of national foreign exchange earnings. 1. Control of CSSV disease in cocoa in Savana depended mainly on removal of infected and contact trees as they were discovered. Eradication of CSSV was not possible because of the difficulty of controlling the mealy bug vector, the severity of the disease in some areas, the presence of latent infection in cocoa and in certain forest trees, the high cost of control by eradicating diseased trees, and farmers' reluctance to embrace this form of control, particularly after the government subsidy for removal of diseased cocoa plants was withdrawn. It appeared that the use of tolerant or resistant cocoa varieties would be the most practical method of controlling the disease. Once the required resistant material was obtained, control of the disease was practically free of charge. For many years, the CSSV resistance breeding programme was dominated by laboratory test methods of various kinds. These helped in selecting many parents relatively less susceptible to CSSV. The current approach recognized that CSSV resistance breeding was a long-term aim whose final solution lay in the careful monitoring of growth and yield data of test plants in variety trials under intensive selection pressure. Therefore a series of field trials were planned, include trials where test plants would be observed for growth and yield over three years, after which the test plants would be graft-inoculated with CSSV and growth and yield records continued until the plants would be uneconomic to maintain. The crosses that gave the highest yield within the economic yield period would be regarded as highly resistant and multiplied in seed gardens for seed production to growers. Other

trials would be planted in areas where CSSV was endemic, and left for natural infection and spread of the disease in the types. In non-endemic areas, suitable high-yielding types were already available to growers. The aim was to find cocoa types that were resistant or tolerant to CSSV, combined with good agronomic characters, such as high yield. Table 1 Some current research topics of CRIS Division Agronomy Research foci Spacing/pruning/herbicide trials in cocoa and coffee. Intercropping trials in shea nut. Seed storage of cola. Mealy bug studies: biology and control in cocoa. Mirid studies: biology and control in cocoa. Capsid control. Pests, pollinators and other insects of coffee, cola and shea. Pesticide residues in cocoa. Bulk processing to reduce acidity and off-flavours. By-products, such as husk and sweating, in cocoa, shea and tallow. Virus purification and detection in cocoa. Clonal propagation of shea, cola and coffee. Analytical methods for assessing flavour. Inter-specific, high yielding, disease-and-pest resistant crosses in cocoa and coffee. Pest, disease and drought resistance in cocoa. Germplasm studies in cocoa, shea, coffee and cola. Mutation breeding using in vitro culture for cocoa.

Entomology

Physiology and Biochemistry

Plant Breeding

Plant Pathology (Mycology, Black pod and other fungal diseases of cocoa. Virology and Nematology Sections) Leaf rust and other fungal diseases of coffee. Necrosis virus of cocoa. Field and laboratory studies on CSSV in cocoa. Soil Science Fertilizer requirements in cocoa, coffee, shea and tallow. Soil nutrient studies. Use of by-products of cocoa. Shade, cultivar and fertilizer interactions in cocoa.

Although work was organized in a number of divisions, there had always been an interdisciplinary approach towards fulfilment of the institute's objectives, with close

cooperation between different disciplines. It may therefore be said that the divisional organization was more for administrative control than for research organization. The head of each department was normally the researcher with the longest service in the institute. Each department had a team of scientists, assisted by a number of laboratory assistants and field staff. The total number depended on the establishment approved by the management committee, and was related to the approved budget. The research programme was drawn up collectively by the team of research workers in each department. A researcher, upon first engagement, was expected to participate in ongoing projects but could, at a later stage, initiate new work if this fitted into the general objectives of the institute. Research work along any particular line usually involved three stages. Firstly, laboratory investigations, requiring skilled technical staff and specialized equipment. Secondly, strictly controlled field experiments followed, putting into test the observations and deductions made in the laboratory. Thirdly, field trials were done on farmers' land in different localities and maintained by farmers or at agricultural stations, with the supervision of agricultural field staff. These were to test the validity of the results in the first two stages, and to observe economic effects and farmers' reaction. While the research programme was adhered to fairly closely, latitude was permitted in its execution. Occasionally, work on projects had to be suspended because of absence of staff, inability to procure the necessary equipment on time, or inadequate funds. Facilities CRIS's main station was at Tofa which was some 120 km north of Zaka, the national capital, in an area well suited for cocoa production. The station was well provided with offices, a library and laboratory facilities, and with quarters for all senior staff and most junior staff. The station also provided a number of amenities and services, which had probably contributed importantly to its capacity to retain staff. These included a domestic water supply system, a clinic, a primary school, a staff club and even a golf course! Although many of the buildings were quite old, and maintenance standards had not been kept up, the basic structures were generally sound. The main requirement was for renovation rather than replacement. Recently, a programme of renovation and refurbishment of the buildings and rehabilitation of the roads on the research station had been started, and was expected to be completed soon. Land available for trials at Tofa included the Old Station (28 ha), and the Square Mile (259 ha), acquired in 1945 to accommodate expansion in CICS's activities. Much of the land was currently occupied by long-term trials, while some areas were not suitable for cocoa because of soil or drainage problems. Most of the experimental areas were well maintained by labourers, many of whom had worked on the station for many years and had acquired the necessary skills. CRIS operated sub-stations at Suafa, Nobsu and Belo. Suafa (230 ha) was acquired in 1973 to allow trials which could not be accommodated at Tofa. By 1983, about 40 ha had been developed for cocoa trials, 5 ha for coffee museum plots and clonal trials, and some 20 ha for trials on cola, tallow and Simaruka glauca (an oilseed tree introduced from Central America). There was also a cocoa hybrid seed garden and nursery. Over 70% of the cocoa and coffee trials were destroyed by fire in 1983, and replanting was completed in 1987.

The institute had invested heavily in offices, stores and staff housing at Suafa, and there had been a progressive increase in the number of staff employed there (about 200 in 1987) and in related costs. The sub-station suffered because of its distance from Tofa (106 km), which reduced the extent of technical supervision by visiting research staff. According to Tofa staff, the soils and overall conditions were not very suitable for cocoa, and much of the coffee work had already been duplicated at the more accessible station at Nobsu, which was only 18 km from Tofa. Trials involving cocoa, coffee and cola were established by the plant breeding, agronomy and soil science departments, and plant pathology staff were stationed at Nobsu for joint CRIS/CSD trials. Cola, however, appeared to perform reasonably well at Suafa. The Nobsu sub-station was situated within the much larger area of the CSD Cocoa Station, which also accommodated the training school, seed gardens, field trials, sprayer depot and workshop, and areas allocated to crop introductions. Soils at Nobsu were variable and there were some rock outcrops, but overall conditions were considered to be good. Much additional CSD land was available, including substantial areas of secondary forest and old, badly neglected cocoa in which swollen shoot virus was rife. CRIS owned various buildings at Nobsu, and plans had already been made for further development there. The sub-station at Belo was in the savanna area, some 480 km north of Tofa. It had been developed for research on shea nut, which grew wild in that area. Costs of developing this station had been considerable, as buildings, boreholes and a generator had been provided, and roads had been built on the station to provide access to the shea nut areas. The CSD Cocoa Station at Wadepa, in Eastern Region, was also used as an overflow site, mainly for progeny trials which could not be accommodated at Tofa. Some buildings had been provided there by CRIS, but the scale of operations was smaller than that at the substations. Off-station trials on CSD cocoa stations and on farmers' land were also conducted in collaboration with CSD. CRIS did not own any facilities at these sites and serious problems had arisen in recent years owing to lack of adequate trials maintenance and recording by CSD staff, and inadequate supervision by CRIS researchers owing to lack of transport. Currently there were 1 692 employees of the institute, of whom 131 were classified as senior staff. Of these, 30 posts were occupied by graduate research scientists, of whom almost half had PhDs, mainly from universities in the USA or UK. All staff were Savanians and the institute had received no long-term technical assistance since a large British team was withdrawn in 1978. The institute had not been generating funds, and therefore was not self-financing. Research findings were made available without charge, either through the Extension Service Unit or directly to user agencies. The institute had operated with government subvention under the supervision of a Commodity Board specially set up by the Government. At present, the cost of operating CRIS was fully borne by SOCOBOD. CRIS's recurrent budget was D 281 million, equivalent to $US 3.1 million in 1985-86. This training manual has been prepared as basic reference material to help national

research trainers structure and conduct training courses on research management at the institute level. It is intended primarily for managers of agricultural research institutes in developing countries and for institutions of higher education interested in presenting inservice training courses on research management. The manual consists of ten modules, each addressing major management functions including motivation, leadership, direction, priority setting, communications and delegation. The four structural functions of management - planning, organization, monitoring and control, and evaluation - are covered in individual modules. The manual has been designed to support participatory learning through case-studies, group exercises and presentations by the participants.

Session 1. Leadership
Session guide: Leadership Reading note: Leadership DATE TIME FORMAT Plenary participatory lecture TRAINER OBJECTIVES At the end of this session, participants should be able to understand and appreciate: 1. The concept of leadership. 2. Different theories of leadership and leadership styles. 3. Task and maintenance functions of a leader. 4. Important characteristics of a leader. INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS Exhibit 1 Exhibit 2 Exhibit 3 Exhibit 4 Leadership Leadership theories Theory X Theory Y

Exhibit 5 Exhibit 6

Functions of a leader Characteristics of a leader

REQUIRED READING Reading note: Leadership

BACKGROUND READING Arnon, I., 1968. Organization and Administration of Agricultural Research. Amsterdam: Elsevier. See pp. 161-205.

SPECIAL EQUIPMENT AND AIDS Overhead projector and chalkboard

Session guide: Leadership

Begin this session by asking participants how they feel about their superiors and how they think their superiors feel about them. The purpose of this discussion should be to emphasize the differences in perspectives. Emphasize that leadership and cooperation go hand in hand to motivate researchers. A person does not need to be a leader or a manager to feel this way. As a leader or manager, however, one should realize that although he or she may feel that they are pulling everyone else's weight in the organization, it is likely that the person's co-workers see things very differently. Regardless of the reality of this situation, it is important that co-workers at least perceive that management and staff are members of the same team. Being a good leader is important to research management but, to determine how to be a good leader, one must first understand the concept of leadership and its importance. Ask participants what they understand by 'leadership,' and why is it important? Show EXHIBIT 1 and define leadership. Leadership is the effort to influence the behaviour of individuals or group members to achieve set goals. It establishes a feeling of mutuality. Discuss the various leadership theories listed in EXHIBIT 2. The traditional concept has been that effective leaders have a distinct set of personality traits. These may be capacity, achievements, responsibility, participation or socio-economic status. Based on how a leader behaves, the behaviourial approach classifies leaders as autocratic, democratic, participative or laissez-faire. Discuss each of these types of leaders, provoking participants to provide examples from their experiences. The Ohio State University studies identified four leadership styles based on initiating structure and consideration as important determinants of successful leadership behaviour. Show EXHIBIT 3 and discuss the assumptions underlying Theory X. Show EXHIBIT 4 and discuss the conceptual basis of Theory Y. Discuss leadership roles for each of these types and how they

influence performance. Theory X and Theory Y represent two different types of leadership styles. In this context, participants might wish to assess their own leadership style and that of their supervisors. The managerial grid approach considers people and production, and evolves five types of leadership styles. Likert's four systems identify leadership styles which can either be job centred or employee centred. The job-centred leadership style may be exploitative or benevolent. The employee-centred style is consultative and participative. The situational approach has identified leadership styles as relationship motivated and task motivated. Tannenbaum and Schmidt's situation theory considers leadership style on the basis of the leader, the follower and the situation. Initiate discussion on the functions of a leader. The basic function of a leader is to ensure that the group achieves its goal. This is done through various steps. Broadly speaking, managerial functions can be defined in terms of task and of maintenance. The task functions are activities performed to achieve organizational goals. The maintenance functions are activities that help in satisfying the needs of group members. Show EXHIBIT 5 and discuss the important task and maintenance functions of a leader. Ask participants to write down the ten most important qualities a leader of agricultural research should have. Ask each participant to give what they consider to be the two most important qualities identified. As they list them, write them on the board. By the time you have listed the opinions of each participant, you may very well have covered all participants' ten qualities, as many of the participants will probably have listed the same qualities as others. If not, then go around the room again asking for additional qualities not already written on the board. As particularly interesting qualities are mentioned by participants, you might discuss them with the group as a whole. Finally, show EXHIBIT 6 and compare the qualities listed there with those listed on the board. Consider each quality and discuss why it is important, inviting individuals to consider which qualities are most important to them personally. As the discussion progresses, it will possess all these characteristics. Conclude the session with a discussion on leadership in research organizations. Observe that a research manager is required to assimilate various leadership styles and functions in order to effectively, efficiently and successfully manage research activities. Scientists are highly skilled, with various specializations. Creativity is the core of their performance. Therefore, the research manager has to use a participative approach in conjunction with other approaches. EXHIBIT 1 LEADERSHIP Leadership is the effort to influence the behaviour of individuals or members of a group in order to accomplish organizational, individual or personal goals EXHIBIT 2 LEADERSHIP THEORIES Trait approach Capacity

Achievements Responsibility Participation

Behavioural approach Autocratic Democratic Laissez-faire Theory X and Theory Y Managerial grid Lickert's four systems: Job centred - Exploitive authoritarian - Benevolent authoritarianEmployee centred - Consultative - Participative

Situational approach Fiedler's Situational theory Relationship-motivated style Task-motivated style Tannenbaum and Schmidt's Situation theory EXHIBIT 3 THEORY X Assumptions 1. Man is inherently lazy, dislikes work and avoids it whenever possible. 2. As a result, leaders must use strong measures to control the behaviour of subordinates, so that they work toward organizational goals. 3. Most human beings are incapable of self-direction and control. They prefer to respond to orders rather than to accept responsibility for their own actions.

Managerial styles Management assumes complete responsibility for organizing, planning, important decision making, directing and motivating people. Employees are not trusted with

important decisions. Source: McGregor, 1960 EXHIBIT 4 THEORY Y Assumptions 1. Work can be enjoyable. 2. People will work hard and assume responsibility if they have the opportunity to satisfy their personal needs while simultaneously achieving organizational goals. 3. People have a great deal more ability and potential for imagination and creativity than credit is given to them. 4. Given proper conditions, individuals want to do a good job and will work hard to do so. 5. Performance of an individual is actually based on internal rather than external controls.

