3. List countries in Asia that use nuclear power. How reliant are these countries on Nuclear power?

Countries in Asia that are currently relying on Nuclear power: CountryTotal Megawatt CapacityNuclear Share of Electricity ProductionSouth K Korea18,71631.1%Japan47,34828.9%Taiwan4,92720.7%India4,7802.9%Pakistan7252.7%China1 J T I P 0 0,2341.9%

South Korea:
South Korea is set to become a major world nuclear energy country, exporting technology. It has won a $20 billion contract to supply four nuclear reactors to UAE. Today 21 reactors provide 31% of South Korea's electricity from 18.7 GWe of plant. In 2011 the aim was reaffirmed to provide 59% of electricity from 40 reactors by 2030. Nuclear energy remains a strategic priority for South Korea, and the capacity is planned to increase by 56% to 27.3 GWe by 2020, and then to 43 GWe by 2030. In 2022 nuclear capacity of 32.9 GWe is expected to be 32.6% of the national total of 100.9 GWe. From 1961 until April 2001 South Korea's sole electric power utility was Korea Electric Power Company KEPCO. KHNP expects to spend 4.7 trillion won ($3.68 billion) on nuclear plants in 2009 and plans to complete 18 nuclear power plants by 2030 at a cost of 40 - 50 trillion won ($32 to 40 billion), to provide 59% of the country's electricity. In December 2010 the Ministry of Knowledge Economy (MKE) projected 14 new nuclear reactors on line by 2024, to provide almost half of the country's electricity.

Taiwan:
Taiwan currently has 4884 MWe of nuclear power capacity by means of 3 active plants and 6 reactors, which makes up around 8.1% of its national energy consumption. This makes Taiwan the 15th largest user of nuclear power in the world. Nuclear power is considerably cheaper than alternatives. Electricity demand in Taiwan was growing at almost 5% per year, but this is slowing to about 3.3% pa to 2013. Nuclear power has been a significant part of the electricity supply for two decades and now provides one quarter of base-load power and 17% overall, though nuclear comprises only 11% of 46 GWe installed capacity. Following the Fukushima accident in March 2011, the AEC initiated a comprehensive nuclear safety review, and the first phase of this was completed in September. The AEC also strengthened its radiation protection capacity and contingency mechanisms, since Taiwan is very prone to seismic activity.

Japan:
The country's 50 main reactors have provided some 30% of the country's electricity and this was expected to increase to at least 40% by 2017. Despite being the only country to have suffered the devastating effects of nuclear weapons in wartime, Japan has embraced the peaceful use of nuclear technology to provide a substantial portion of its electricity. Today, nuclear energy accounts for almost 30% of the country's total electricity production (29% in 2009), from 47.5 GWe of capacity (net) to March 2011, and 44.6 GWe (net) from then. There were plans to increase this to 41% by 2017, and 50% by 2030. t

As Japan has few natural resources of its own, it depends on imports for some 84% of its primary energy needs. Initially it was dependent on fossil fuel imports, particularly oil from the Middle East (oil fuelled 66% of the electricity in 1974). This geographical and commodity vulnerability became critical due to the oil shock in 1973. A high priority was given to reducing the country's dependence on oil imports. A closed fuel cycle was adopted to gain maximum benefit from imported uranium. In June 2010 JAPAN resolved to increase energy self-sufficiency to 70% by 2030, for both energy security and CO2 emission reduction. It envisages deepening strategic relationships with energy-producing countries. Nuclear power would play a big part in implementing the plan, and new reactors will be required as well as achieving 90% capacity factor across all plants. However, following the Fukushima accident, in October 2011 the government published a White Paper confirming that Japans dependency on nuclear energy will be reduced as much as possible in the medium-range and long-range future. He also added that all the utilities on the west coast of Japan will cooperate to transfer electricity to the east coast, noting the significant role of nuclear energy in ensuring a stable power supply. However, he said that it is essential that the government allows those reactors currently shut down for mandated periodic inspections to be able to return to service as soon as possible. At present Japan has 51 reactors totalling 44,642 MWe (net) operational, with two (2756 MWe) under construction and 12 (16,532 MWe) planned.

