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Rapid Assessment of The Uvero-Punta Piedras Section, Costa Maya, Quintana Roo, Mexico
Rapid Assessment of The Uvero-Punta Piedras Section, Costa Maya, Quintana Roo, Mexico
Rapid Assessment of The Uvero-Punta Piedras Section, Costa Maya, Quintana Roo, Mexico
RAPID A
ASSESSME
ENT OF THE UVERO‐
V PUNTA
U PIE
EDRAS
SECTION
N, COST
TA MAYA
A, QUIN
NTANA R
ROO, MEXICO
E
CON ON FOCUSE
NTRIBUTIO ED ON THE FUTURE M
MANAGEME E HABITAT
ENT OF THE T
B
Baruch Fi
igueroa‐Z
Zavala
Thesis
M
Master in S
Sciences in
n Naturall Resourcees and Ru
ural Devellopment
2008
El Colegio
o de la Fronttera Sur ‐ Ch
hetumal, Aveenida del Ceentenario,
Km 5.5, C..P. 77014, Qu
uintana Roo
o, Mexico
e‐mail: araagorn_bfz@y
yahoo.com.m
mx; phone: (++52) 983 1111 11 84
Cover: Aerial View of Punta Gorila‐ Punta Piedras, original photograph by Luis Gómez‐Cárdenas.
ii
Acknowledgements
Financial support for this study was received from CONACYT and ECOSUR. The study
received logistics support from Global Vision International (GVI) and ECOSUR. We
greatly appreciate the guidance of Jorge Correa‐Sandoval, David González‐Solís, Holger
Humberto Bahena‐Basave. Thanks to Verena Uyka, Laura Chanona and Monique
Mancera on the field assistance; to Ricardo Briseño for his comments, Massimo Boriani
for providing accommodation and support in Punta Gruesa, and the people from
UQROO, SEDENA and SEDUMA for providing information and the aerial photographs
from the study zone. We are grateful to Daniel Ponce‐Taylor for the assistance, to
Amigos de Sian Ka´an for providing baseline information and to Andrew Cameron and
Alex Bretherton for the language review.
iii
Rapid Assessment of the Uvero‐Punta Piedras Section, Costa Maya,
Quintana Roo, Mexico: contribution focused on the future management of
the habitat
Abstract
The region known as Costa Maya in the state of Quintana Roo, Mexico, shelters low
developed coastal sections but is already showing habitat loss and degradation driven by
unplanned population, tourism expansion and overfishing. This is the case of the Uvero ‐
Punta Piedras section, northern Costa Maya. A rapid assessment of this zone was carried
out, assessing the vegetation cover change, characterizing the fore reef community and
describing the socioeconomic and cultural condition of the local population. Remote sensing
images, in situ surveys and geographic information system analysis were utilized to
construct an ecological diagnosis whereas questionnaires were given to the human local
population to develop a socio‐economic and cultural diagnosis. Almost 26% of the original
vegetation cover in the study zone had undergone denudation by year 2007, at an annual
deforestation rate of ‐0.9% between 2003 and 2007. The reef benthos analysis showed that
the reef cover is dominated by macro algae with 60% whereas hard corals cover 8% and soft
corals cover 12%. Overall, the coral reef showed a good condition and a rich geomorphology
but coral cover and fish densities have undergone a considerable decline since 1993. The
local population is clearly causing habitat degradation due to its unregulated activities.
Local people stated expectation of a participative agenda for the government´s projected
tourism development on the zone. The continued habitat loss represents a considerable
threat to biodiversity conservation, for the zone is surrounded by natural protected areas
and contains vulnerable coastal ecosystems with economic importance. The baseline records
and proposed principles on this study provide key local‐scale information for the planning
and management of a sustainable tourism development on the area.
Key words: Costa Maya, Rapid assessment, Coral reef, Vegetation cover change, Habitat
degradation, Coastal management, Conservation, Tourism planning.
1
Introduction
The coastal zones attract population and development at an alarming rate and as
development and population growth continue, so will the pressures on the coastal
natural resources (Beatley et al. 2002). Severe conflicts over the use of the coastal
resources occur; since many economic activities take place directly in crucial habitats
like mangrove forests, sea grass meadows and coral reefs, they can alter the integrity of
the processes on which the entire coastal ecosystem relies upon (Clark 1992). These
critical habitats provide numerous environmental services making them quite valuable
in both terms, ecologic and economic (Barbier 1994; NOAA 2003).