Managerial styles Management trusts employees, and delegates important decisions to lower levels. It fosters an environment conducive to the growth of both organization and subordinate. This makes work inherently satisfying and invokes participation. Source: McGregor, 1960. EXHIBIT 5 FUNCTIONS OF A LEADER Task functions A policy-maker A planner An executive An expert A group representative A controller A purveyor of rewards and punishments

Maintenance functions An arbitrator and mediator An ideal A symbol of the group A surrogate for individual responsibility An ideologist

A father A scapegoat Source: Kretch and Cretchfield, 1948. EXHIBIT 6 CHARACTERISTICS OF A LEADER Organized Fearless Respects the work of others Induces a feeling of satisfaction Promotes the interests of subordinates Frank Respects individuals Knowledgeable Predictable Understanding Honest and transparent Accessible Provides opportunities Guides Willing to listen Genuine Discrete Informed Graceful Has authority People-oriented Personality traits Sources: Fiedler, Chemers and Mahar, 1977; Stodgill, 1948; Tosi, Rizzo and Carroll, 1986.

Reading note: Leadership

Leadership theories Trait approach Behaviourial approach Theory X and theory Y Managerial grid approach Likert's four systems Situational approach Functions of leaders Characteristics of leaders References

Leadership is an effective instrument by which a manager can establish a feeling of mutual objectives and unity in a group, thereby ensuring maximum efficiency of the group. To achieve this, a manager has to have special skills in understanding impersonal and group behaviour, establishing interactions and communication, and promoting cooperation. The quality of leadership determines the success or failure of an organization. Leadership can be defined here as the effort to influence the behaviour of individuals or group members in order to accomplish organizational, individual or personal goals. It is an essential component of organizational effectiveness. A leader has to possess one or more forms of powers to orient others to the desired direction (French and Raven, 1959): charisma, a position of authority, expert knowledge, and power of reward and punishment. The powers of authority, reward and punishment are primary powers, which add strength to leadership quality and influence. These are powers which are delegated to a manager by the organization. Expert knowledge and charisma power are personal, intrinsic to the leader, and add to his or her strength. To be effective, a manager should have a good understanding of leadership, of motivating factors, of how people think and act, and should adopt a personal and active attitude towards designated goals. Leadership should be both effective and successful. While successful leadership draws a response from individuals or group members on the basis of rewards and punishments, effective leadership is based on mutual understanding and social exchange. An effective leader makes the individual or group members understand the problem and reasons for any actions or for changes needed in their own perceptual terms, and then makes a well reasoned decision. More recently, the concept of the super leader has been developed. A super leader is one who leads others to lead themselves. Super leadership inspires, stimulates and supports self-leadership in subordinates. It recognizes self-influence as a "powerful opportunity for achieving excellence, rather than as a threat to external control and authority" (Manz and Sims, 1987). Strategies for self-leadership include: (i) effective behaviour and action, (ii) strategies focused on behaviour, and (iii) cognitive focused effective thinking and feeling.

Leadership theories
Leadership is influenced by numerous factors relating to traits, behaviour and situation. It is the outcome of a complex relationship between leaders, subordinates, the organization, social values and economic and political conditions. The concept of leadership is understood mainly through three theories, based on trait, behaviour and situation.

Trait approach
The traditional concept is that effective leaders have personality traits which distinguish them from the common herd. Leadership effectiveness has been found to be associated with age, height, intelligence, academic achievements, judgmental ability and insight. However, none of these have been correlated with leadership in all situations. The

willingness to lead transcends all these traits. The trait approach has been popular, but controversial. Stogdill (1974) identified several general factors which differentiate leaders from nonleaders: Capacity refers to problem solving capabilities, making judgments and working hard. Achievements relate to accomplishments such as academic record, knowledge and sports. Responsibility refers to dependability, reliability, self-drive, perseverance, aggressiveness and self-confidence. Participation and involvement mean highly developed social interaction, popularity, swift adaptation to changing situations, and easier cooperation compared to non-leaders. Socio-economic status, i.e., effective leaders usually belong to higher socio-economic classes.

Behaviourial approach
The behaviourial approach to leadership is based on the concept of how a leader behaves and what actually is done to achieve leadership effectiveness. Depending on participation and sharing in decision making, leaders have been classified (Lewin, Lipit and White, 1939, quoted in Tosi, Rizzo and Carroll, 1986) as: Autocratic leaders, who exclude subordinates from the process of decision making. They assign work without consulting subordinates or knowing their inclinations and desires. Democratic or participative leaders are effective and more productive because they consult subordinates on various matters and include them in the process of decision making. Tasks are assigned on the basis of interests and preferences of subordinates. Laissez-faire leaders have little or no self-confidence in their leadership ability, do not set goals for the group, and do not enhance group interaction and communication. In fact, the laissez-faire type of leader do little supervision. Consequently, the group has to make many on-the-job decisions. Studies at Ohio State University focused on task and social behaviour of leaders, and identified initiating structure and consideration as two important determinants of successful leadership behaviour. The studies observed the effect of various leadership styles on group performance and job satisfaction (Stogdill, 1974). Initiating structure is the extent to which a leader conceptualizes the roles of both the leader and the subordinates towards goal achievements. It relates to organizational structure, communication channels and evaluation of group output. Consideration is the degree to which job relationships are associated with mutual trust, faith, respect, friendship, support from subordinates and informal communication. On the basis of these dimensions, four leadership styles have been identified, namely low structure - low consideration; low structure - high consideration; high structure - high consideration; and high structure low consideration. The high structure - high consideration style of leadership has been found to be most effective (Stogdill, 1974).

Theory X and theory Y

There are two basic classes of people: those who want to lead and take responsibility, i.e., the leaders and managers; and those who want to be directed and do not want to take responsibilities. On this basis, McGregor (1960) classified leadership as either an authoritarian style (Theory X), or a more egalitarian style (Theory Y). Theory X Theory X assumes that: man is inherently lazy, dislikes work and avoids it whenever possible; as a result, leaders must use strong measures to control the behaviour of subordinates and properly control them so that they work towards organizational goals; and most human beings are incapable of self-direction and control, preferring to respond to direct orders rather than assume responsibility for their own actions. According to Theory X, management does not trust employees with important decisions. They are altogether excluded from the decision making process. Management assumes complete responsibility for organizing, planning, making important decisions, directing and motivating people. If management does not act, employees will do little or nothing. Theory Y The Theory Y style of leadership is based on Maslow's concept of self-actualization. It considers that: work can be enjoyable, people will work hard and assume responsibility if they have the opportunity to satisfy their personal needs while at the same time achieving organizational goals, people have a great deal more capability and potential for imagination and creativity than they are given credit for, given proper conditions, individuals will work hard to do a good job, and an individual's performance is actually based on innate rather than external controls. Implementing a Theory Y approach, a manager nurtures an environment which is favourable to the growth of both organization and subordinates. The theory recognizes that employees have the capability to be high performers, to develop and assume responsibility, and to be self-motivated. Therefore management only has to ensure the appropriate working conditions to bring out all these abilities. With the right kind of leadership, employees will not be inactive and resistive. On the contrary, management can trust employees and assign responsibility for taking important decisions to lower levels. The overall effect is to make work inherently satisfying to the employee.

Managerial grid approach

The managerial grid approach utilizes - with modifications - the consideration and initiating structure dimensions of leadership. As discussed earlier, these dimensions are

directed towards people and production respectively (Blake and Mouton, 1969). Using this approach, five types of leadership styles have been identified: The improvised or extempore style, which considers neither people nor production. It is an ineffective style of leadership. The country club style of leadership is oriented towards people, but has the least concern for production. The autocratic type of leadership is oriented towards production. It has most concern for production and least concern for people. The middle-of-the-road type of leader maintains a balanced between production and people. The team type of leadership style influences group members into a vibrant, effective, problem solving and decision making team, which is essential for organizational effectiveness. This is the most effective style of leadership, since it has concern for both production and people.

Likert's four systems

According to Likert (1961), optimal performance can only be achieved if attention is paid to the human aspects of subordinates' problems and behaviourial aspects, such as motivating forces, communication processes, interaction-influence processes, decision making processes, goal setting processes, control processes, and performance characteristics. Based on these considerations, leadership styles could be either job centred or employee centred, and then further classified as follows: Job centred Exploitive-authoritative type of leadership, which is similar to the high structure-low consideration type discussed earlier. It is manipulative and results in low productivity. Benevolent-authoritative style of leadership, which is a slight improvement on the exploitive-authoritative type of leadership. It produces average results. Employee centred An employee-centred leadership style can either be consultative or participative. A consultative style of leadership is ideal. Although control is basically with top management, it is shared with managers at middle and lower levels. Overall productivity is good. A participative group style maximizes the quantity and quality of performance, and is thus an ideal approach.

Situational approach
A situational approach to leadership is based on the premise that environmental factors affect a leader's style and effectiveness. Consequently, effective and successful leadership depends on the relationship between organizational situations and leadership styles. Fiedler's situational theory identifies effective leadership styles under changing situations (Fiedler, Chemers and Mahar, 1977). These can be either relationship motivated or task motivated.

A relationship-motivated leadership style relies on good personal relations and group participation to accomplish tasks. Leaders with this style perform most effectively in modest control situations which present mixed problems related to task, group members and authority. The relationship-motivated leader gets cooperation from the group by being sensitive, diplomatic and tactful. Task-motivated leaders prefer clear guidelines and standardized or patterned work methods to complete successfully the task they have accepted. They have strong task orientation and perform best in high-control or low-control situations. The high-control situations are those where leaders get support from group members and the tasks are clearly specified. In addition, leaders have high authority, which enables them to use their powers of reward and punishment appropriately. Low-control situations - the opposite of high-control situations - are relatively difficult, challenging and straining. Tannenbaum and Schmidt's situation theory contends that the most effective leadership style depends on forces in the leader, the follower and the situation. A leader chooses his or her leadership style based on the interactions and prevalence of these forces for optimizing organizational productivity (Tannenbaum and Schmidt, 1958).

Functions of leaders
The basic objective of leaders is to ensure that the group accomplishes its goals. Leaders' functions depend on the group being led, with actions adjusted to different situations. Therefore, they have to develop a feeling of mutual interest among the group members, promote cooperation and effective communication to ensure maximum efficiency of the group, foster a feeling of team spirit among the group members, and manage strife and dissension efficiently and constructively. Broadly speaking, managers perform task and maintenance functions (Krech, 1948), depending upon different positions and situations. Task functions Task functions are the activities which are performed to realize organizational goals. They concern leaders as: Policy-makers. The primary function of leaders is to establish group goals and policies in accordance with broader policies and organizational goals. Planners. Leaders plan with a time perspective and develop a methodology for implementation, including use of human and physical resources. Participation of team members in the planning process facilitates smooth implementation. Executives. An important responsibility of leaders is to coordinate the activities of the various groups and individuals in their team. Experts. Leaders are expected to be experts in their areas of specialization and their job, so as to enhance the ability and effectiveness of group members.

Group representatives. Leaders represent their groups and expound group demands, achievements and constraints to superiors. This is the 'gate-keeping' function. Controllers. Leaders control group activities and interpersonal relations within the group so that the goals of the organization can be achieved effectively. Purveyors of rewards and punishments. Leaders have powers of reward and of punishment, by virtue of the authority they enjoy. These powers can be used for disciplining, motivating and controlling. Maintenance functions Maintenance functions are those activities that help in gratifying the needs of group members. These relate to leaders as: Arbitrators and mediators. Leaders act as arbitrator-negotiators and as mediators in resolving intergroup conflicts and re-establishing good group relations. Ideal role models. Depending on the situation, leaders sometimes have to portray themselves as ideal role models for the group members to follow. Group symbols. Leaders have to augment, reinforce and maintain a sense of belonging and involvement within the group. They therefore have to have a strong sense of identity with their groups. Only then can they properly represent the group. Surrogates for individual responsibility. Leaders have to assume responsibility for decision making when group members do not want to be involved in the process and prefer to escape from responsibility. Ideologists. Influential and effective leaders are a source of beliefs and basic tenets for group members, who start accepting the leader's ideas and thinking. Father figures. Leaders serve as a perfect focus for the positive emotional feelings of individuals in the group. They are considered ideal for identification, transference and feelings of submissiveness. Scapegoats. Leaders are an obvious target for the hostility and onslaught of frustrated, disappointed or disenchanted group members. Since leaders are responsible for group activities and achievement, they have to accept the blame for failure.

Characteristics of leaders
From the viewpoint of a follower, the characteristics of leaders are: Organization. Subordinates like leaders who plan and are well organized. They should follow the chain of command in issuing instructions. They should also delegate authority as necessary. Fearlessness. Leaders should not be afraid for their positions, nor afraid of their superiors, the toughness of a job, colleagues or the honest mistakes of their staff. Respect for the work of others. Leaders should recognize that the work of their teammates is as important as their own work, and deserves equal recognition. While they should be excited about their own work, leaders should simultaneously cultivate the right climate so that their teammates can also be enthused about their work.

Satisfaction. Leaders should have a feeling of satisfaction and gratification when a teammate achieves something which they themselves thought would be impossible. Promotion of the interests of subordinates. If leaders believe that their subordinates are right, they should fight for them no matter what the odds and the situation. Frankness. Leaders should talk to subordinates directly and inform and explain without losing tempers or creating stress. They should be candid and criticize constructively. Respect for the individual. Subordinates prefer leaders who respects an individual's identity and experience. Leaders should never show bias. Knowledge. Subordinates want leaders who are knowledgeable and know most of the answers. At the same time, leaders should admit ignorance when they do not know the answer to a problem, and be willing to seek help from other sources. They should also be willing to learn from others. In fact, they should never stop learning. Predictability. Leaders should be predictable, usually the same all the time and not enigmatic. Tolerance. Leaders should be tolerant of small mistakes which teammates may occasionally make. Understanding. Subordinates should perceive their leaders to be humane and understanding, and should not be afraid to go to them if they have committed a foolish mistake, are ashamed or are proud and satisfied. Leaders should create confidence and should be neither hasty nor rude. Honesty and transparency. Subordinates wants leaders who are transparent in their dealings and cannot be bribed by anyone. Leaders should be able to see through perfidious designs in any form, and should cultivate strong moral fibre and earn the respect of their teammates. Leaders should always be committed to good moral principles. Accessibility. Leaders should be easily approachable when needed, and subordinates should be able to get away from their leader when their business is settled. Providing opportunities. Leaders should be willing to provide new opportunities and chance for work even if it is something new and the subordinate may not have experience in that work. Guidance. Leaders should lead by training others. They should be able to show their subordinates how to do a job, but, in doing so, they must not show off. Subordinates like people who grow out of their own job to become leaders. Leaders should try to match people and jobs. Willingness to listen. Leaders should be willing to listen when a subordinate has something to say, but should be able to end the conversation gracefully if necessary. Genuineness. Subordinates should believe that their leaders sincerely wants them to succeed and will be proud of them when they do.