India:
India has a vision of becoming a world leader in nuclear technology due to its expertise in fast reactors and thorium fuel cycle. Electricity demand in India is increasing rapidly, and the 830 billion kilowatt hours produced in 2008 was triple the 1990 output, though still represented only some 700 kWh per capita for the year. With huge transmission losses, this resulted in only 591 billion kWh consumption. Coal provides 68% of the electricity at present, but reserves are limited. Gas provides 8%, hydro 14%. The per capita electricity consumption figure is expected to double by 2020, with 6.3% annual growth, and reach 5000-6000 kWh by 2050 hence the government has started to focus on nuclear power Due to its lack of indigenous uranium, India has uniquely been developing a nuclear fuel cycle to exploit its reserves of thorium, a natural radioactive chemical. Now, foreign technology and fuel are expected to boost India's nuclear power plans considerably. All plants will have high indigenous engineering content.

Pakistan:
Pakistan has a small nuclear power program, with 725 MWe capacity, but plans to increase this substantially. In Pakistan, nuclear power makes a small contribution to total energy production and requirements, supplying only 2.34% of the country's electricity. However, the country has natural uranium in its ground hence they believe nuclear power plant is a goodoption to meet their electricity demands in future. Total generating capacity is 20 GWe and in 2006, 98 billion kWh gross was produced, 37% of it from gas, 29% from oil.

China:
Mainland China has 14 nuclear power reactors in operation, more than 25 under construction, and more about to start construction soon. Additional reactors are planned, including some of the world's most advanced, to give a five- or six-fold increase in nuclear capacity to at least 60 GWe by 2020, then 200 GWe by 2030, and 400 GWe by 2050. Most of mainland China's electricity is produced from fossil fuels (80% from coal, 2% from oil, 1% from gas in 2006) and hydropower (15%). Rapid growth in demand has given rise to power shortages, and the reliance on fossil fuels has led to much air pollution. The economic loss due to pollution is put by the World Bank at almost 6% of GDP. These capacity increase figures are all the more remarkable considering the forced retirement of small inefficient coal-fired plants: 26 GWe of these was closed in 2009 and 11 GWe in 2010, making 71 GWe closed since 2006, cutting annual coal consumption by about 82 million tonnes and annual carbon dioxide emissions by some 165 million tonnes. China is well advanced in developing and deploying supercritical and ultra-supercritical coal plants, as well as moving quickly to design and deploy technologies for integrated (coal) gasification combined cycle (IGCC) plants.

Briefly describe how a modern day nuclear power plant produces energy.
What are power plants? Main purpose is to produce electricity This is done by producing heat to turn water into steam which turns the turbine which turns the electrical generator which produces electricity. Fossil fuel power plants, nuclear power plants are different types of power plants. The main difference between them is how they produce the heat. Fossil fuel power plants use coal, oil or gas to produce heat. Nuclear power plants use nuclear reactors to produce heat. Principle behind nuclear power plants: Fuel used is the isotope of uranium ( U-235)because it can spontaneously split or fission to produce two smaller nuclei(called fission products) and 2 to 5 neutrons. These fission products and neutrons contain energy, which can be used as thermal energy (heat) to change water to steam.

D Diagram of a Nuclear Power Plant:

Once the fission reaction takes place, a large amount of heat is given off. All this happens within the reactor core, as can be seen in the figure above. This heats the water around the core and then the water turns to steam. The steam then travels through pipes and causes the turbine to spin. This spinning of the turbine spins a large generator, creating electricity. The steam then is cooled by cold water coming from the cooling tower travelling into the condenser below the turbine. This drops the temperature causing it to turn back into water. This water is then pumped back to the reactor to be reheated and the process continues henceforth.