Despite its great importance, these ecosystems have been the object of intensive and
indiscriminate use by human development around the world. Particularly, in the
Quintana Roo state in the Mexican Caribbean, the main activity triggering development
is mass tourism, one of the major sources identified as leading to the degradation of
natural resources (Boo 1990; Sobers 1988), with Cancun and surrounding areas
providing striking examples of land conversion (Pérez y Carrascal 2000; Yáñez et al.
2004), causing denudation of the coastal dune vegetation cover to allow hotel and urban
construction. This deforestation has dramatically reduced vegetation area in the state;
actually more than 25% of mangrove coverage in Quintana Roo since 1985 (INE 2005).
to underwater habitats (Brown 2000) such as coral reefs. Coral reefs are one of the world
most productive ecosystems (Hoegh‐Guldberg 1999); its high productivity makes them
vital for the survival of the tropical coastal ecosystems and human populations. Coral
reefs are extremely vulnerable to alterations on their environmental conditions; hence,
the disturbance of its habitat due to unsustainable human activities like poorly managed
and planned tourism are major stresses impacting coral reefs globally (Amaral &
Jablonski 2005; Bunting et al. 2003; Obura et al. 2002).
2
Yet these beautiful natural structures and the biodiversity they contain provide the
very foundations of coastal tourism; therefore it is imperative they be better appreciated
by this industry (Jackson 1990). A deficient tourism management can also cause
socioeconomic and cultural conflicts by imposing negative pressures on quality and
quantity of the resources for coastal populations, by promoting abrupt, unplanned
development and in many cases producing identity loss, poverty and inequity (Boxill
2000).
Due to this situation and taking into account the already existing habitat loss,
important and necessary tool for resource and land use by any human activity (De
Groot 1992), especially in the planning phase of any development projects over formerly
undeveloped areas.
Therefore the purpose of our study was to generate information on vegetation cover
change by land use, the coral reef condition and the socioeconomic circumstances of the
local population of the coastal section between Uvero and Punta Piedras, southern
Quintana Roo, Mexico, one of the last pristine coastal areas not yet under any protection
scheme in the Costa Maya region, where the land has been projected by the local
government to be used for tourism development. To achieve this goal we utilized a
series of assessment methods including remote sensing, geographic information systems
(GIS) and in situ land/underwater surveys, to then broadly characterize the condition of
the vegetation and reef habitat. Based on these results we generated baseline
information and some guidelines intended to be useful for stakeholders on the planning
and management of the future development of this area.
3
Methods
Study zone
The study was carried out in the Uvero ‐ Punta Piedras section, in the north part of the
Costa Maya region, southern Quintana Roo, Mexico (Figure 1). It is located between 18°
54´ N, 87° 37´ W, and 19° 04´ N, 87° 33´ W, surrounded by the Sian Ka´an Biosphere
Reserve on the north side, the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System (MBRS) on the east
side, Uaymil Flora and Fauna Protection Area on the west and the villages of El Placer
and Mahahual on the south (Government of Quintana Roo state et al. 2005). The
terrestrial areas are covered by wetlands such as mangrove, swamps, tropical low semi‐
evergreen forest and dune vegetation, and supported by a significant inland lagoon
system; the underwater habitats shelter a great diversity of fishes, marine invertebrates,
birds, plants, marine turtles and mammals (WWF 2001).
Rapid assessment of the study zone
The rapid assessment method (RA) provides the opportunity to biological and social
scientists to study the conditions around important ecosystems mainly when time,
funding and geography impose restrictions for a more precise research (Maragos y Cook
1995). RA methodologies have been widely applied for management strategies geared
towards conservation, planning and development objectives (TNC, 1992; Maragos &
Cook 1995; DeVantier et al. 1999; Sedaghatkish & Roca 1999; Sayre et al. 2000; Medina et
al. 2001; Turak & Wakeford 2002; Boles et al. 2004). The Uvero ‐ Punta Piedras RA
diagnosis as follows.
4
Figure 1 Uvero‐Punta Piedras section, north Costa Maya, Quintana Roo, Mexico
(macro‐localization modified from Núñez‐Lara et al., 2003)
5
Ecological diagnosis
The ecological diagnosis involved an assessment of the wetlands vegetation cover
change associated with land use and an assessment of the condition of coral and reef
fish communities.
Coral reef RA. The coral reef communities RA was a combination of techniques
commonly used for coral and fish assessment (Maragos & Cook 1995; Steneck & Lange
1999; Page et al. 2001; Turak & Wakeford 2002; Núñez‐Lara et al. 2003; Ruiz‐Zárate et al.