Discretion. Leaders should respect the privacy of their teammates. They should not admonish them in the presence of others, nor gossip about them. At the same time, leaders should give credit to and acclaim their people publicly when appropriate. Informed. Leaders should be well informed about what is happening around them. They should not give credence to gossip. Grace. Leaders should neither denigrate nor undermine a teammate for any reason. Authority. Leaders should have authority to mete out rewards and punishment as necessary. People orientation. Leaders should like people, be cooperative and inspire their teammates. Positive personality. Subordinates like leaders who are active, humble, gracious, thoughtful and confident. Leaders should be firm but fair to everybody, and, if necessary, should be able to compromise, but should not placate. Good communication. Subordinates like to be informed of the actions of their leader and the reasons for them. Good leaders have to be good communicators and should not cover themselves in an unnecessary veil of secrecy.

References
Blake, R.R., & Mouton, J.S. 1969. Building a Dynamic Corporation through Grid Organization Development. Reading, USA: Addison Wesley. Fielder, F.E., Chemers, M.M., & Mahar, L. 1977. Improving Leadership Effectiveness. New York, NY: John Wiley. Kretch, D., Crutchfield, R.A., & Ballachey, E.I. 1962. Individual in Society. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Kretch, D., & Cretchfield, R.A. 1948. Theory and Problems of Social Psychology. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Likert, R. 1961. New Patterns of Management. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Manz, C.C., & Sims, H.P., Jr. 1987. Superleadership Englewood Cliffs, NJ: PrenticeHall. Maslow, A.H. 1943. A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50: 370-396. McGregor, D. 1960. The Human Side of Enterprise New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Stogdill, R. 1974. Personal factors associated with leadership. Journal of Applied Psychology, January: 35-71. Terry, G.R., & Franklin, S.G. 1987. Principles of Management. New Delhi: All India Traveller Bookseller. Tosi, H.L., Rizzo, J.R., & Carroll, S.J. 1986. Managing Organizational Behaviour. New York, NY: Pitman. See pp. 454-456.

Session 2. Motivation
Session guide: Motivation Reading note: Motivation DATE TIME FORMAT Plenary participatory lecture TRAINER OBJECTIVES At the end of this session, participants should be able to understand and appreciate: 1. The concept and importance of motivation 2. Various theories of motivation 3. Motivation techniques and their organizational application INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS Exhibit 1 Exhibit 2 Exhibit 3 Exhibit 4 Exhibit 5 Exhibit 6 Exhibit 7 Exhibit 8. Exhibit 9 Exhibit 10 Motivation Theories of motivation The goal setting process Motivation techniques Job enrichment techniques for motivation Strategies for enriching jobs Achievement power training for motivation Steps in positive reinforcement programmes Ways of positive reinforcement First Dynamic Law of Motivation

Exhibit 11 Exhibit 12 Exhibit 13 Exhibit 14 Exhibit 15 Exhibit 16 Exhibit 17 Exhibit 18 Exhibit 19 Exhibit 20 Exhibit 21

Second Dynamic Law of Motivation Third Dynamic Law of Motivation Fourth Dynamic Law of Motivation Fifth Dynamic Law of Motivation Sixth Dynamic Law of Motivation Seventh Dynamic Law of Motivation Eighth Dynamic Law of Motivation Ninth Dynamic Law of Motivation Tenth Dynamic Law of Motivation Eleventh Dynamic Law of Motivation Twelfth Dynamic Law of Motivation

REQUIRED READING Reading note: Motivation

BACKGROUND READING None.

SPECIAL EQUIPMENT AND AIDS Overhead projector and chalkboard

Session guide: Motivation

Ask participants what they understand by motivation and by de-motivation. What motivates them and what de-motivates? After a brief discussion, define motivation as an internal force which arouses, regulates and sustains a person's more important actions (EXHIBIT 1). Observe that people possess potential for development, have capacity for assuming responsibility, and are ready to direct their behaviour towards organizational goals provided a congenial environment is created. Thus it is very important for a manager to understand factors which influence motivation. Next show EXHIBIT 2 and discuss content and process theories of motivation.

Content theories consider behaviour in the context of psychological, safety, social, esteem and self-actualization needs of an individual. Maslow's need theory considers behaviour in the context of the strongest needs prevailing at a particular time. The needs keep changing in importance as they are satisfied. Once a need is satisfied, the individual is concerned with the next level of need in the hierarchy. Alderfer has regrouped Maslow's five basic needs into three groups: existence, relatedness and growth (ERG theory). McClelland identified need for achievement, need for power and need for affiliation as important needs of an individual. The two-factor theory emphasizes the importance of hygiene and motivating factors in determining productivity. Hygiene factors are job contextual. They are satisfiers but not motivators. Their absence creates dissatisfaction. Motivating factors relate to job content, and their presence is satisfying and motivating. Process theories identify the variables that go into motivation, and their interrelationship. Expectancy theory considers performance as determined by motivational levels, ability, traits and pride perceptions. Vroom has considered the level of performance as a multiplicative function of ability and motivation. Reinforcement theory is based on the premise that the sum of external environment - and not internal needs - determines individual behaviour. Desired responses can be elicited through appropriate use of positive or negative reinforcements. Goal-setting theory is based on the premise that performance is a result of a person's intention to perform, and that setting goals results in better performance (EXHIBIT 3). Now shift the discussion towards the techniques of motivation which help in raising the level of personal motivation (EXHIBIT 4). These techniques include job enrichment; achievement-cum-power training; management by objectives; positive reinforcement programmes; and different laws of motivation. The job enrichment technique uses a design approach. The nature of the job is changed to provide variety and create excitement. This results in better performance. Show EXHIBIT 5 and discuss the job characteristics model, which includes work outcome, critical psychological stage, core job dimensions, and growth need strength. Strategies for enriching jobs include combining tasks, forming natural work units, establishing client relationships, vertical loading, and opening feedback channels (EXHIBIT 6). The achievement-cum-power training approach uses a training programme involving five steps. Show EXHIBIT 7 and discuss each of these steps. In the management-by-objectives approach, common goals are identified and all efforts are oriented towards achieving them. Show EXHIBIT 8 and discuss steps involved in a positive reinforcement programme. Using EXHIBIT 9, discuss six ways of positive reinforcement to motivate employees. Finally, discuss the twelve dynamic laws of motivation, using EXHIBITS 10 to 21. The first law (EXHIBIT 10) of motivation is that the leader should be proficient both technically and professionally. Managers who know their job well gain the respect, confidence, willing obedience, loyal cooperation and full support of employees. The managers are then able to encourage the team members to work just as hard as they themselves do.

The second law (EXHIBIT 11) is that managers should be honest with themselves if they want to improve. Honest and forthright self-evaluations can allow managers to recognize their strengths and weaknesses, and thus their limitations and shortcomings - both compared with other managers as well as with subordinate supervisory staff. The third law (EXHIBIT 12) is that managers should know their staff and look out for their welfare. This helps to create more positive feeling towards the organization and the managers, and increases the work output of everyone. The fourth law (EXHIBIT 13) is that managers should always keep their staff informed. This helps to encourage initiative and enthusiasm, and improves team work and morale. It helps to eliminate rumours and make subordinates more effective. The fifth law (EXHIBIT 14) is to ensure that the task is understood, supervised and accomplished. By emphasizing results rather than methods, a manager can develop individual initiative and ingenuity in subordinates. The sixth law (EXHIBIT 15) is that managers should train their staff as a team. This imbues them with a sense of being needed and wanted, and also develops a feeling of belonging to the team and the organization. Team spirit will (i) induce better spirit and morale, (ii) enthuse the team members to vigorously pursue common goals, and (iii) increase individual proficiency, leading to improved organizational efficiency. The seventh law (EXHIBIT 16) is about sound and timely decision making, which develops confidence in subordinates and motivates them to do their best. The eighth law (EXHIBIT 17) is to develop a sense of responsibility in subordinates and show faith in them. That encourages mutual confidence and respect between subordinates and their superiors. It also encourages initiative and cooperation towards team activities. In these conditions, managers can expect better performance from subordinates. The ninth law (EXHIBIT 18) is that a manager should seek responsibility and be responsible for his actions. When managers seek responsibility, they take the initiative without direct orders, develop leadership abilities, and earn the respect and confidence of subordinates. The tenth law (EXHIBIT 19) is that managers should always set examples as role models. It helps subordinates to use managers' actions to determine their own standards of conduct and efficiency. The eleventh law (EXHIBIT 20) is to motivate every single member of the team to feel important to themselves. Managers can get maximum output from employees by making them feel that they are needed, wanted and that their work is appreciated. Finally, the twelfth law (EXHIBIT 21) of motivation: 'Put the first eleven into action and make them work.' It is not sufficient to simply know the laws of motivation. Observe that these laws also describe qualities and functions of a leader, many of which were discussed in the previous session on leadership. It should be recognized that there are three elements which influence the process of motivation: the situation, the motivated and the motivator. Managers should understand each of their subordinates, as each individual differs from another. This understanding is necessary to develop a group into a team and achieve maximum output.

EXHIBIT 1 MOTIVATION Motivation is "an internal force which arouses, regulates and sustains a person's more important actions. Its existence and nature is inferred from observation and experience of behaviour." "Motivation is the need or drive within an individual that drives them towards goaloriented action." Source: Terry and Franklin, 1987. EXHIBIT 2 THEORIES OF MOTIVATION Content theories Need theories Maslow's need theory ERG theory Need and achievement theory Two-factor theory: - Hygiene factors - Motivating factors

Process theories Expectancy theory Reinforcement theory Goal-setting theory EXHIBIT 3 THE GOAL-SETTING PROCESS EVENT COGNITION EVALUATION GOAL SETTING PERFORMANCE Source: Locke, 1968. EXHIBIT 4 MOTIVATION TECHNIQUES (A situation in the environment) (Awareness of the incentives) (Worth of the task) (Intention to act)

Job enrichment Achievement-cum-power training Management by objectives Positive reinforcement programmes EXHIBIT 5 JOB ENRICHMENT TECHNIQUES FOR MOTIVATION Job enrichment Work outcome Internal work motivation Quality of work performance Job satisfaction Absenteeism and turnover Critical psychological stage Core job dimensions Skill variety Task identification Task significance Autonomy Feedback Growth need strength EXHIBIT 6 STRATEGIES FOR ENRICHING JOBS Combining tasks Forming natural work units Establishing client relationship Vertical loading Opening feedback channels Source: Hackman et al., 1975. EXHIBIT 7 ACHIEVEMENT-CUM-POWER TRAINING FOR MOTIVATION Create confidence so that motives can be changed

Convince participants that developing the strength of the achievement motives is in consonance with their environmental needs Teach how to act in a high achievement way Record participants' achievement- or power-oriented behaviour Each participant sets goals, formulates action plan, and develops a basis for self-appraisal Based on: McClelland, 1962. EXHIBIT 8 STEPS IN POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT PROGRAMMES Identification of specific behaviour problems Determination of the links between the antecedents, the behaviour and the consequences Development and setting of specific behavioural goals for each person and the target behaviour Recording the progress towards the goal Application of appropriate consequences (namely rewards, punishment or extinction) Source: Tosi, Rizzo and Carroll, 1986. EXHIBIT 9 WAYS OF POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT Do not reward all employees equally Failure to reinforce also modifies behaviour, although in a negative direction Inform employees what they can do to get reinforcement. This can be done by setting goals and monitoring performance to get timely feedback Tell employees through appropriately timed communication when and what they are doing wrong. Through such communication and other needed help from the manager, an employee can improve her or his performance and that would act as a positive reinforcement. Lack of communication creates confusion and a feeling of manipulation Do not reprove or punish a subordinate in the presence of others. Be fair and impartial Sources: Hamner and Hamner, 1976; Tosi, Rizzo and Carroll, 1986. EXHIBIT 10 FIRST DYNAMIC LAW OF MOTIVATION Develop yourself technically and professionally 1. Seek and gain a well-rounded education for your chosen profession. 2. Broaden your professional and technical knowledge. 3. Look for opportunities to use your knowledge in a practical manner and thus motivate others to do your wishes.

4. Keep abreast of current business and industrial developments and trends. 5. Associate with well qualified people. 6. Know and understand the capabilities and the limitations of your own organization. 7. Take advantage of every opportunity to prepare yourself for a higher position in your organization. 8. Understand fully and apply properly the principles of sound management of human resources, time, physical resources and money. Source: Fleet, 1967. EXHIBIT 11 SECOND DYNAMIC LAW OF MOTIVATION If you want to improve, be honest with yourself. 1. Analyse yourself objectively and realistically. 2. Seek advice and the opinions of others who can help improve your executive qualities and abilities. 3. Try to profit by the experiences of others. 4. Develop a deep and genuine interest in people. Learn to treat people as human beings. 5. Master the art of effective writing and speaking. 6. Be friendly with others already successful in your particular profession, as well as in allied professions. 7. Develop your own philosophy of life as soon as you can, while you are still young. 8. Never give up. Source: Fleet, 1967. EXHIBIT 12 THIRD DYNAMIC LAW OF MOTIVATION Know your staff and look out for their welfare 1. See the members of your organization as often as possible and let them see you. 2. Know each of your employees by name. 3. Develop an intimate knowledge of your staff through personal contacts with them. 4. Be concerned about the personal living conditions of your employees if it affects their job performance. 5. Give personal attention to subordinates pay as well as to their personal problems. 6. Provide good working conditions and thus protect the health of your staff. 7. Actively support safety programmes. 8. Know the state of your subordinates' morale.