4. Research on a case study of an explosion of a nuclear power plant. What caused the explosion? What measures were taken to bring the explosion under control? What effects (long and short term) did the explosion have on humans and the environment?

Case study of the Chernobyl Disaster:

The Chernobyl nuclear power plant was located near a town called Prypiat, in Ukraine. It operated from 1977 to 2000. In 1986, the Unit 4 reactor in the power plant exploded, owing mainly, as many consider, to the recklessness of the workers, especially in handling safety precautions. How it happened:

On the 25th of April 1986, a routine check was to be held and the unit 4 reactor was to be shut down. It was decided that during the shutdown, a test would be conducted on the reactor to test the effects of running the reactor at low power. Therefore, the control rods were lowered and the reaction was slowed down to half-power. Following that, the cooling system was disabled, thus breeching a very important safety protocol. The experiment was paused and in the night when the citys electricity consumption would be low so that the city would not run out on power. The reactor was slowed down once more, this time to its lowest operating power. However, prior to shutdown, the power level of the reactor decreased drastically than what was actually planned for. Thus, the engineers lifted the control rods to increase the power levels and speed up the reaction. The power levels rose, hence turning on the water pumps. The water around the reactor was drained and thus, the reactor began to overheat. Alarmed, the engineers lowered all control rods and the rods became jammed. The explosion occurred and 50 tons of radioactive particles were expelled into the atmosphere. 5

How was the situation brought under control?

To extinguish the flames, the local firemen arrived but they did not realise that radiation was occurring. Most firemen died soon after of acute radiation sickness, because they received high doses of radiation, without even realising it. Initially, attempts to introduce water into the reactor core were unsuccessful. Water fed in by the emergency feedwater pumps injected at a rate of 200-300 tonnes per hour went to other parts of the damaged primary circuit. When it was realised that this water flowed in the direction of units 1 and 2, water injection was stopped after half a day. Steam and white smoke from the reactor well were observed on the first day of the accident, but no steam was seen on the second day. The fire was extinguished by a combined effort of helicopters dropping over 5,000 metric tons of sand, lead, clay, and neutron absorbing boron onto the burning reactor and injection of liquid nitrogen. By 6.35 am on the 26th April, all fires were extinguished, except for the one inside the building of reactor unit 4, which continued to burn for many days.

Short Term Effects of the Nuclear Fallout:

