1. MEMORY SYSTEM Memory in a computer system is required for storage and subsequent retrieval of theinstructions and data.

A computer system uses variety of devices for storing these instructionsand data which are required for its operations. Normally we classify the information to bestored on computer in two basic categories: Data and the Instructions
Computer has main memory or RAM. Various architectures enable various uses of such memory. Internally, memory could be accessed in different ways. Processes cannot run unless their code and data structures are in the RAM. It is in the main memory where instructions reside and are interpreted by the processor. Some important issues related to the need for memory management include: Many times an operating system manages many processes (multi-programming). The code and data for a process must be in RAM before it could be run. Processes must not be able to access the code and data of other processes without permission. It means that the processes must be protected. Processes must be able to access and share the code and data of other processes if they have permission. There is usually not enough RAM to hold the code and data for all the currently running processes in RAM.

ROM ROMs can be classified into three general types. A maskable ROM is a ROM thatis programmed with information or data by the manufacturer. Once programmed thesedata bits cannot be altered or changed. A programmable ROM , or PROM , is a device thatcan be programmed by a user. Once programmed, the data in a PROM, like a ROM,cannot be altered or changed . An erasable PROM , or EPROM , is a type of ROM that 24 can be programmed by an user but whose data may be erased or changed with use of specialized equipment.A summary of the different types of ROMs is given below:

 Mask-programmed ROM -Programmed during manufacture; cannot bechanged. PROM - user programs by blowing fuses; cannot be erased except to blow additional fuses. EPROM - Electrically programmable by the user; erased by passingultra violet light through a quartz window in the package. EEPROM-Electrically programmable by the user; erased with electricalsignals instead of ultra violet light. RAM RAM or read/write memory, is a type of volatile memory from which data can beread and into which data can be written. RAM can be classified as either Static or dynamic .A Static RAM is essentially a matrix of flip-flops. Therefore, we can write a newdata word in a RAM location at any time by applying the word to the flip-flop data inputand clocking the flip-flops. The stored data word will remain on the flip-flop outputs aslong as the power is left on. This type of memory is volatile because data is lost when the power is turned off. These types of storage device is called static RAM . In dynamic RAMs , binary 1's and 0's are stored as an electrical charge or no charge on a tiny capacitor.The internal capacitance of a MOSFET is great enough to make it appear that a smallcapacitor (a few pico-farads ) exists in the MOSFET. Each memory cell is essentially asingle MOSFET. A logic 1 or a charged capacitor must be refreshed, or recharged, at leastonce every 2 ms, or the capacitor will lose its charge and the data.