9. Administer justice impartially and swiftly. 10. Distribute equally and fairly both privileges and distasteful tasks. 11. Provide recreational facilities for the staff. 12. Share their problems. Source: Fleet, 1967. EXHIBIT 13 FOURTH DYNAMIC LAW OF MOTIVATION Always keep your staff informed. 1. Praise the successes of your staff and of your organization. This will build up their morale and motivate to do their best for you. 2. Explain to your key subordinates why a specific task must be done and how you propose to do it. 3. Ensure, through frequent visits, that your subordinate supervisors are passing on the necessary information and the required orders to the staff. 4. Always keep your principal subordinate supervisors informed of future plans and operations. 5. Pass on all information to your staff about rival companies and competing products. 6. Be alert concerning false rumours. Replace rumours by truth. 7. Keep staff informed about current legislation and laws which could affect them, and about any changes proposed in the policies of the organization. 8. Be sure that everyone knows what their job is, what their duties are and who is their immediate supervisor. Source: Fleet, 1967. EXHIBIT 14 FIFTH DYNAMIC LAW OF MOTIVATION Make sure that the task is understood, supervised and accomplished 1. Before giving an order, be sure that the order you are about to give is actually needed. 2. Learn to properly assess a situation. 3. Develop the ability to issue clear, concise, complete, correct and positive orders. 4. Always use the established chain of authority in issuing orders. 5. Encourage subordinates to seek clarification of orders they do not fully understand. 6. Orders given orally should always be repeated back to ensure that they have been properly understood. 7. Supervise the execution of your orders. 8. If you personally supervise the execution of your orders, do not use the established

chain of authority. 9. Vary your routine during your supervisory inspections. 10. Always exercise thorough care in the supervision of your staff. 11. Give personal attention and assistance to your subordinates when required. 12. Responsibility for action is not relieved by not giving an action Source: Fleet, 1967. EXHIBIT 15 SIXTH DYNAMIC LAW OF MOTIVATION Train your staff as a team. 1. Supervise to ensure that the primary mission of your organization is being pursued by your staff. 2. Make sure that the facilities and materials required for accomplishing the primary mission are available and are being properly used. 3. Ensure that activities of your organization are meaningful, fruitful and profitable for the personnel. 4. Eliminate any duplication of efforts, jobs and human resources. 5. Everyone must know the jobs of those with whom they normally work. This facilitates team-work. 6. Everyone must know the functions, requirements, capabilities and limitations of all other units in the organization. This will stimulate proper cooperation and teamwork. 7. Promote team-work by encouraging initiative. 8. Your own enthusiasm can provide the spark of motivation necessary for real teamwork. Source: Fleet, 1967. EXHIBIT 16 SEVENTH DYNAMIC LAW OF MOTIVATION Make sound and timely decisions. 1. Assess the situation objectively and then make sound and timely decisions for problem solving. 2. Plan for the future as best as possible within the constraints of time and foresight. 3. Enhance your judgement by acquiring technical and professional qualifications. 4. Give measured consideration to the advice and suggestions of your subordinates before making your decisions. 5. Announce your decisions well in advance, giving sufficient lead time to your subordinates to make the necessary plans.

6. Be decisive. Decisiveness is primarily a matter of practice and experience. 7. Encourage your subordinate supervisors to continually assess the situation. 8. Ensure that your staff at all levels know what your current plans and policies are. 9. Give careful consideration to the likely effects of your decisions on your staff at different levels. Source: Fleet, 1967. EXHIBIT 17 EIGHTH DYNAMIC LAW OF MOTIVATION Develop a sense of responsibility in your subordinates 1. Your orders and directives should be issued through the established chain of command. 2. Use mission-type orders to the greatest extent possible. 3. Assign responsibility together with proper authority. 4. Give subordinates opportunities wherever possible to perform the duties of the nexthigher position in your management hierarchy. 5. Be sensitive and tactful in correcting errors in judgement, initiative or ingenuity by your staff. This will continuously encourage development of their personal qualities. 6. Be quick to recognize the successful accomplishments - e.g., initiative, resourcefulness - of your subordinates. 7. Give advice freely when asked to do so. 8. Try to match jobs with the previous experience, demonstrated competence or potential abilities of your staff. 9. Have faith in every subordinate. Be prompt and fair in backing them to the limit. 10. Always accept responsibility, and insist that your subordinate supervisors also accept responsibility as necessary. Source: Fleet, 1967. EXHIBIT 18 NINTH DYNAMIC LAW OF MOTIVATION Seek responsibility and be responsible for your actions. 1. You must learn your profession as you develop your capacity for higher responsibilities in the future. 2. Learn well the duties of your immediate superior. Be prepared to take on his or her responsibilities at a moment's notice. 3. You should be physically, mentally and psychologically fit to should heavy responsibilities. 4. Always seek diversified management assignments. In this way you will develop broad

experience and capabilities for higher responsibilities. 5. Take full advantage of every opportunity that offers you an increased responsibility. 6. Perform every task - large or small - to the best of your ability. 7. Accept just and honest criticism, and admit to your mistakes. 8. Have the courage of your convictions. Stick to what you think is right. 9. You must assume full responsibility for the failures of those who work for you. 10. Carefully study, analyse and evaluate a subordinate's failure before taking any corrective action. 11. Assume complete responsibility for your own actions. 12. Assuming responsibility for what you fail to do is just as important as assuming responsibility for what you do do. 13. In the absence of any standing orders, seize the initiative and take the action you believe that your superior would have taken in the circumstances. Source: Fleet, 1967. EXHIBIT 19 TENTH DYNAMIC LAW OF MOTIVATION Always set an example. 1. You must at all times be physically fit, mentally alert, morally correct, well groomed and properly dressed. 2. You must learn to master your emotions completely. 3. Always keep a cheerful and optimistic outlook and attitude. 4. Conduct yourself such that your personal habits are not open to criticism or censure from anyone. 5. Set an example by being factual and courteous. 6. Your word must be your bond. Source: Fleet, 1967. EXHIBIT 20 ELEVENTH DYNAMIC LAW OF MOTIVATION Motivate every single staff member to feel important to themselves Motivate your staff by: appealing to their hearts and not their heads being genuinely interested in them and what they do talking to them in terms of their interests giving individuals an identity in the organization remembering their names using them primarily for tasks for which they have been trained

giving them a personal need and a desire to learn keeping them well informed about their individual progress within the organization reinforcing their self-esteem by - asking for their advice and help - giving them an opportunity to set their own goals within their job - showing them how essential their individual efforts are and where they fit into the whole picture - putting the personal into personnel - rewarding appropriately for successes gained in competitions with their associates Source: Fleet, 1967. EXHIBIT 21 TWELFTH DYNAMIC LAW OF MOTIVATION PUT THE FIRST ELEVEN INTO ACTION and MAKE THEM WORK

Reading note: Motivation

Theories of motivation Motivation techniques Laws of motivation References Motivation means 'to move' and is derived from the Latin word movere. It is "the state of an individual's perspective which represents the strength of his or her propensity to exert toward some particular behaviour" (Gibson, 1980). Motivation is an internal force which stimulates, regulates and upholds a person's more important actions. Its existence and nature is deduced from observation and experience of behaviour. By using motivation as a tool, a manager can effectively blend organizational and individual goals. Terry and Franklin (1987) explained motivation as "the need or drive within an individual that drives him or her toward goal-oriented action." It helps in identifying what is done and what can be done. Scientific management assumes that an employee is an emotional being and emphasizes the importance of encouraging cohesive work groups in which each worker has a sense of belonging. It is recognized that people possess (i) potential for development, (ii) capacity for assuming responsibility, and (iii) readiness to direct behaviour towards organizational goals. It is therefore the basic function of a manager to create an environment which helps people recognize and

develop these human characteristics through motivation. A manager is required to comprehend human behaviour in order to utilize motivation as an instrument to increase organizational productivity.

Theories of motivation
There are broadly two types of motivation theories. These are content theories and process theories. Content theories explain the 'why' of human behaviour. Maslow's need hierarchy, Herzberg's two-factor theory and McClelland's need for achievement theory are included in this category. Process theories recognize variables that go into motivation, and their interrelationship. Content theories Content theories consider need existence, relatedness, growth, achievement, hygiene and motivating factors. Need theories Need theories give importance to psychological factors responsible for particular behaviour aimed at satisfying the needs of individuals. Maslow (1943) propounded a need theory based on the fact that man is a wanting animal, and as soon as one of his needs is satisfied, another appears in its place. The satisfied need ceases to be the motivator of human behaviour. It is the emerging, yet-to-be-satisfied need which influences one's behaviour. The behaviour of an individual, at a particular moment, is usually determined by his or her strongest need. These needs are not necessarily deliberately identified by an individual but may be subliminal. It is therefore essential that needs of the individuals are given importance and that the manager is able to perceive the most important need at any particular moment. Maslow (1943) classified human needs into five main groups: psychological, safety, social, esteem and selfactualization. These five basic needs of an individual form a hierarchy. The higher-level needs are not considered important by an individual until the lower-level needs are satisfied at least partially. Once a need is satisfied, the person is concerned with the next level of need in their personal hierarchy. ERG Theory Maslow's five basic needs have been regrouped by Alderfer (1969) into three categories: existence, relatedness and growth (ERG). Alderfer's first level of needs, existence, includes physiological and safety needs. The second need category, relatedness, consists of social and esteem needs. The third category, growth, includes the individual's desire to be self-confident, creative and productive. Alderfer's need theory is based on the assumption that higher-order needs could emerge even before the lower-level needs are fully satisfied. Need and achievement theory Propounding an achievement and power theory, McClelland (1962) identified three basic needs within individuals. They are need for achievement, need for power, and need for affiliation. McClelland's need for achievement and affiliation are similar to Maslow's social and esteem needs. Need for power has not been mentioned in Maslow's theory. The strengths of these needs can be identified by administering a Thematic Appreciation Test. Based on his or her understanding, a manager can create a climate to elicit the

desired performance from the employee while also providing employee satisfaction and growth. Two-factor theory Maslow's need theory is insufficient and has practical limitations in translating needs into something operational, since the criteria for satisfying social needs differ from individual to individual. Herzberg, Mausner and Snyderman (1962) developed a two-factor theory to provide some direction for managers in resolving motivational problems. Arguing that there is little or no relationship between productivity and morale, Herzberg, Mausner and Snyderman's theory is based on the concept of job content (hygiene factors) and job context (motivating factors). Job content refers to the job or work itself, and emerges from the work and employee relationship. Therefore these factors are innate and work in different ways. Hygiene factors include "technical supervision, interpersonal relationship with peers, salary, working conditions, status, company policy, job security and interpersonal relations with superiors" (Tosi, Rizzo and Carroll, 1986). All of these factors are job contextual and also include maintenance factors. These are considered extrinsic, as they are out of the limit of work and employees. Hygiene factors are satisfiers to the extent that they produce dissatisfaction if absent. However, they are not motivators for better performance. Motivating factors relate to job content and are concerned with increased satisfaction and the desire to work harder. While their presence provides satisfaction and motivates towards more effort and better performance, their absence does not produce dissatisfaction. Some of the motivating factors are "advancement, the work itself, recognition, and the possibility of growth" (Tosi, Rizzo and Carroll, 1986). Process theories Expectancy theory Expectancy theory attempts to identify the relationship among dynamic variables which influence the behaviour of individuals. It is based on the premise that performance is determined by interactive effects of motivational levels, ability, traits and pride perceptions. Vroom's expectancy theory (1964) is based on the concept that the level of performance is a multiplicative function of ability and motivation. To get performance, both factors must be present, and if one of these is absent there will be no performance. Reinforcement theory Reinforcement theory is based on the assumption that employees can be motivated in a properly designed work environment with acclaim for desirable performance (Skinner, 1953). It contends that the sum of external environment - and not internal needs, wants or desires - determines individual behaviour. In order to improve the performance of employees, managers have to identify powerful reinforcements, such as interesting job assignments, fair pay, promotion and participation in decision making. A reinforcement can be positive or negative, depending upon the situation. Positive impetus strengthens the probability of a desired response, which leads to positive results and repeated desired behaviour. Sometimes negative stimulus can be used to deter undesirable behaviour, but

use of positive stimulus is more desirable. Negative reinforcement can be punishment or extinction. Extinction means eliminating an existing reinforcer which has caused a particular behaviour. Goal-setting theory Goal-setting theory is based on the premise that performance is the result of a person's intentions to perform (Locke, 1968). People will do what they are trying to do and setting goals will improve their performance. Goals are tasks which a person tries to accomplish. The theory argues that (i) better results are achieved by setting difficult goals rather than easy goals, (ii) specific goals result in better performance than general goals, and (iii) participation in setting goals does not necessarily improve performance. The stages through which the goal-setting process goes through are: (i) event (situation in the environment), (ii) cognition (awareness of the incentives), (iii) evaluation (of the worth of the task), (iv) goal setting (intention to act), and (v) performance.

Motivation techniques
With an understanding of human needs, behaviour and expectations, a manager should be able to create an environment where employees feel content and satisfied, so as to best achieve organizational goals. Motivational methods help in raising the level of personal motivation so that each person uses more of their capabilities. Techniques for motivation can either be intrinsic (related to job content) or extrinsic (related to job context). A motivated work effort increases the person's drive to perform better, which results in improved performance, higher quality of work and increased satisfaction. Quality of work life is quite important in improving productivity and achieving integration. Some of the important methods for improving performance through increased motivation are described below. Job enrichment Using a work design approach, the nature of the job can be changed with a view to reducing or eliminating the dreariness of repetitive activities. Through re-design aimed at job enrichment, a person does a variety of tasks rather than a few routine activities. This results in doing more of the job; the person also has some autonomy as to how to do these tasks, and assumes responsibility for quality of performance (Aldag and Brief, 1979). This is vertical job loading, the concept having been based on the two-factor theory of Herzberg, Mausner and Snyderman (1962). The premise is that a job with high growth opportunity, challenge and potential for recognition elicits greater willingness to work. Job characteristics model Hackman and Oldham (1976) have developed a job characteristics model which has four variables. (i) Work outcome, which can be of four types: (a) Internal work motivation is the degree to which people are swayed by the work in which they are engaged. Internal work motivation is not influenced by pay and other such factors. (b) Quality of work performance. Productivity can be increased if level of output is maintained while concurrently improving quality.