Widespread Contamination: The explosion at the power station and subsequent fires inside the remains of the reactor provoked a radioactive cloud which drifted not only over Russia, Belarus and Ukraine, but also over the European part of Turkey, Greece, Moldova,Romania, Bulgaria, Lithuania, Finland, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Poland, Estonia, Switzerland, Germany, Italy, Ireland, F France, Canada and the United Kingdom. The initial evidence in other countries that a major exhaust of radioactive material had occurred came from Sweden, where on April 27 workers at the Forsmark Nuclear Power Plant (approximately 1100 km from the Chernobyl site) were found to have radioactive particles on their clothes. It was Sweden's search for the source of radioactivity, after they had determined there was no leak at the Swedish plant, that led to the first hint of a serious nuclear problem in the Western Soviet Union. In France, the government then claimed that the radioactive cloud had stopped at the Italian border. 60% of the contamination that fell on the former Soviet Union was received by Belarus and a large area in Russia south of Bryansk was also contaminated. Health Effects: 203 people were hospitalized immediately, of whom 31 died (28 of them died from acute radiation exposure). Most of these were fire and rescue workers trying to bring the disaster under control. The workers involved in the recovery and cleanup after the disaster, known as "liquidators", received high doses of radiation. Additionally, a sevenfold increase in DNA mutations has been identified in liquidators' children conceived after the accident, when compared to their siblings conceived before. However, the effect diminishes sharply with time. Late in 1995, the World Health Organisation (WHO) linked nearly 700 cases of thyroid cancer among children and adolescents to the Chernobyl disaster, and among these some 10 deaths are attributed to radiation. The actual death toll due to this fallout is difficult to determine. It is estimated by Greenpeace, Ukraine that the total number is about 32,000. The rate of Thyroid cancer in children up to the age of 15 increased 200 fold in Gomel Oblast, Belarus since the accident. At least 90% of these were curable, but the number of cases is expected to me more, especially in children who were younger than three at the time of the release. Thyroid cancer is due to the inhalation of radioactive iodine or ingestion from drinking milk from cows that have eaten grass contaminated with radioactive particles. Iodine-134 is absorbed and concentrated (biointensified) in the milk. When humans drink the milk, the iodine-134 becomes incorporated almost exclusively in the thyroid gland. Many diets in the fallout affected area of the former Soviet Union are typically deficient in iodine. Individuals who had low levels of iodine in their diet incorporated large quantities of the radioactive iodine into their system as their bodies attempted to compensate for this deficiency. Evacuation of people: Soviet authorities started evacuating people from the area around Chernobyl only on the second day after the disaster. By May 1986, about a month later, all those living within a 30 km radius of the plant, about 116,000 people, had been relocated. This area is often referred to as the zone of alienation. However, radiation affected the area in a much wider scale than this 30 km radius. Effects on the environment: According to reports from Soviet scientists, 28,000 km were contaminated by cesium-137 to levels greater than 185 kBq/m. Roughly 830,000 people lived in this area. About 10,500 km were contaminated by caesium-137 to levels greater than 555 kBq/m. Of this total, roughly 7,000 km (2,700 mi) lie in Belarus, 2,000 km (800 mi) in the Russian Federation and 1,500 km (580 mi) in Ukraine. About 250,000 people lived in this area.

Elsewhere in Europe, levels of radiation were examined in various natural foodstocks. In both Sweden and Finland, fish in deep freshwater lakes were banned for resale and landowners w were advised not to consume certain types.

Long Term Effects of the Nuclear Fallout:

Mental health and psychological effects: The Chernobyl accident led to extensive relocation of people, loss of economic stability, and long-term threats to health in current and possibly future generations. Widespread feelings of worry and confusion, as well as a lack of physical and emotional well-being were commonplace. The dissolution of the Soviet Union soon after the Chernobyl accident, and the resultant instability in health care, added further to these reactions. High levels of stress, anxiety and medically unexplained physical symptoms continue to be reported among those affected by the accident.

The accident has had a serious impact on mental health and well-being in the general population, mainly at a sub-clinical level that has not generally resulted in medically diagnosed disorders. Designation of the affected population as victims rather than survivors has led to feelings of helplessness and lack of control over their future. This has resulted in excessive health concerns or reckless behaviour, such as the overuse of alcohol and tobacco, or the consumption of mushrooms, berries and game from areas still designated as having high levels of radioactive caesium