2003; Kramer et al. 2005). The reef selection was based upon the Atlantic and Gulf Rapid
Reef Assessment (AGRRA) (Kramer et al. 2005) and the Manual of Methods for the
2003), involving the local people´s knowledge of the reef conditions and the use of aerial
and satellite imagery. Some sections of these reefs had been characterized before by
Gutierrez‐Carbonell et al. (2005) from data taken in 1993, therefore such information
provided an important former baseline and reference for an overview of the structure
and diversity of the reef communities.
The data taking was conducted under a hierarchical survey design based on three
spatial scales: the local geographic area (zone), reef sections (sectors) and survey points
(sites). The inner fore‐reef zone was divided in four reef sections (sectors I‐IV) and 14
survey sites to cover the extent of the study zone (see Figure 1). Fieldwork was carried
out on two survey campaigns, late March and mid April 2007. Every survey site was
marked with a Global Positioning System (GPS) unit (± 5m accuracy) and was surveyed
within a depth range between 12 and 22 m. The survey was performed using
haphazardly positioned transects over the inner fore‐reef by two observers following a
modified version of the AGRRA method (Kramer et al. 2005); one observer recorded fish
diversity and abundance while the second observer recorded coral diversity, abundance
and condition. A third observer recorded benthic cover and reef geomorphology by
6
performing a video‐survey technique (Brown et al., 1999; Jokiel, 2003; Jokiel & Brown,
2000; Page et. al., 2001).
From the videos, the geomorphologic attributes of the reef slope were analyzed and
the Major Benthic Groups (MBG) were characterized including soft coral, hard coral,
macro algae, sponges, and others (zoanthids and tunicates) as well as the non biotic
category of benthic cover (sand, pavement and rubble). For this means, we used the
CPCe software (Coral Point Count with Excel extensions, Kohler & Gill 2005) from a
systematic selection of 20 image frames from each video‐transect taken on each site. The
MBG benthic cover data was then analysed using a two‐way similitude analysis
(ANOSIM) in order to identify similarities among the survey sites and sectors. A
multidimensional scaling method (MDS) with superimposed clusters was applied as
well in order to visualize the relationships among the survey sites and sectors. The
statistical analysis was carried out using PRIMER 6 software (Clarke and Warwick,
1994).
From each species of coral and reef fish registered in the survey, its relative
abundance was estimated and ranked under a 5‐category scale (DeVantier et al. 1998) to
help in identifying the taxons contributing with the highest abundance (Table I).
ANOSIM and MDS analysis for each biological group were then performed using the
original abundance data, looking for possible differences among survey sites and
find out how bio‐diverse the coral and fish communities are and to compare them to a
regional species list (Beltrán‐Torres y Carricart‐Ganivet 1999; Gutiérrez et al. 2005; Ruiz‐
Zárate et al. 2003; Woods‐Ballard et al. 2005) to know if the diversity registered at each
site could be considered as a sample of the master list (Clarke y Warwick 1998). PRIMER
6 software was used for these analyses as well.
7
Table I Categorization scale to rank the relative abundance contribution of coral and reef fish
species from the Uvero-Punta Piedras reef section 2007
Rank Abundance
5 Dominant- taxon with more than 75% of contribution to total
4 Abundant- with an estimated contribution between 30-75%
3 Common-with an estimated contribution between 5-30%
2 Occasional-with an estimated contribution under 5%
1 Rare-1 to 2 colonies or individuals counted
based on a comparison between images from year 2003 and year 2007. First, field data
were collected on late March to early April with a GPS unit (± 5m accuracy) by tracking
the beach profile and the coastal road to obtain accurate fixed control points with which
to geo‐reference airborne and satellite images within the study zone.
A photo‐mosaic was developed and edited by joining airborne photographs of the
study zone taken on December 2003 (provided by the Mexican Marine Bureau,
University of Quintana Roo and the Mexican Urban Development and Environment
Bureau). This photo‐mosaic (Annexe 1) was geo‐referenced to Transverse Mercator
geographic projection and integrated into geographic information system (GIS) using
Arc View GIS v.3.3 software. A Quickbird satellite image from year 2007 (Annexe 2) was
geo‐referenced as well and integrated into the GIS. On each image (2003 and 2007)
several polygons were digitized on‐screen by visual interpretation corresponding to
every patch seen showing denudation (by complete or partial clearing) of the original
vegetation cover within the immediate coastline strip area (study polygon covering 187
Ha). The denudation‐category digitized polygons were verified in a number of field
8
visits. The area was calculated for each digitalized polygon and therefore for the whole
study zone for each of the two time term images.