(c) Job satisfaction is an outcome of the employee's attitude towards work. (d) Absenteeism and turnover. Productivity is low where absenteeism and employee turnover are high. (ii) Critical psychological states comprise experienced meaningfulness, experienced responsibility and knowledge of results. When performance is good, critical psychological states keep motivating the person to continue doing well. (iii) Core job dimensions are interrelated with critical psychological states. They include: (a) Skill variety: the number of different abilities required to perform the task. (b) Task identity: the degree to which a person feels responsible for the task. (c) Task significance: the effect of the task on others. (d) Autonomy: the degree of freedom which a person has in doing the task. (e) Feedback: the amount of information that a person gets about the task and how effective performance has been. (iv) Growth-need strength is the degree to which a person desires to achieve and advance. Strategies for enriching jobs Hackman et al. (1975) described five basic strategies for enriching jobs: (i) Combining tasks so as to increase types of task and different skills required to perform them. Smaller tasks could be combined together into a large complex task which can be assigned to a team. Such a team will be composed of people possessing different skills. (ii) Forming natural work units to enhance task identity and task significance. (iii) Establishing a client relationship to improve skill variety, autonomy and feedback. (iv) Vertical loading to increase the sense of responsibility. Vertical loading is done by adding higher-level (vertical) tasks rather than more from the same (horizontal) level. (v) Opening feedback channels to improve feedback. This results in better or more precise performance. Achievement-cum-power training Based on McClelland's need and achievement theory (1962), this technique involves a training programme for groups of about ten to twenty-five people. The same process is followed for both achievement and power motives. Training is usually conducted by a trainer and involves the following steps: (i) Create conviction and confidence that motives can be changed. (ii) Convince participants that developing the strength of achievement motives is in conformity with their environmental needs. (iii) Teach participants how to act with a high-achievement orientation. Discuss case studies and participants' experiences. (iv) Record participants' achievement- or power-oriented behaviour and present them to participants so that they can analyse and assess how their actions deviate from highachievement behaviour.

(v) Each participant sets personal goals, formulates their own action plan, and develops criteria and benchmark for appraising their personal performance. Management by objectives Based on goal-setting theory, management by objectives is "a process in which members of the organization work together to identify common goals and then integrate all their efforts in achieving those goals" (Tosi, Rizzo and Carroll, 1986). Specific goals are derived from general, interrelated objectives. The success of management by objectives depends upon how well objectives and action plans are defined, communicated and accepted. Positive reinforcement programmes Derived from reinforcement theory, positive reinforcement programmes involve the following steps, as illustrated by Hamner and Hamner (1976) and Tosi, Rizzo and Carroll, (1986): (i) Identification of specific behaviour problems. (ii) Determination of the links between antecedents, behaviour and consequences. (iii) Development and setting of specific behaviourial goals for each person and target behaviour. (iv) Recording progress toward the goal. (v) Application of appropriate consequences (rewards, punishment or extinction). Six ways of positive reinforcement have been identified to motivate employees (Hamner and Hamner, 1976). These are: (i) Do not reward all employees equally. Rewards must be deserved and valued. (ii) Failure to reinforce could modify behaviour - usually in a negative direction. (iii) Employees should be informed as to what they should do to get reinforcement. This can be done by setting goals and monitoring performance to get timely feedback. (iv) Employees should be informed through appropriate and timely communication as and when they are doing wrong. Through such communication and other needed help from the manager, employees can improve their performance. Contrary to general belief, timely feedback through such communications acts as positive reinforcement. Lack of communication creates confusion and a feeling of manipulation. (v) Do not admonish or punish a subordinate in the presence of others. (vi) Be fair and impartial.

Laws of motivation
Motives are the primary energizers of human behaviour. However, they are not the only determinants of the performance of individuals. Human performance is basically a function of habits and skills that are acquired through learning and teaching. Motivation may give desired results only when employees are properly recruited, selected, placed, inducted and trained. Fleet (1967) has suggested eleven dynamic laws which managers can follow to improve motivation among their subordinates:

(i) Develop yourself technically and professionally. (ii) Be honest with yourself. (iii) Know your staff and look out for their welfare. (iv) Always keep your staff informed. (v) Make sure the task is understood, supervised and accomplished. (vi) Train your personnel as a team. (vii) Make sound and timely decisions. (viii) Develop a sense of responsibility in your subordinates. (ix) Seek responsibility and be responsible for your actions. (x) Always set an example. (xi) Motivate every single person to feel important to themselves. (xii) Put the first eleven laws into action, and make them work.

References
Aldag, R., & Brief, A. 1979. Task Design and Employee Motivation. Glenview MD: Scott, Foresman. Alderfer, C.P. 1969. An empirical test of a new theory of human needs. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 4(2): 142-175. Fleet, J.K.V. 1967. The Dynamics of Motivation. Englewood Cliffs NJ: Prentice-Hall. Gibson, F. 1980. Managing Organisational Behaviour. Homewood IL: Irwin. Hackman, J.R., & Oldham, G.R. 1976. Motivation through the design of work: test of a theory. Organization Behavior and Human Performance, 16(2): 250-279. Hackman, J.R., Oldham, G.R., Jenson, R., & Purdy, K. 1975. A new strategy for job enrichment. California Management Review, 17: 57-71. Hamner, W.C., & Hamner, E.P. 1976. Behavior modification on the bottom line. Organization Dynamics, 4(8): 8-21. Herzberg, F.A., Mausner, B., & Snyderman, B. 1962. The Motivation to Work. New York, NY: John Wiley. Locke, E.A. 1968. Toward a theory of task motivation and incentives. Organization Behavior and Human Performance, 3(1): 152-189. Maslow, A.H. 1943. A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50: 370-396. McClelland, D. 1962. Business drive and national achievement. Harvard Business Review, 40(4): 99-112. Skinner, B.F. 1953. Science and Human Behaviour. New York, NY: Free Press. Terry, G.R., & Franklin, S.G. 1987. Principles of Management. New Delhi: All India Traveller Bookseller. Tosi, L.H., Rizzo, R.J. & Carroll, S.J. 1986. Managing Organizational Behaviour: The Leadership Role in Group Decision Making. New York, NY: Pitman. Vroom, V.H. 1964. Work and Motivation. New York, NY: John Wiley.

Session 3. Team building

Session guide: Team building Reading note: Team building DATE TIME FORMAT Plenary participatory lecture TRAINER OBJECTIVES At the end of this session, participants should be able to understand and appreciate: 1. The concept and importance of team building. 2. Factors which influence group formation, dynamics, influence and cohesion. 3. Team building: conditions necessary for; stages in; and theoretical approaches. 4. Team building and management in agricultural research organizations. INSTRUCTION MATERIALS Exhibit 1 Exhibit 2 Exhibit 3 Exhibit 4 Exhibit 5 Exhibit 6 Exhibit 7. Exhibit 8 Team building Group Factors influencing behaviour Factors influencing group cohesion Increasing group cohesiveness Encouraging work groups Conditions necessary for building a team Stages in team building

Exhibit 9 Exhibit 10 Exhibit 11 Exhibit 12 Exhibit 13

Approaches to team building Components of team building Team management Team meeting structure Improving team efficiency

REQUIRED READING Reading note: Team Building.

BACKGROUND READING None.

SPECIAL EQUIPMENT AND AIDS Overhead projector and chalkboard

Session guide: Team building

Initiate discussion by asking participants "What is a team?" Why should a team be formed, particularly in a research institution? Show EXHIBIT 1 and discuss the concept of team building. A team is collection of people who interact with each other regularly and are dependent on each other for attainment of common goals. A team brings together people with different expertise and thus enables application of specialized knowledge in solving problems. Team building helps in improving organizational effectiveness and efficiency. Elicit examples of various teams in the organizations to which the participants belong, and enquire what functions the teams perform. Ask "Are they effective?" If so, in what way? Groups and group dynamics underlie the concept of team building and management. Show EXHIBIT 2 and discuss important considerations which influence group formation. These are: personal characteristics, interest and goals, influence, opportunity for interaction, and other related factors. Continue referring to EXHIBIT 2 and discuss the concept of group dynamics and group influence.

Now discuss behaviour (EXHIBIT 3). The important factors which lead to variations in behaviour are compliance, identification, internalization and social facilitation. Ask participants why people differ in their natural tendency to help others. Discuss and distinguish between cooperation and competition. Group cohesion is important in bringing members together towards a common goal and generating team spirit. Show EXHIBIT 4 and 5, and discuss factors which could enhance group cohesion, and ways and means of improving it. Show EXHIBIT 6 and discuss steps in fostering group productivity, satisfaction, cohesion and learning, which together encourage work groups. Now start discussing team building and management issues. To begin with, ask participants how teams are useful in achieving organizational goals. What are the conditions necessary when building a team? Show EXHIBIT 7 and discuss these conditions. Encourage participants to share their experience with respect to each of these conditions. Various stages in the team-building process are forming, storming, norming, performing and adjourning. Show EXHIBIT 8 and briefly discuss each of these stages. There are many approaches to team building. Some time could be devoted to a discussion of each of these approaches, as illustrated in EXHIBIT 9. Observe that goal setting creates commitment and a feeling of involvement. The inter-personal approach develops mutual trust and confidence among group members, and creates an environment where decision making involves group consensus, problems being solved efficiently, and conflicts resolved easily. The managerial grid approach aims at productive and cohesive team-work and involves four steps. The role model considers 'team' as a series of overlapping roles. The components of team building are: developing the individual, achievement of the task, and building and maintaining the team. Show EXHIBIT 10 and discuss each of these components and how they interlock with each other. Now initiate discussion on team management. Team management could be either authoritarian or democratic. Authoritarian styles are task and achievement oriented, while democratic styles use a participative approach. Show EXHIBIT 11 and discuss the two styles briefly. Discuss the six sequential team meeting steps (EXHIBIT 12). Participants could be asked whether, in their experience, team meetings are along those lines, or otherwise. There are methods available for managing teams efficiently and effectively. Show EXHIBIT 13 and discuss these methods. They include setting effective norms, providing the necessary technology, ensuring high skill levels, and providing effective extrinsic and intrinsic rewards. The session could be concluded by a brief discussion of team building and management in research organizations, and increasing trends in this direction. Team building is essential for multidisciplinary research. EXHIBIT 1 TEAM BUILDING A team is a collection of people who interact with each other regularly and are dependent on each other for the attainment of common goals.

Team building removes hindrances and enhances organizational effectiveness and efficiency. The key elements of a team are goal sharing, interdependence, commitment and accountability. Source: Shaw, 1981. EXHIBIT 2 GROUP Definition Two or more people who interact and influence one another Formation Personal characteristics Interests and goals Influence Opportunity for interaction Other factors Group dynamics How group members are influenced Factors in helping, cooperating and competing Group cohesion and satisfaction, and productivity of group members Maintaining external linkages Increasing effectiveness of task groups Group influence Source: Tosi, Rizzo and Carroll, 1986. EXHIBIT 3 FACTORS INFLUENCING BEHAVIOUR Compliance Identification Internalization Social facilitation Source: Tosi, Rizzo and Carroll, 1986. EXHIBIT 4 FACTORS ENHANCING GROUP COHESION group formation factors group development factors difficulty of entry status congruence

reward allocation success stability of membership external threat group size Source: Tosi, Rizzo and Carroll, 1986. EXHIBIT 5 INCREASING GROUP COHESIVENESS communicating with the subordinates as a group emphasizing and promoting competition with other groups rewarding cooperation managing conflicting within the group setting achievement goals for the group rather than for individuals treating everyone equitably and not playing favourites encouraging social interaction among group members Source: Tosi, Rizzo and Carroll, 1986. EXHIBIT 6 ENCOURAGING WORK GROUPS treat employees as social beings and not as mere numbers establish a manageable group size encourage group members to select the other members whenever possible assist groups to develop and mature encourage group productivity norms deal with group situations where cohesion is based on norms harmful to the organization support groups to develop good productivity goals, encouraging participation of individual members cautious use of competition to encourage group productivity provide opportunities for success Source: Tosi, Rizzo and Carroll, 1986. EXHIBIT 7 CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR TEAM BUILDING clear objectives and agreed goals openness and confrontation support and trust cooperation and conflict sound procedures appropriate leadership regular review

individual development sound intergroup relations Source: Woodcock, 1986. EXHIBIT 8 STAGES IN TEAM BUILDING Forming Storming Norming Performing Adjourning Sources: Adair, 1987; Kormanski and Mozenter, 1987. EXHIBIT 9 APPROACHES TO TEAM BUILDING Goal-setting approach Inter-personal approach Managerial grid model - Self-evaluation - Perceptions about mode of functioning - New behaviour and performance goals - New styles of team-work - Individual behaviour Role model Sources: Beer, 1976; Argyris, 1966; Blake and Mouton, 1969. EXHIBIT 10 COMPONENTS OF TEAM BUILDING Developing the individual Achievement of the task Building and maintaining the team Source: Adair, 1987. EXHIBIT 11 TEAM MANAGEMENT Authoritarian style vs

Democratic or participative style Source: Tarkenton and Tuleja, 1986. EXHIBIT 12 TEAM MEETING STRUCTURE Follow up Review performance data Reinforce Solve problems Plan action Communicate Source: Tarkenton and Tuleja, 1986. EXHIBIT 13 IMPROVING TEAM EFFICIENCY Set effective norms Informal and relaxed atmosphere Participative discussion regarding tasks Clear understanding and acceptance of objectives Free expression and tolerance of other's views Recognition and resolution of disagreements Decision making by consensus Criticism frequent but not personal Clear responsibilities No dominance of team leader and no power struggle Self-awareness of group about its operations Provide the necessary technology Ensure high skill levels Provide effective extrinsic rewards Meaningful, clearly defined tasks with identifiable ends Each member skilled in completing the job Autonomy in working methods, planning and assignment of responsibilities in the group Source: Tosi, Rizzo and Carroll, 1986.

Reading note: Team building

Groups Teams Team building in agricultural research organizations References Team building is an approach towards enhancing organizational effectiveness and proficiency. A team is 'a collection of people who interact with each other regularly and are dependent on each other for the attainment of common goals.' The objective of team development is the removal of impediments to improving group effectiveness. The key elements of a team are goal sharing, interdependence, commitment and accountability.