Caesium radioisotopes: Immediately after the disaster, the main health concern involved radioactive iodine, with a half-life of eight days. Today, there is concern about contamination of the soil with strontium-90 and caesium-137, which have half-lives of about 30 years. The highest levels of caesium-137 are found in the surface layers of the soil where they are absorbed by plants, insects and mushrooms, entering the local food supply. Some scientists fear that radioactivity will affect the local population for the next several generations. Note that caesium is not mobile in most soils because it binds to the clay minerals. Tests have shown that caesium-137 levels in trees of the area are continuing to rise. There is some evidence that contamination is migrating into underground aquifers and closed bodies of water such as lakes and ponds. The main source of elimination is predicted to be natural decay of caesium-137 to stable barium-137, since runoff by rain and groundwater has been demonstrated to be negligible. Food Produce: Twenty five years after the catastrophe, restriction orders remain in place in the production, transportation and consumption of food contaminated by Chernobyl fallout. In the UK, they remain in place on 369 farms covering 750 km and 200,000 sheep. In parts of Sweden and Finland, restrictions are in place on stock animals, including reindeer, in natural and near-natural environments. As of 2009, sheep farmed in some areas of the UK are still subject to inspection which may lead to them being prohibited from entering the human food chain because of contamination arising from the accident. 369 farms and 190,000 sheep are still affected, a reduction of 95% since 1986, when 9,700 farms and 4,225,000 sheep were under restriction across the United Kingdom. Effect on the natural world: A large swath of pine forest killed by acute radiation was named the Red Forest which refers to the trees in the 10 km surrounding the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant. As humans were evacuated from the area, animals moved in despite the radiation. The flora and fauna of the Red Forest have been dramatically affected by the radioactive contamination that followed the accident. It seems that the biodiversity of the Red Forest has increased in the years following the disaster. There are reports of some stunted plants in the area. Wild boars have multiplied eightfold between 1986 and 1988. The site of the Red Forest remains one of the most contaminated areas in the world. However, it has proved to be an astonishingly fertile habitat for many endangered species. The long-term impact of the fallout on the flora and fauna of the region is not fully known, as plants and animals have significantly different and varying radiologic tolerance.

Suggested Long-Range effects of the Chernobyl Nuclear Fallout

Down syndrome: In West Berlin, Germany, prevalence of Down syndrome (trisomy 21) peaked 9 months following the main fallout. Between 1980 and 1986, the birth prevalence of Down syndrome was quite. In 1987, 46 cases were diagnosed (prevalence = 2.11 per 1,000 live births). Most of the excess resulted from a cluster of 12 cases among children born in January 1987. The prevalence of Down syndrome in 1988 was 1.77, and in 1989, it reached pre-Chernobyl values. Chromosomal aberrations. Reports of structural chromosome aberrations in people exposed to fallout in Belarus and other parts of the former Soviet Union, Austria, and Germany argue against a simple dose-response relationship between degree of exposure and incidence of aberrations. These findings are relevant because a close relationship exists between chromosome changes and congenital malformations. Inasmuch as some types of aberrations are almost specific for ionizing radiation, researchers use aberrations to assess exposure dose. On the basis of current coefficients, however, it cannot be assumed that the calculations of individual exposure doses resulting from fallout would induce measurable rates of chromosome aberrations. Neural tube defects (NTDs): During the embryonic phase of fetal development, the neural tube differentiates into the brain and spinal cord (i.e., collectively forming the central nervous system). Chemical or physical interactions with this process can cause NTDs. Common features of this class of malformations are more or less extended fissures, often accompanied by consecutive dislocation of central nervous system (CNS) tissue. NTDs include spina bifida occulta and aperta, encephalocele, and in the extreme caseanencephaly.

2. Discuss the Advantages and Disadvantages of nuclear power as a source of energy.

A AdvantagesDisadvantagesThe Earth has limited supplies of coal and oil. Nuclear power plants could still produce electricity after coal and oil become scarce.Nuclear explosions produce radiation. Nuclear radiation damages biological tissue as it may damage genetic material w within cells (DNA). Nuclear power plants need less fuel than ones which burn fossil fuels. One ton of uranium produces more energy than is produced by several million tons of coal or several million barrels of oil.One possible type of reactor disaster is known as a meltdown. In such an accident, the fission reaction goes out of control, leading to a nuclear explosion and the emission o of great amounts of radiation.Coal and oil burning plants pollute the air. Well-operated nuclear p power plants do not release contaminants into the environment.Nuclear reactors also have waste disposal problems. Reactors produce nuclear waste products which emit dangerous radiation. Because they could kill people who touch them, they cannot be thrown away like ordinary g garbage.Many developed countries such as the USA and the UK no longer want to rely on oil a and gas imported from the Middle East, a politically unstable part of the world.Nuclear reactors o only last for about forty to fifty years. Why is Radiation so harmful and how does it biologically affect us?
When radiation strikes complex biological molecules, such as proteins or nucleic acids, it may fracture the molecules and prevent their proper functioning. This results in the loss of cell vitality, decreased enzyme activity, initiation of cancer, and genetic mutations. The immediate effects of acute exposure to radiation are caused by free radicals rupturing the cell membranes. This rupturing causes the cells to lose their contents and die. If enough cells are killed, functions associated with the cells cease. Death occurs because of the direct loss of vital organs or because of secondary infections resulting from the breakdown of the immune system. The effect depends on the dose of radiation received. Long-term risks of radiation exposure centre on the incidence of cancer and genetic mutations.