With these data, the annual denudation‐category change rate was calculated as
follows (FAO 1996 In Dupuy et al. 2006):
r 1 – A1 A2 /A1
1/n 1 100 (1)
where r is the percentage rate of annual change, A1 is the area of the category studied at
the initiate of the study period, A2 is the area of such category at the end of the study
period and n is the number of the years of the period.
Likewise, the annual deforestation rate in the study zone was computed, according
to Puyravaud (2003):
where A1 is the vegetation area at the initiate period, A2 is the area at the final period,
t1is the year of the initiate period and t2 is the final year of the period.
Socioeconomic and cultural diagnosis
A general description of the socioeconomic and cultural condition of the local
population was made, by the use of an adapted version from a questionnaire developed
by Olivera‐Gomez (1996) seeking to identify their economic activities, housing
conditions, natural resources use, environmental impacts, literacy levels and expectation
government of the state of Quintana Roo (Government of Quintana Roo et al. 2005).
Integrated diagnosis
We utilized the data generated in both diagnoses in order to identify the land aptitude
and its resources for tourism use, taking into account biological, geographical, ecological
and social aspects, thus identifying potentials and pitfalls and proposing a series of
guidelines to contribute to the future management of this zone, for a micro‐analysis is
needful to examine the land use and associated changes on the coastal resources in a
local scale indeed (Allen et al. 1999).
9
Results
Ecologic Diagnosis
Coral Reef RA. The reef landscape characterization showed some differences at the
geomorphologic and MBG levels amongst the sectors analyzed (Table II) following a
gradient from a pavement flat with few scattered coral communities on the north side of
sector I, low spur and groove reef structures merged into sand‐rubble channels on south
sector I‐north sector II, moderate flats with slopes descending at 20‐40° in sector II, to
high solid extensive reef flats with vertical steep slopes merging into sand with scattered
patches of hard substrate on sector III and IV. In an overview, the point count analysis
showed that the reef habitat was dominated by the macro‐algae group (60 ± 9%),
followed by the soft coral group (gorgonians, 12 ± 5%), the hard coral group (8 ± 4%)
and the sponge group (3 ± 2%). Zoanthids and tunicates represented less than 1% of the
total whilst the non biotic component (sand‐rubble‐pavement) accounted for 15 ± 14% of
the total (Table II; Figure 2).
Table II Relative MBG cover (% contribution) from the reef community, per site, sector and
total average from the Uvero-Punta Piedras section 2007
10
Figure 2 MBG percentage cover from the reef community in the Uvero‐Punta Piedras
section 2007 a) Sector I, b) Sector II, c) Sector III and d) Sector IV (C=Coral;
G=Gorgonians; S=Sponges; MA=Macro algae; S‐P‐R= Sand‐Pavement‐Rubble; O=Other)
The ANOSIM analysis showed that mainly sector I presented marked differences
amongst the rest of the sectors at the MBG level, corresponding with the
differences with sector III as well (Table III).
11
Table IIII ANOSIM MBG
M cover data tests am
mongst sectoors from thee Uvero-Puntta Piedras seection
2007 (*siignificant dissimilarities)
The M
MDS analy
ysis was con
nsistent witth the ANO
OSIM test ho
owever it o
only pointed
d out
at sectorr I as a diffeerent affinitty group am
mong the otther sectorss (Figure 3)..
Figure 33 MDS show
wing the rellations amo
ongst individual sites and sectorss based on M
MBG
percentaage cover data
12
Sector I was identified as the less diverse sector by the Shannon index computing
(Table IV, Figure 4), for it presented the lowest hard coral cover compared to the rest of
the sectors; yet in this sector the highest sponge, zoanthid and tunicate abundance was
registered. In sector II the hard coral diversity increased considerably and here we
found the highest macro algae abundance value yet the sponge diversity value
decreased. Sector III showed the highest coral diversity value and the lowest sponge
diversity though. In sector IV the highest abundance value for gorgonians were found,
and the lowest for zoanthid and tunicates.