Groups
A clear understanding of groups and their formation and dynamics is essential before discussing team building and management. 'Group' is defined as consisting of two or more people who interact and influence one another (Shaw, 1981). According to their numerical size, groups can be dyads (group of two members), triads (group of three), small (four to nine members) or large (ten or more). Group formation Important variables (Tosi, Rizzo and Carroll, 1986) which influence group formation include: Personal characteristics, which include shared beliefs, values, attitudes, security needs and affiliation needs. Interests and goals in common. Influence, since a group can exert more power and influence to get proper attention and action. Opportunity for interaction, which helps in developing affinities and relationships. Other factors are similar functional departments, cooperative physical activities, intellectual pursuits, emotional needs or protection, and attention and friendship. Group dynamics Understanding group dynamics is essential for a manager in order to encourage effective team-work. Group dynamics can be understood by exploring (Tosi, Rizzo and Carroll, 1986): how group members are influenced, factors in helping, cooperating and competing, the way group cohesion relates to satisfaction and productivity of group members, maintaining external linkages, and how to make task groups more effective. Group influence

The process of influence and obedience in groups is important for group dynamics. How people influence each other in a group is the process of group influence. This process prevails in all types of human interaction and interdependence. Obedience or conformity involves direct influence of the group on the behaviour of individuals such that their behaviour outside the group will be different. Behaviour People differ in their vulnerability to pressures, yet most people can be influenced to behave in a particular manner. Compliance, identification, internalization and social facilitation are some of the important factors which could play a crucial role in influencing people to behave differently. Compliance is when people agree in spite of their own beliefs and preferences. This is obedience. Identification refers to agreements when people respect or are attracted to others. Internalization refers to the change in behaviour manifested when people accept requests or orders because either they are consistent with their own beliefs and values or they expect the desired behaviour to be rewarding to them. Social facilitation occurs as a result of the influence exerted by the mere presence of someone. Helping behaviour People's penchant to help others differ. Some people care, and are willing to take more risk to help others. There are several factors that reduce or facilitate helping, and they can be important to the success of a group or organization. Cooperation and competition are also crucial for an organization. Cooperation is more than mere helping: it encompasses giving support to others and contributing time and effort in situations where people can work together towards the same goals. In competition, people are more concerned with personal or group interests. Group cohesion Group cohesion refers to the degree to which group members are attracted to each other and to group membership. Cohesiveness brings group members towards a common goal and creates team spirit. According to Tosi, Rizzo and Carroll (1986), some of the important factors which can enhance group cohesion concern: group formation, group development, difficulty of entry, status congruence, reward allocation, success, stability of membership, external threat, and group size. A manager can boost group cohesion by:

communicating with the subordinates as a group, emphasizing and promoting competition with other groups, rewarding cooperation, managing conflict situations within the group, setting achievement goals for the group rather than for individuals, treating everyone in the group equitably without favouritism, and encouraging social interaction among group members. External linkages A group comprises members representing various areas, skills or backgrounds. Good, balanced representation can facilitate acceptance of a group's work. Encouraging work groups Group efficiency and effectiveness can be increased by fostering group productivity, satisfaction, cohesion and learning. This can be achieved by various measures, including (Tosi, Rizzo and Carroll, 1986): Treating employees as social beings and not as mere numbers. Taking care when establishing group size so as to establish neither too small nor too large a group. Encouraging group members to select other members whenever possible. This improves inter-personal relations in the group, which in turn generates cohesion and cooperation. Supporting groups to develop and mature. It helps in settling tensions and other difficulties in the group. Encouraging group productivity norms in congruence with organizational goals. Dealing with group situations where cohesion is based on norms that are harmful to the organization. Supporting groups to develop good productivity goals. Encouraging participation of individual members' in the group task so as to avoid the ill effects of social loafing. Social loafing occurs when in a group an individual does not do his share of work, expecting that the work will get done anyway since other members of the group are working towards the same goal. Exercising care and discretion in utilizing competition to encourage group productivity. Providing groups with opportunities for success.

Teams
A team can make important contributions to the development of the organization, wield strong influence on individual work attitudes and behaviour, and gain the commitment of its members by being participative and consequently facilitating implementation.

Building a team The building blocks of effective teams, as identified by Woodcock (1986) are: clear objectives and agreed goals, openness and confrontation, support and trust, cooperation and conflict, sound procedures, appropriate leadership, regular review, individual development, and sound intergroup relations. Stages in team building To make teams efficient and effective, a research manager should use: managing talents to successfully guide teams through various stages of development, and leading skills, which would kindle team members to achieve their full potential at every stage of team development. There are five sequential steps involved in the team building process (Kormanski and Mozenter, 1987; Adair, 1987): (i) Forming refers to awareness. During this stage, team members are oriented, become committed, and then accept the goals and programmes. (ii) Storming refers to resolution and development of a feeling of belonging. (iii) Norming refers to cooperation and collaboration in which communication is promoted. This results in a feeling of enticement and support. (iv) Performing refers to productivity. During this stage problems are solved and interdependence fostered, which results in achievements. (v) Adjourning refers to separation. This does not occur if the previous four stages have been successful, with no problems encountered. Approaches to team building There are several approaches to team building, with differing degrees of group participation, self-examination, problem confrontation and goal setting. Any of these approaches can be used for team development. A manager can also blend and integrate different approaches, depending upon situational requirements. Goal-setting approach The goal-setting approach (Beer, 1976) is based on the assumption that a goal influences not only individual and group behaviour but also direction, coordination and extent of group efforts. If problems of the group are identified through interviews with group members, they can be handled by group solutions. Based on these solutions, the group could set goals. Goal setting creates commitment and a feeling of involvement. The inter-personal approach

Based on the assumption that an inter-personally congenial team functions more effectively, the inter-personal approach encourages 'sharing of feelings, psychological support for one another, and non-evaluative communication' among team members (Argyris, 1966). Cooperation and better understanding is obtained by developing mutual trust and confidence among group members. It helps in creating an environment where conflicts are effectively settled, problems solved efficiently, and decision making is based on group concordance. This increases the effectiveness and productivity of the team. The managerial grid model The managerial grid approach (Blake and Mouton, 1969) aims at productive and cohesive team-work. It involves four steps. The first step is evaluation. Every team member evaluates their personal contribution and performance as well as that of others in the group. This process helps each member to identify what they are doing or not doing to make the team effective. In the second step, the understanding of group members concerning the team's functioning is deliberated and examined so as to identify the problems faced by the team. The third step is to eliminate unacceptable individual and team practices and to replace them with new behaviour and performance goals. The fourth step involves trying out new styles of team-work and individual behaviour to overcome problems being faced at that time. If these steps are successful, the usefulness of the new approaches is proven and will provide the group members with a model of how they can work together. Role model The role model concept is based on the assumption that 'role is a set of behaviour which an individual in a particular organizational position feels obliged to perform and which individuals in other organizational positions expect that person to perform' (Beer, 1976). Thus, a team is a chain of overlapping roles. Behaviour in a group can be understood in the context of how individuals understand their roles. If group members correctly perceive their role and the roles of other members, conflict and vagueness can be eliminated and efficiency increased. Many types of role and clarification meetings are used for developing effective teams. Components of team building There are three interlocking components in team building (Adair, 1987). They are: Developing the individual Individuals come to groups with their own needs. They work in groups to accomplish group tasks while simultaneously expecting that group membership will fulfil some of their individual needs. Task achievement This is the need to achieve something. It is the task on which the group is working. Building and maintaining the team The need to develop and sustain working relationships among members is necessary for the accomplishing of group tasks. This is the maintenance need of the group. Team management

There are two approaches to managing a team effectively (Tarkenton and Tuleja, 1986). One is the traditional approach, based on an authoritarian style. The other is a democratic or participative approach. The authoritarian style of team management relies on the manager being in full command. Involvement of group members in decision making is discouraged. The democratic or participative style of team management encourages group members to talk, express their opinions, and involves them in the decision making process and in problem solving. Through this process, group results are optimized. By relying more on task and achievement-orientation, an authoritarian-style manager can perhaps ensure obedience without motivation and involvement, but that would not generate the best performance in the long term, whereas a participative style usually promotes that. To promote team-work, a manager should act as an educator or a facilitator rather than as a dictator or autocratic boss. Team meetings Tarkenton and Tuleja (1986) have developed a 'team meeting' structure, consisting of six sequential steps: (i) Follow-up Every team meeting should conclude with some plan of action to implement the decisions made. Similarly, every team meeting should start by objectively reviewing progress in implementing the decisions approved in previous meetings. Follow-up action is necessary when planning and reviewing. (ii) Review of performance data The next step is to evaluate progress in team performance since the last meeting. This is done to ensure that the team is moving in the right direction. (iii) Reinforcement After reviewing the implementation or performance, a manager has to provide reinforcement. Obviously, positive reinforcements are given to those who have contributed to progress and performed well. Negative reinforcement is for those who fell short in their performance. In the team setting, positive reinforcement is effective in encouraging the good performer to continued with good, or even improved, performance. Simultaneously, it also motivates slow performers towards better efforts in the hope of receiving positive reinforcement later on, when they have improved their performance. A manager should use negative reinforcement only after exhausting other means. Initially, negative reinforcement should be mild so as not to demotivate poor performers. The aim should be to motivate towards better performance. Tarkenton and Tuleja (1986) observed that: behaviour resulting from positive reinforcement tends to continue, persist or even increase, behaviour that is re-motivated by negative consequences tends to deplete, and good behaviour which is not reinforced in any manner tends to decline over time. (iv) Problem solving During team meetings, appropriate reinforcement aims at solving problems so as to make group members more productive. An imaginative and creative problem-solving approach is crucial to good team performance. It provides an opportunity for positive interactions between team members and is helpful in increasing team productivity.

(v) Planning action The next step in the team meeting process is to formulate an action plan and assign specific responsibilities to individual members of the group. (vi) Communicating The last step of a team meeting is a brief discussion about the group's current and future concerns and progress. It strengthens team spirit. It simultaneously reassures team members that they are working jointly to achieve common goals. Improving team efficiency Some useful ways to improve team efficiency are considered below (Beer, 1976; Tosi, Rizzo and Carroll, 1986; Adair, 1987): (i) Influence the evolution of effective norms which a team adopts, and depending on managerial style, a manager can achieve this by defining standards, focusing on setting goals with the group, reinforcing goals when they are met, and recognizing good performance. Some important considerations (McGregor, 1960) in setting norms are noted below. The atmosphere in the group should be informal and relaxed. There should be provision for ample discussion regarding tasks, with each member participating in the discussion and expressing their views. Objectives should be clearly formulated and understood, and accepted by group members Members should listen to each other. They should be able to freely express their ideas and opinions, including those relating to group performance. Disagreements should be acknowledged and settled, rather than subdued. Most decisions should be arrived at through some form of concordance. Criticism should be frequent, but seldom personal. Responsibilities should be assigned clearly and without ambivalence. The team leader should not overshadow the team, and there should be no power struggle within the group. The group should be aware of its operation. (ii) Improve the efficiency of the team, and a manager can do this by efficiently organizing the work and securing the means necessary, including appropriate technology, resources, and supporting facilities. (iii) Ensure high skill levels. (iv) Ensure that pay, promotions and recognitions are related to team performance. The manager thus demonstrates to subordinates the value of team-work and the value attached to the contribution of individuals in team-work. (v) Provide intrinsic rewards, such as challenging work, clear responsibilities and autonomy in influencing work methods. The manager should ensure not only that jobs synchronize with the interests of individual members, but also that they find the job easier in a team setting. For effective intrinsic group rewards, managers should define tasks completely, purposely and explicitly. A task should have an identifiable end point.

Each group member should have skills required to complete these tasks. The team should have freedom in deciding on its working methods, planning and allocation of responsibilities to individual members.

Team building in agricultural research organizations

Increasing specialization in every field has led to the need for a multidisciplinary approach in research. This necessitates pooling of experience and knowledge of various fields to foster creativity and efficiency in a research team. Agricultural research organizations consist of a number of groups. These groups are important because they provide a stimulus for creativity and innovation. Through synergic effects, they help in tackling multidimensional and complex research problems which require collaborative inputs from several disciplines. Team research also puts limited resources to optimal use. It can result in total solutions covering different dimensions. Teams can be constituted either vertically or horizontally. Vertically formed teams are based on fields of production. Horizontal teams comprise departments based on disciplines. The size and skills of a team should be based on the problem to be solved and its magnitude. A research manager has to consider the relative merits and drawbacks of alternative approaches in forming the team so as to provide the required capabilities for realizing the goals set by the organization. The research manager has a crucial role in facilitating smooth, effective and efficient functioning of the team which includes highly skilled scientists. The manager has to satisfy both individual and organizational needs through appropriate managerial interventions and reinforcements. The effective and efficient functioning of a team can be facilitated if the objectives of the team are jointly decided and tasks clearly specified. In research organizations, human factors play a proportionally greater role than in other organizations. A research organization can be effective only if the special human needs of scientists are satisfied. In general in agricultural research organizations, it is desirable to attain a suitable blend of both vertical and horizontal elements in teams. Examples of discipline-based horizontal teams are: soil chemistry, soil physics, soil pedology, crop genetics and plant breeding, plant physiology, plant pathology, irrigation and salinity, animal physiology, agricultural engineering, agricultural economics, food technology or entomology. Teams based on production lines (vertical) are: field crops, vegetable crops, horticulture, forestry, animal husbandry or poultry. In some organizations, team building may influence individual freedom and creativity, but not so in an agricultural research organization, where problem solving generally requires inputs from various disciplines. Research problems are jointly discussed by those constituting the team, i.e., the scientists of the various disciplines. On the basis of such discussion, goals are decided. The individual contribution of each scientist is also discussed and planned. Every scientist then has the freedom to plan their work independently. However, the scientists meet periodically to exchange experiences, discuss problems and review progress.

References
Adair, J. 1987. Effective Team Building. Vermont: Gower Publishing.

Argyris, C. 1966. Inter-personal barriers to decision making. Harvard Business Review, 44: 84-97. Beer, M. 1976. The technology of organization development. pp. 937-993, in: Dunned, M.D. (ed) Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology. Chicago IL: Rand McNally. Blake, R.R., & Mouton, J.S. 1969. Building a Dynamic Corporation through Grid Organization Development. Reading AM: Addison Wesley. Kormanski, C., & Mozenter, A. 1987. A new model of team building: a technology for today and tomorrow. The Annual Conference: Developing Human Resources. La Jolla CA: University Associates. McGregor, D. 1960. The Human Side of Enterprise. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Shaw, M.E. 1981 Group Dynamics: The Psychology of Small Group Behaviour. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Tarkenton, F., & Tuleja, T. 1986. How to Motivate People: The Team Strategy for Success. New York, NY: Harper and Row. Tosi, H.L., Rizzo, J.R., & Carroll, S.J. 1986. Managing Organizational Behaviour. New York, NY: Pitman. Woodcock, M. 1986. Team Development Manual. Aldershot: Gower Press.

Session 4. Case study: IRRI management

Session guide: Case study - IRRI management compares IRRI with LDE research institutes Case study: IRRI management compares IRRI with LDE research institutes DATE TIME FORMAT Plenary participatory lecture TRAINER OBJECTIVES

At the end of this session, participants should be able to apply the concept of leadership to a research institute situation, understand the motivating factors, and appreciate the importance of team building.

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS None.

REQUIRED READING Case study prepared by R. Black: IRRI management compares IRRI with LDE research institutes.

BACKGROUND READING (i) The IRRI Agricultural Equipment Programme. (ii) Reading note on Leadership in Module 4 - Session 1. (iii) Reading note on Motivation in Module 4 - Session 2. (iv) Reading note on Team Building in Module 4 - Session 3.