5. Discuss whether Singapore should have a nuclear power plant.

~Why Singapore should go Nuclear:

As seen by the charts above, an increasing number of countries are relying on Nuclear Power as a cleaner and more efficient source of energy. To be continually up-to-date and efficient, Singapore should also join many other nations in going nuclear. As our population and industries continue to grow, Singapore will need to increase its energy supply to meet higher demands. By having our own Nuclear power plant, Singapore can reduce its dependency on piped natural gas (PNG) which originates from neighbouring countries. Additionally, Singapores over dependency on gas and oil to provide its energy needs is dangerous, as oil and gas are exhaustible fuels and may run out one day. Nuclear energy is a much cleaner form of energy. It produces very low levels of carbon dioxide emissions. This would result in a more environmentally-friendly environment in Singapore. An establishment of a nuclear power plant will also create a lot of job opportunities for Singaporeans. These jobs will vary from workers to scientists The Oil Market is extremely volatile, as costs rise and plunge rapidly. By sustaining our own Nuclear Energy, we will be more self-reliant and would be less affected by the oil market. The Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Disaster in Japan was a result of a natural disaster (a tsunami) affecting the nuclear reactors, resulting in them overheating. The fact that Singapore is very unlikely to suffer any natural disasters due to our advantageous geographical position is a major advantage to the safety of our nation and the stability of a nuclear power plant should we have one. There is an ever-present risk of a nuclear meltdown or leakage. If this happens, it may result in disastrous consequences for the nation. The effects of such a fallout may prove more extensive due to the small size of Singapore and the fact that Singapore possesses the second densest population (of a nation) in the world. However, several neighbouring countries in Southeast Asia are seriously considering and having ongoing talks of using Nuclear Power as a viable energy source. Malaysia is even implementing plans to build two nuclear power plants in the near future. In this case, one might argue that Singapore might as well have a plant on domestic soil as well, as we would still suffer repercussions of a nuclear fallout from our neighbouring countries with or without our own Nuclear plant. This means that even if we do not have a nuclear power plant, the nation may very well still suffer the effects of a nuclear fallout in neighbouring countries.

Problems Singapore may face: Singapore lacks the land area to create a 30km safety buffer around a nuclear power plant. Hence, we would have to compromise the safety if the people in order to build the power plant. A typical nuclear reactor would generate about one-sixth of Singapores power needs. Elaborate plans will be needed to avoid big electricity disruptions if this reactor was to ever shut down. Building a nuclear power plant has an enormous capitol cost. Reactors are extremely expensive to build. If Singapore decides to build a nuclear power plant on its shores, it costs will take up a significant percentage of Singapores budget. This would mean that the government would have to cut costs on other sectors such as housing, education and defence. Singaporeans might not be too happy to learn this. Conclusion Singapore should introduce nuclear energy for the betterment and advancement of our nation and economy. The reasons why Singapore should go nuclear should provide a compelling enough reason for the nation to try and overcome problems it may face, as the reasons why Singapore should go nuclear far outweigh the possible problems. The risk of suffering the consequences of a nuclear fallout would still be present, with or without the nation going nuclear. Thus, we believe that Singapore should overcome any challenges it faces to pursue a cleaner, better advanced and a more efficient source of energy.

S Some pictures of babies affected by Radiation:

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