Table IV. Diversity Index (H´) values for the biotic component, per sector and total average, of
the reef community at the Uvero-Punta Piedras section, Costa Maya, Quintana Roo, México
MBG sector I sector II sector III sector IV Total
Coral 0.036 0.209 0.256 0.231 0.170
Gorgonians 0.171 0.260 0.269 0.281 0.238
Sponges 0.121 0.066 0.058 0.087 0.084
Algae 0.333 0.360 0.332 0.317 0.339
Other 0.031 0.029 0.012 0.000 0.021
Total (biotic component) 0.69 0.92 0.93 0.92 0.85
Figure 4 Diversity Index (H´) values for the biotic component of the reef community at
the Uvero‐Punta Piedras section, Costa Maya, Quintana Roo, México
13
Overall, 640 hard coral colonies were registered corresponding to 30 species, 19
genera and 12 families. An average number between 8 and 21 species was recorder per
site. The average species richness values per sector showed a tendency to increase from
sector I towards sectors III and IV (Figure 5).
Figure 5 Average richness (number of species and colonies) from the hard coral group,
per site (S) and total per sector (T) (S2 and S4 no coral registers). Error bars show
standard deviation
An average number between 25 and 110 coral colonies per site was registered, with
sites 10, 11, 12 and 14 showing the highest counts (Figure 5). Comparing the average
colony number per sector, we found the southern sectors (III & IV) containing more
coral colonies than the northern ones (I & II). From the overall relative abundance
categorization (ac) values obtained (Table V, Annexe 3a), we found that the coral species
contributing with more than 50% of the total abundance were Agaricia agaricites,
Siderastrea siderea and Porites astreoides, followed by some others, including Montastraea
annularis, Meandrina meandrites, Diploria strigosa and Montastraea cavernosa (Figure 6,
Annexe 3a). No coral species showed to be dominant regarding to the coral abundance
14
categorization but A. agaricites showed to be the main species contributing to the total
coral register (30%) by ranking as “abundant” in the categorization. Many of the coral
species recorded ranked as rare and occasional.
Figure 6 Relative abundance (number of colonies) of the principal stony coral species
found in a) Sector I; b) Sector II; c) Sector III d) Sector IV
15
Table V Hard coral abundance ranking from the reefs in the Uvero-Punta Piedras section 2007
Category Ranking
Sector
I II III IV
(5) Dominant (taxon >75% of
0 0 0 0
contribution)
(4) Abundant (contribution 30-75%) 1 1 1 1
(3) Common (contribution 5-30%) 5 5 3 4
(2) Occasional (contribution < 5%) 1 4 8 8
(1) Rare (1 to 2 colonies counted) 6 14 6 11
Total species (n = 30) 13 24 18 23
The ANOSIM for hard coral communities did not show significant differences
amongst sites through sectors (R= 0.053; p= 0.321) and amongst sectors using sites as
samples (R= 0.074; p= 0.289). These results counterpart with the ones obtained by the
MDS with superimposed clusters, where the coral communities did not define separate
cohesive groups (Figure 7).
Figure 7 MDS showing the relations amongst individual sites and sectors based on
coral diversity and abundance under similitude levels of 50 and 60%
16
The taxonomic distinctness analysis showed that all the ∆+ values from the sampling
sites fell within the 95% probability limits, therefore confirming that the surveyed sites
can be considered as true samples of the coral species richness from the region (Figure
8).
Figure 8 Average taxonomic distinctness (∆+) (dotted line) showing 95% confidence
limits (crossed lines) and its relations with the ∆+ values from the studied sites.
Broadly, most of the coral communities showed a good state of condition, with an
average range of 80‐93% of the colonies per sector not showing evidence of paleness,
partial/total bleaching or disease; most of the unhealthy coral colonies were found in
sectors III and IV, particularly in sites 10 to 14 (Figure 9a). Likewise, coral communities
showed the highest mortality ranges (from 76 to 100%) in sectors III to IV, specifically in
sites 10‐14 (Figure 9b).
17
Figure 9 Condition of hard coral communities a) relative proportion of corals
showing disease/bleaching, and b) number of colonies showing mortality, per site (S)
and average per sector (T)
18
Overall, 1964 reef fish individuals were registered corresponding to 98 species, 56
genera and 35 families. An average range between 8 and 34 species was recorder per
site. Sector I showed lower average species richness in comparison with the other three
sectors, which registered quite similar richness values (Figure 10). An average number
between 16 and 260 individuals per site was registered, with sites 7, 11 and 13 showing
the highest counts; comparing between sectors, the same tendency followed as the
species richness described above was found (Figure 10).