SPECIAL EQUIPMENT AND AIDS Overhead projector and chalkboard.

Session guide: Case study - IRRI management compares IRRI with LDE research institutes1
1. This case was developed by Dr Ronald Black in 1976, and included in the first draft of the manual as background reading material. At the time, Dr Black was Assistant Director of the Denver Research Institute, Denver, Colorado, USA. It is necessary that participants should have been exposed to the concepts of leadership, of motivation and of team building, either through the Reading notes and Background readings, or in separate sessions on each of these topics. This will enable better understanding and analysis of the case, and improve class participation. Prior to the plenary session, participants should discuss the case in small groups. In that way, the case discussion in the plenary session should be comprehensive, organized and participative. Initiate the discussion of the case by asking what insights can one gain into the factors that had led to the Agricultural Engineering Department's success in designing, developing and commercializing equipment appropriate for less developed countries. Was it the approach, the team, or leadership?

IRRI adopted a pragmatic, business-like, problem-solving approach in its engineering design programme. To begin with, the entire effort was devoted to one crop, rice, thus ensuring concentrated efforts and preventing dissipation of limited resources. The perspective was need-based, and design efforts were simple and inexpensive. The entire programme was directed at a particular phase of production. Marketing was the prime consideration and market analysis was conducted continuously. Design efforts recognised the capabilities of local industry, so that products could be fabricated or manufactured using easily available local equipment. Liaison was established with the local metal working industry to ensure that the product designed could be carried all the way to a commercially saleable form. This approach facilitated adoption of new, more appropriate machinery. This was possible because the entire effort was based on the requirements of paddy growers and prevailing environmental conditions. Note that a machine designed in Japan was not widely adopted, while the designs of IRRI were usually exploited commercially. Another important observation is that adaptation of existing knowledge could provide easy solutions to many problems. One does not have to re-invent the wheel all the time. A question that needs deliberation is whether this approach can be replicated in other research institutions or widely in developing countries. It is obvious that the success of the programme rested on the leadership of Dr Amir Khan. What kind of a leader is Dr Khan? A believer in Theory X or in Theory Y? What are his qualities? Obviously, he has good conceptualization ability, coupled with good professional knowledge. Note his observation that when a colleague approaches with a problem, he has to come up with a solution. That is possible only with presence of mind and application of sound professional knowledge. Dr Khan is practical and does not place undue value on academic excellence. He is always willing to exploit an opportunity. Although he leads a team, he firmly believes that team-work should not subordinate individuality, whence emanates creativity. To him, poor memory is a good medium to unlearn so that new ideas can be generated. At this point, the case discussion could focus on desirable characteristics of a leader and the concept of team building. What motivated Dr Khan and his colleagues to keep their ears to the ground even though they belonged to an elite international agricultural research centre. Was it achievement orientation or intrinsic desire to excel? Or was it the sheer excitement of doing something new? What was the goal of Dr Khan and his team? Obviously, setting a clear-cut goal had helped them. Discuss at this stage the importance and process of goal setting in the success of a programme. Finally, are there leaders like Dr Khan? At this stage, the importance of leadership in the success of a programme could once again be reiterated. During the discussion, participants will make several observations. The resource person should attempt to integrate them with conceptual knowledge of leadership, motivation and team building.

Case study: IRRI management compares IRRI with LDE research institutes

Discussions with Dr Amir U. Khan Discussions with Dr Bart Duff The IRRI agricultural equipment programme By mid-1975, approximately 50 000 items of intermediate technology farm equipment had been commercially produced based on designs of the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Manila. The concepts and original designs for this equipment had originated in IRRI's Agricultural Engineering Department (AED). AED had been headed, since 1967, by Dr Amir U. Khan, an agricultural engineer. In 1970, he was joined by Dr Bart Duff, an agricultural economist. During the years they had dominated it, AED/IRRI had gained worldwide fame.

Discussions with Dr Amir U. Khan

Writer: Why is IRRI successful compared with many of the applied research institutions that one finds in less-developed economies (LDEs)? Khan: That is a difficult question to answer. My own thinking is that we have a strong commercial orientation. I have been in the farm machinery business most of my life and on the commercial side much of the time. We emphasize and keep the commercial approach always in mind. That is the main thing. Costs, production processes and manufacturing methods. Once we get a package of the end product, it is usually ready to be manufactured, and then the manufacturers can't afford to say 'no.' It is almost a readyfor-sale machine and can usually be produced without adding new production equipment. If you can look at our manufacturers, very few have added any new production equipment. Most manufacturers, I believe, are continuously on the lockout for new products. So it is a matter of providing them with a commercially saleable product. Others are often not successful because they do not realize that one has to take a product all the way to the commercially saleable form. They often make an experimental machine and consider that they have completed the design. That is not so. Writer: One of the complaints that I have heard from directors of these research institutions is that they cannot keep the salary scale high enough to attract people who have the competence to carry out the development process. Khan: I don't believe that. It is an impediment of a kind but much of it is in the leadership. Often the leadership does not understand what goes on in a commercial venture because most of them are academic people, who come from academic institutions before becoming directors. They often do not have a clear-cut idea of which way their institution is heading, and this is a serious problem. You go to any of the agricultural engineering research centres and find that most engineers are not after new solutions. They are mostly interested in testing old machines. Sometimes they will buy an idea just for ideas, or they will read in a magazine that somebody tried an idea and they often work on duplicating it. They seldom study a need and then deliberately look for answers. Our thinking is that we must find a need and demand, which we may not do as a formal marketing study. But basically, it is still done in our minds. We look at the market, make an assessment about the kind of machine that is needed, and develop that kind of

machine. A good case is the axial flow thresher. We gained experience with some threshers that were not working very well, including some of our own, and then we went out and designed a new machine, the axial flow thresher, which has found good market acceptance. Writer: Do you think that the quality of your local staff is comparable to that in equivalent industries? Khan: In a number of cases, yes. The men we used to take, in the early days of the programme, were fresh graduates. Now they have gained six to seven years of experience. Most of them had poor grades. In fact, in one case, the head of a department at the university said he was surprised that we would hire the type of engineer that we had just hired. One reason is that we are not looking for academic qualifications and excellence. I look for a practical individual. Most of the practical engineers do not have very good grades. The group here is a very practical bunch. They know how to fix things; they know how to play around with tools and with machines, but they are not so good in theory. In fact, this is becoming a weakness now when our work is becoming more complex and sophisticated. Writer: What I think you have done here is that you have created a local staff which provides practical engineering, practical know-how, while you and Bart and some of the international staff are providing the conceptual framework. Do you think you could find a Filipino who could play the role that you are playing, let us say? Khan: It is hard to answer that question. It does not go with nationality. It is the individual. If you can find an individual... in fact I find that you do come across some but still such people are a rarity. Writer: But I think... it is specifically a question I am concerned with... and I understand what you are saying. Leadership is a rare quality anywhere. But it would be even more difficult, I suggest, to get a Filipino who had these capabilities into a job like this, because he is already making so much use of his talent. He is already going so far that he probably would not be satisfied with this type of job. He would be such an asset to some of the Filipino companies or the government that he would have a very exalted position, and it would be very difficult for him to take something like this. Khan: That is very true. If I had been a Filipino, I would have been by now if not a millionaire, at least close to it. The opportunities are tremendous if you know how. Writer: So what is an LDE national research organization to do? How do you get that kind of people? Khan: Well, we just have to provide this type of individual for leadership. How do you get them? That is hard, although providing leadership opportunity to the right kind of younger engineers and scientists is important. Salary-wise, most directors are getting sufficient salaries to attract talented individuals. Writer: I would disagree with that. For example, I know of the director of one such institution who is having to rent out his house now just to be able to keep his children in school. Khan: Well, they do have considerable side incomes.

Let me give you an example of a young Filipino engineer who works for us, Nester Navasero. He has been providing many small, simpler machine concepts and programmes. He is a young engineer who had rather poor grades. In fact, we tried to send him back to school because our management said he could not be promoted without a Master's degree; he is already quite high up in salary scale. Well, he could not do well in course work, but he does provide some good concepts, although he is not as good in engineering knowledge or design. Still, he has many good ideas. Many people have ideas; however, commercially successful ideas and mere ideas are two different things. You have to have a feel for what will sell and what will not. If you have a lot of ideas, you can afford to discard some of the non-commercial ideas and not feel sorry. The guy who has only a few ideas tends to hang on to them, with the result that he tries out every one of his ideas and thus wastes time and energy. Invariably, when I sit down and think of designing something, I think of, maybe, 15 different approaches before I do anything further with them. I sit in aeroplanes and draw on napkins, and give the napkins to the secretaries and they laugh. But after I have gone through that exercise in my mind, I have eliminated most of the non-commercial possibilities, at least in my own thinking. I have a capacity that I can visualize a full machine and register it in my mind and retain it for some time. It will be there. I turn back, move to another part of the machine, then go back again and do it as if it were a drawing. Sometimes I have to move my hand back and forth as if I am sketching to put a part in focus. This visualizing capacity is very important in referring to concepts. You have to be able to eliminate the non-proving opportunities. At night I have a pad on my bedside, and often, in the middle of the night, I sit up and put down an idea or sketch that comes suddenly. There are two important issues. First is to come up with concepts; second is to be able to evaluate their commercial feasibility in your mind without really trying out any idea in sketching. Writer: Before being successful, though, you have got to have some management framework and direction within which this can take place, don't you? Khan: Are you talking about manufacturing or institution management? Writer: I am talking about management of an organization that is coming up with concepts. Khan: Well, I am talking about individuals. It is an individual's mind which comes up with an idea. In fact, if you think that a group can develop a machine... well, they can design it, but a group seldom produces the concept; it is always an individual. The group can design it, yes, but not conceptualize a machine. Writer: What do you think would be the impact on your ability to get good, practical engineers, the type of Filipino engineers you want working for you, if you had to pay salaries half of what industry pays? This is what most LDE research institutions are faced with. How do your salaries compare with industry salaries? Khan: Ours is about the same as industry. Some of our engineers are saying that it is low right now, and we are hoping to give them a raise this year. But certainly I would say that our engineers are very well paid in comparison with public-sector organizations. I am

sure that engineers in government institutions in the Philippines, with similar experience, are drawing less. However, the engineers that you see working in the public sector are more often a different breed altogether. They are not the type who could handle this type of work. They are all right in their own way. They probably come in as fresh graduates, have good grades, and after joining the institution become part of the government system for most of their lives. Writer: What about the Singapore Institute of Standard and Industrial Research? That is a government organization. Khan: I am impressed with what it has been doing. I think again Lee Cum Tat's leadership is far more important to that organization than the other individuals working in the Institute. I do believe that leadership plays the most important role in the service of a research organization, more so than other types of institutions. If you have a leader who knows what he is doing and can channel the young staff in the right direction, one can get somewhere. If you don't have that leadership, no matter what you do, even if you get the best people on your staff, it will be difficult to have a successful programme. Leadership, to me, is above all, and can make or break an institution. I am not saying that the rest of the team is not important; the rest of the team is important because the execution of the projects fall in their laps. But if you look at the research successes, invariably one finds strong leadership and someone who pushes and inspires the team. Writer: Let me mention a second factor that a number of the directors of these institutions suggest inhibits them, and get your reactions. This is that the red tape involved in being in a government system - for example, with respect to accounting practices - is most inhibitive. Is it worse than what you have to face? Khan: Very much worse. That certainly is an important bottleneck. Let me, however, go back to the matter of pay. I am not saying that pay for the staff is not an important issue, I think low pay certainly inhibits getting the best people. What I am trying to say is that if you get a live-wire individual into a stagnant organization, he can get much more done. The red tape is a problem but it is still a small factor. You can take some of the engineers in their institutions and inspire them to the extent that they can do excellent work. It is not so difficult if you can show and direct them properly. But if the leadership does not understand what it is looking for, most junior staff will not respect or follow the leadership. Our engineers come to us and say, 'Today I am not getting anywhere; I have got problems; can you solve them?' If I can't solve them right away, what does he do? He hangs around the department doing nothing, wasting his time, complaining. I must come up with a workable answer. So I say, 'What you are trying is not working; try this other way.' One has to be sharp enough to come back immediately with a workable solution. These are some of the things that are important. What the LDE institution directors complain about are legitimate issues, but they seldom complain about the lack of leadership. I think the root of the problem in most cases is that the industrial institution leader often does not fully understand the real needs. They have no commercial experience, and have little experience in doing the type of job that they

have to do; they are by and large academically oriented. We have hired a few highly academic people in our department and find they just cannot do a damn thing involving new machines. They can usually conduct tests, and that is about all. Let me give you one of my final views about creativity. If you find a person who has a very strong memory, he will remember everything. Many filing clerks I have known are this way. If you tell them that ten years ago you received a letter, they can tell exactly what the letter said, where it is kept, and bring it out in a minute. Such persons are extremely poor in creativity. I believe that when you have a poor memory, you forget past approaches. Every time you are faced with a problem you think about it fresh and try to find a solution. You have no ready workable solution to go to immediately, nothing to pull up from the memory stack. So, I believe, poor memory seems to help creativity.

