The U.S. standard Atmosphere (National Advisory committee for Aeronautics) Average atmosphere: normal conditions over U.S.

at 400N 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) Surface temperature 150C, surface pressure 1013.25 mb Air is dry obeying ideal gas law g = 980.665 cm/sec2 (constant) From sea level to 10.769km, the temperature decreases at the constant rate 6.50C/km: This is troposphere. From 10.769 km to 32 km, the temperature is constant at 550C : stratosphere International commission for air Navigation standard Atmosphere g = 980.62 cm/sec2 Isothermal layer begins at 11km with temperature of -56.50C

Hydrostatic stability and convection Unstable sample is subject to forces which push it farther away Stable parcel becomes stable subject to restoring forces. Neutral equilibrium: no net force. The criteria for stability at which we shall arrive involve the Adiabatic Lapse rates for a parcel moving dry adiabatically and moist adiabatically. When unsaturated air moves vertically, it nearly conserves its potential temperature. Lapse rate
d = g cp

very nearly, not exactly.

g f ( p, T ), moist adiabaitc lapse rate cp

for saturated air s = i.e. s = d f ( p, T )

s < d and also s d as p increased and T decreases.

The parcel Method 1) No compensating motions environment as parcel moves. occur in the

2) The parcel does not mix with its environment and so retains its identity. Five states can be recognized w.r.t. parcel displacement in an atmosphere of lapse rate . The atmosphere is said to be Absolutely stable if < s Saturated neutral if = s Conditional unstable if s < < d Dry neutral if = d Absolutely unstable if > d

Advection Consider a parcel

By Taylors series
T =

of air with temperature T at time t0 and coordinates (x0, y0, z0) moving to the point (x0 + x, y0 +y, z0 +z) in time increment t. Let the new temperature be (T + T)
T T T T t + x+ y + z t x y z

Neglect higher order terms. Divide by t and take limit t 0

dT T T T T = + u + v + w dt t x y z dT T = + U.T Advection equation dt t T d T = U.T Advection term. dt t

Contributing to local

Local derivate following the motion.

temperature due to air motion

Total or substantial derivative. Rate of change of temperature

Cold Advection Warm Advection

U .T

Wind blowing from cold to warm region (is -ve ) Wind is blowing from warm to cold region.( is +ve ) The total derivative is actually defined following the Motion Field rather than the wind field. The pressure change measured by a barometer on a moving ship to the local pressure change can also be related by this advection equation. In fact Advection equation is applied to any of the field variables.

Example of Advection: A ship streaming eastward at 10km/hour measures a pressure fall of 1mb/3hrs. What is pressure change on an island which the ship is passing by. Rate of pressure fall observed/measured by the ship
1 mb dp = 3 hour dt
p t

The surface pressure decreases by 3 mb/180km in the west-east direction

Island

u = 10km/hour

Rate of surface pressure fall along west-east Using advection equation

p 3 mb = x 180 km

dp p p = u dt x t

Thus local change of pressure on the island

1 1 1mb km 3mb 1 p = 10 = mb / hr = mb / hr 3 6 3 hr hr 180km 6 t

Thus the rate of pressure fall on the island is only half the rate measured on the moving ship. If the total derivative of the field variable is zero, then that variable is a conserved quantity following the motion. The local change is then entirely due to advection.

Total differentiation of a vector in a rotating system

Consider an arbitrary vector ) ) ) in an inertial frame i , j, k r ) ) ) A = i A x + j A y + k A z (1)

r A

r The vector A is represented by r ) ) ) Ax + j Ay + k Az A= i (2)

Rate of change of vector A in inertial frame: from (1)

Consider the rotating frame with r angular velocity

r dA ) dA x ) dA y ) dA z =i +j +k dt dt dt dt

r Rate of change of vector A in rotating frame as viewed from inertial frame (from 2)

r ) ) da A d ) Ax + j Ay + k Az = i dt dt ) ) ) ) dAx ) dAy ) dAz di d j dk + Az + Ay + Ax + k + j = i dt dt dt dt dt dt

r But rate of change of vector A as viewed in rotating frame r d r A ) d A x ) d A y ) d A z = i + j + k dt dt dt dt

Also

r r r r daA d rA = + A dt dt r r r dA i.e., A dt

) ) ) r r r ) d j ) dk ) d i = i, = j , = k dt dt dt

r r a = a Sin r r da a = lim dt t 0 t r = a Sin lim t 0 t r d = a Sin dt r r = a Sin r r r da = a dt