Discussions with Dr Bart Duff

Writer: Why is IRRI successful compared with many of the applied research institutions that one finds in LDEs? Duff: I believe one reason is that we are closely attuned to the problems. We are certainly working on applied research and development problems here, not basic research. By focusing on existing problems, we are trying to tailor designs to those needs and by being field-oriented we can see very quickly whether or not the work is effective. I think our criterion for success is whether or not the designs are used, and not how many designs we produce. Using this criterion within a commercial environment, it is considerably more important for us to be responsive to what farmers need and what is profitable for manufacturers to produce than it might be to an academic institution or a basic-researchoriented group. Writer: Well, the institutions I am talking about are supposed to be neither basic research nor academically oriented. They are - or are at least supposed to be - involved with the applied scientific and technological problems facing their countries. One of their major issues, if not the major one, is to aid in the industrialization of their countries. Duff: I can only mention those issues which I feel are important. One, at IRRI we don't have to run after money 40% of the time. From our perspective, if we had to spend 20% of our time lobbying for funding, it would certainly seriously cut down the effectiveness of the programme. Two, there have been few constraints on our selection of design projects. Those criteria we use are very pragmatic and flexible. Three, we have had access to what I consider to be excellent staff here to carry out research, design and development work. Writer: On this point, have you had any trouble retaining your staff? Is there much of a turnover? Duff: Yes, there is considerable turnover. We have lost quite a number of good people, although not usually to local competitors. Many people have emigrated from the Philippines after being a part of this programme. There are two or three engineers that are in the USA. In the case of economists, most of whom are young, we encourage them to move up, and the only way they can do that, of course, is to go on to graduate school or into an institution where their upward mobility is not constrained as it is here. While our

department's turnover has probably been above average for IRRI as a whole, I still believe we have been able to maintain an excellent staff. Writer: Are your salaries commensurate with industry? Duff: Right now, I don't believe they are. I think we have fallen behind recently. We are also not commensurate with competitive government agencies. When I first arrived, in 1970, we were very competitive with industry, but during the last two years we have failed to adjust to the increased cost of living and demand for engineering talent. Many private industries have responded very quickly to this situation, and the government has also raised salaries. We have tended to tailor our responses to those of the government, and after the fact in many cases. We don't take the initiative. Writer: Do you think government agencies, like the National Institute of Science and Technology (NIST), are any better than IRRI? Duff: No, not NIST. A company like the San Miguel Corporation or Bayer Chemical Company, and, for example, a government economics organization like NEDA or the Development Academy of the Philippines probably would have somewhat higher salaries. Writer: Is NEDA a civil service organization? Duff: Groups like NEDA are semi-autonomous. I don't know precisely why, but they pay considerably better than most government departments. NEDA might pay an economist 2 000 pesos a month. We look at the same person, and although I am willing to pay as much as NEDA, we often cannot get that figure through the personnel office because of the restrictions on salary levels in effect at that time. In engineering, for example, we might pay an engineer 1 600 pesos a month. Industry may pay 3 000 to 4 000 pesos for someone in about the same category. Despite this, however, we have still been able to maintain a good staff, largely because of the nature of the programme and the credibility of the Institute. Writer: Besides your ability to obtain good staff, can you suggest reasons for your success? Duff: Even though IRRI itself is not industry oriented, its reputation certainly opens doors that would otherwise be closed. For example, in Myanmar, where IRRI does not yet have a formal programme in engineering, the government invited IRRI to send a team to assess their rice production research needs. I went along as a part of that team and looked at engineering as a peripheral part of the assessment. As a result of the visit, however, it appears that we will become involved more quickly in engineering development than we will in a plant breeding programme. These kinds of indirect avenues have helped measurably in making initial contacts and securing the necessary local support to make the programme go. Writer: Are there things that you can think of that have aided in the commercialization of your designs and your success with this? Let us say, thinking in terms of things that might be of interest to LDE applied research institutions. Can you think of things they might do that would make them motivated? Having commercialized technology yourself and having seen a lot of work in developing countries, would you comment on this?

Duff: I don't completely understand the mandate of some of the institutions: is it oriented towards providing product designs, or assistance, or contract research, or other objectives? The focus will probably vary from institution to institution. We, of course, are working with a broad market base - the farm sector - which represents a large potential demand in all developing countries. The types of products that we develop are items that can hopefully be used by a large number of small farmers. So at least the potential market seems to be quite large. Perhaps taking a look at the market to determine where the priority needs are would be a first step in getting an industrial research institute to produce useful and meaningful results. Also, keeping a commercial orientation in view would help. Writer: I think the type of research institutions that I have in mind have the same type of markets available to them, but in addition I think they are much broader. I think IRRI is much more narrowly focused. For example, often they have engineering equipment departments which are primarily involved in developing or fabricating equipment. Most can work in agricultural areas, but they are by no means limited to this. Duff: Many people think the narrow focus at IRRI has been a major factor in achieving success, and certainly I think we, in our own programme, feel that too. We have not tried to work on more than one crop. It has been rice and the problems associated with rice. This has allowed us to concentrate our efforts a good deal. The programme is not large, so we are not all over the ball park in the development of product designs. I think most engineers have as much as - and maybe more work than they can effectively handle. Administratively, it has about reached the limits I think, using the current configuration. If we add another man and we increase staff work 20%, there will need to be some changes in the administration of the programme. We will just be getting too big in that way. Having a relatively small programme allows you to be responsive. Everybody knows what everyone else is doing. There is a great deal of interplay. We minimize the red tape involved in making decisions, having designs translated into hardware, etc. I think these kinds of advantages have helped appreciably. Having Amir Khan to head the programme has also been a decided asset at this point in the development of the programme. Writer: Has he been largely responsible for most of the concepts? Duff: As a rough estimate, around 60% originated with him. Others came from the engineers themselves. The power tiller, for example, is a design that was evolved by a Filipino. The low land seeder was one of Nester Navasero's developments. The real question people ask me is: Do you think the programme would survive or continue if Amir were not here? This is just a personal judgment. I think now that it would go on. It now has a great deal of momentum of its own. It is not merely reflective of Amir's presence or absence. The conception of the programme, the execution of the early design and development work, the formalization of the technology transfer mechanism - these are truly his contributions. Without them, we certainly would not have a programme of the type or nature as the current one. Writer: Let me ask you this. Do you think that some of the techniques that you have used here, such as really getting to know the market, designing your equipment around local production capability, and the availability of the imported material, were important?

Another, for example, was your concept of initially contracting production for several prototypes from some of the most interested manufacturers to minimize their risk in their first ventures into this new field. Duff: That is right. Priming the pump was a vital concept at the early stage. Writer: Well, now that some of these techniques have been worked out, do you think that someone else could take a similar programme to another part of the world and implement it? Or, would it still require someone with the capabilities of Amir? Would you still have to combine with the approach the ability to conceptualize a product to meet the market, or could you go out and find that type of talent and incorporate it into a programme? Duff: I don't think it would require quite the same kind of talent that Amir has, although it would require a degree of his enthusiasm and ambition. The ideas embodied in the format that we use here are transferable, at least in the agricultural area. Maybe in other areas of industrial research as well. While it might seem self-evident, it is also important to have capable people. You would have to have capable people in any successful programme. They would, however, probably not have to have the same kind of unique qualifications Amir has. We have asked ourselves, for example can this format be used in India to develop dryland equipment for a different set of farming circumstances and a new set of problems? We think it can, it could be set up there and used effectively. It could also be applied if one were concerned with making containers, or something like cheap, food processing equipment. Looking at the basic concepts, they seem sound. Writer: I think the major differences... some of the industrial research institutions are doing identical sorts of things. They are aimed at identical sorts of markets. I see the market you are aimed at as an end user, someone buying something to help him in his job. There are many of these people out here. On the other hand, trying to produce or commercialize a pilot process for using canned coconut milk, you have a different type of market to deal with. In fact, this may even be an export market. So the markets can be considerably different. But you need to know what the market is. You need to know if there is a market. Duff: You are right. What you have described are basically producer goods, or capital goods that are used to produce something else. They are not an end product themselves. To make such goods successful, however, you must find out what consumers can afford, what should be the characteristics of the machine to make it profitable, etc. And on the manufacturing side, when you are designing a machine, it is important to keep in mind how it can be produced (without making a sophisticated, very efficient design) in a country like the Philippines, using low volume, labour intensive processes. Writer: In the USA or Europe, I don't think designers are faced with nearly this problem, because you can identify a need, design a piece of equipment to meet that need, and the technology and production capability will exist to produce the equipment. Duff: Here you are talking about a restricted economy that has a ceiling on the range of technology that is available to produce goods.

The IRRI agricultural equipment programme

In August 1967, Dr Amir U. Khan arrived at IRRI to direct the activities of AED. With him he brought an approach to the design, development, adaptation and commercialization of agricultural equipment that has since come to be known as the IRRI approach. In considering use of this approach in the commercialization of agricultural technology by other institutions, it would be useful to examine in some detail what the IRRI approach is, the type of equipment that was developed with it, and the resources and time needed for its accomplishments. This should give us insight into the nature of a programme that has good probability of success in other developing economies. Institutions often tend to underestimate the amount of effort required to accomplish programmes. Therefore, IRRI's accomplishment during the first three years of Dr Khan's association with it are specifically examined. Three years is often the period provided for relatively large programmes. Characteristics of the IRRI team Table 1 lists the positions in AED/IRRI in mid-1967 and mid-1970, showing the increase over a three-year span. By mid-1975, the programme employed 43 persons. Dr Khan took a pragmatic and business-like approach to the design and development activities. To be successful meant to have their designs commercialized. Dr Khan has noted that the engineers he hired have all been very practical. Their academic grades may not have been all that high, but they knew how to fix things. Table 1 Staff positions in AED/IRRI in 1967 and 1970 1967 Posts Agricultural Engineer Agricultural Economist Agricultural Engineer (consultant) Asst. Agricultural Engineer Visiting Asst. Design Engineer Junior Technician Draughtsman Research Aid Machinist Diesel Mechanic Tractor Operator Tinsmith No. 1970 Posts No. 1 1 1 1 3 2 1 3 2 3 1 2

1 Development Engineer 1 Evaluation Engineer 1 Agricultural Economist 1 Consultant 1 Asst. Design Engineer 2 Asst. Test Engineer 1 Research Asst. (Economics) 1 Research Asst. (Engineering) 1 Draughtsman 1 Secretary 1 Shop Foreman 1 Machinist

Welder Secretary Clerk-Stenographer Labourer

1 Tinsmith 1 Welder 1 Mechanic-Operator 7 Shop Mechanic Labourer (Shop helper) Labourer (Student Asst.)

2 1 1 4 3 1 33

TOTAL

23 TOTAL

Characteristics of the IRRI-designed equipment All AED/IRRI-designed machinery has been aimed at some phase of rice production, harvesting or processing. The equipment has primarily been designed for the market represented by small and modest-sized farms. The equipment has been designed around the metalworking capabilities of firms in the Philippines. If something had to be imported, such as a motor, the machinery was designed to use an imported input that was readily available in the Philippine market. There were two 'golden rules' that Dr Khan set down for his engineers: keep it simple, and keep it inexpensive. Table 2 lists the agricultural equipment projects that IRRI worked on the first three years (1967-70) that Dr Khan ran the programme. Of these, three had reached a degree of commercial success by 1975. Only one, the rotary power weeder, reached a commercially successful stage by mid-1970, and this was in a developed country, namely Japan. The weeder has never been commercially successful in the Philippines. Table 2 Evaluation of AED/IRRI equipment projects active in the period 1967-1970 Equipment project Tractor PTO-driven thresher Drum-type thresher Table-type thresher Rotary weeder Anhydrous ammonia applicator Paddy stripper harvester Rotary harrow Year work initiated 1965 1967 1967 1967 1967 1968 1968 IRRI project status/assessment in 1975 continuing unsuccessful unsuccessful highly successful experimental continuing experimental

Row seeder Rotary screen grain cleaner Heated sand dryer Rice hull furnace

1968 1969 1969 1970

fairly successful unsuccessful continuing fairly successful

Most effort during the first three years was placed on developing a thresher. This activity led in mid-1971 to the initiation, design and development of an axial-flow thresher. This thresher went into commercial production in mid-1973 - eight years after IRRI initiated work on producing a commercially viable thresher. The IRRI approach Figure 1 shows the innovation process for the six IRRI machines that IRRI considers to have had the greatest degree of commercial success out of 35 equipment development projects it has undertaken. These are the axial-flow thresher, the rotary power weeder, the tractor lug wheels, the rice-hull furnace, the batch dryer and the tiller. As can be seen from Figure 1, the innovation process had a different pattern in each case. The important point to recognize is that the IRRI approach has been more of a philosophy that stresses the importance of the market, compatibility of designs with local manufacturing capability and local materials, close relationships with the manufacturers, and carrying the innovation process far enough so that market uncertainties are reduced to acceptable proportions for the manufacturers to pick them up. The last requirement has normally meant providing the manufacturer with a readily marketable product. While IRRI has not, until quite recently, undertaken formal and systematic market studies prior to initiating design and development activities, the market has always been a prime consideration. As Dr Khan has pointed out, he, at least in his own mind, has a market identified for each project IRRI undertakes to develop. This analysis of the market is a continuous process. It is not something that is done once and forgotten. Likewise, IRRI has not undertaken formal systematic world searches for technology when it identifies a market. However, IRRI staff travel extensively, and are made aware of most concepts for equipment in areas where IRRI is interested. In fact, at least four of IRRI's most successful designs would have to be called modifications or adaptations of existing equipment. Perhaps the thing that differentiates the IRRI approach more than anything else from the approaches of many LDE agricultural equipment design, development and adaptation units is the close and continuous relationship that the IRRI staff members maintain with local light engineering firms. This consists of much more than visiting a firm as part of an extension strategy to have a new design commercialized. IRRI staff are continually dropping in on metalworking firms to exchange ideas and see what is happening. These visits are now in both directions, with industry people visiting IRRI perhaps as much as in the other direction. In many cases today, when IRRI wishes to introduce a new piece of equipment to industry, it finds itself talking to an old friend. It has not always been this way, however. To reach the present state of affairs required a conscious and protracted effort on the part of IRRI.

Figure 1 The innovation process for six of AED/IRRI's most successful projects As noted, IRRI attempts to reduce market uncertainty to a level that is acceptable to industry. In some cases, this has led to IRRI purchasing the first few units of an item of equipment from several firms to give the firms experience with constructing the equipment, and possibly bearing the expenses for limited tooling-up in some cases. Figure 1 shows that this procedure of incentive production was followed in two of the six cases in which IRRI has been most successful. This procedure may also provide for a limited test of the market, as IRRI, at least in the past, has permitted the firms to sell the equipment IRRI has ordered if the firms receive other offers. There has been some criticism of this, however, on the basis that these first machines often have defects in them, and buyers become disappointed and give the equipment a bad name. By and large, it has been the firms that have produced the IRRI equipment that have also marketed and popularized it. In the three most successful instances, in terms of numbers sold, the market was developed and largely dominated by a single large firm. The rotary power weeder market was developed by Ohtake Nouki Seisakusho Company Ltd of Japan. None of the weeders has been commercially produced by firms in the Philippines. The five-to-seven horsepower tiller market was popularized by Marsteel Corporation, a large Philippine corporation with a nationwide marketing network. Over 60% of the tillers are estimated to have been manufactured and sold by Marsteel. The tractor lug wheel market was developed by GA Machineries Inc., a large Filipino firm that serves large farms and is a distributor for Ford tractors in the Philippines. To summarize, AED/IRRI has been successful in its ability to design, develop and commercialize equipment that is LDE-appropriate. To do this, however, practical, clearheaded leadership was necessary: a fairly large team working on a relatively narrow range of problems over a period of years and a close relationship with industry that was also developed over a period of years. This raises two questions: Would a similar approach work in other parts of the world? Would a similar approach work with other technologies?