Figure 10 Average richness (number of species and individuals) from the reef fish
group, per site (S) and total per sector (T). Error bars show standard deviation
The general relative abundance taxon categorization values (ac) (Table VI, Annexe
3b) revealed that the fish families/species contributing more than 50% of the total
abundance were Haemulidae, with Haemulon flavolineatum, H. plumieri and H. sciurus;
Acanthuridae, with Acanthurus bahianus and A. coeruleus; Labridae, with Clepticus parrae
and Thallasoma bifasciatum; Balistidae, with Melichtys niger and Balistes vetula;
Pomacentridae, with Chromis cyanea; Carangidae, with Caranx ruber; Holocentridae, with
19
Holocentrus adscensionis; Lutjanidae, with Ocyurus chrysurus; Pomacanthidae, with
Holacanthus tricolor; Serranidae, with Epinephelus fulvus; Chaetodontidae with Chaetodon
acuminatus. The families with the highest relative abundance in the four sectors were
Carangidae and Pomacentridae (Figure 11). No reef fish species ranked as dominant or
even abundant, as few species showed to be the main contributors to the fish
community (A. bahianus, A. coeruleus, M. niger, H. flavolineatum, H. plumieri, H. sciurus, C.
parrae and C. cyanea). Many of the fish species recorded ranked as rare and occasional
(Table VI).
Table VI Reef fish abundance ranking from the reefs in the Uvero-Punta Piedras section 2007
Category Ranking
Sector
I II III IV
(5) Dominant (taxon >75% of
0 0 0 0
contribution)
(4) Abundant (contribution 30-75%) 0 0 0 0
(3) Common (contribution 5-30%) 6 6 5 5
(2) Occasional (contribution < 5%) 17 26 28 25
(1) Rare (1 to 2 colonies counted) 16 29 26 16
Total species (n = 98) 39 61 59 46
20
Figure 11 Relative abundance (number of individuals) of the principal reef fish
families found in a) Sector I; b) Sector II; c) Sector III d) Sector IV
The higher average fish density per site was registered on site 7 (144
individuals/100m2, ± 25 individuals/100m2); at the sector level though, the average
density was very similar amongst sectors II, III & IV (Figure 12a) with sector I showing
the lowest density. At the family level, the highest average density was accounted by
21
Haemulidae (67 individuals/100m2, ± 48 individuals/100m2, followed by Labridae (39
individuals/100m2, ± 37 individuals/100m2) and Pomacentridae (25 individuals/100m2, ±
29 individuals/100m2) (Figure 12b).
Figure 12 Average density (individuals/100m2) of reef fish (≥5cm long) found in the
study zone a) per sector and b) per principal families
22
The global ANOSIM for reef fishes pointed out the existence of certain differences
amongst sectors using sites as samples (R= 0.036, p= 0.33). These results were confirmed
by the MDS with superimposed clusters, where the coral communities did not define
separate cohesive groups but some samples separated individually (Figure 13).
Figure 13 MDS showing the relations amongst individual sites and sectors based on
reef fish diversity and abundance under similitude levels of 50 and 60%
The taxonomic distinctness analysis from the fish taxa indicated that the sampling
sites could be considered as true samples of the regional fish richness since they laid
within the 95% mean ∆+ probability limits, with the exception of three transects (22, 23
and 111) which arranged marginally to the confidence intervals and one that laid
outside these limits (52) (Figure 14).
23
Figure 14 Average taxonomic distinctness (∆+) (dotted line) showing 95% confidence
limits (crossed lines) and its relations with the ∆+ values from the studied sites.
Vegetation cover change RA. The assessment of the extent of change in the vegetation
cover showed that by December 2003 a 22% of the total original vegetation cover in the
studied area was under denudated conditions (43.9 ha; only the deforested area caused
by the creation of the Uvero‐Pulticub road covered slightly more than 9 ha). By
February 2007, results showed that the area of vegetation cover loss increased to almost
26% (48.16 ha) of the total. The annual denudation change rate was 3.13%; this is, in
slightly more than three years, the cleared vegetation area had increased in 4.4 ha. The
annual deforestation rate between 2003 and 2007 was ‐0.9% (Table VII; Figure 15).
24
Table VII Denudated vegetation area from the Uvero-Punta Piedras section 2007 (racc: annual
cover change rate of denudated vegetation; rad: annual deforestation rate)
Total area (ha) Denudated area (% of total) Denudated area (ha) racc rad
187.059 2003 2007 2003 2007 3.13 -0.94
23.5 25.75 43.91 48.16
Figure 15 Vegetation cover area change in the study zone showing the total cover
area, the remnant area and the denudated area for years 2003 and 2007
By following the denudated area extent of the digitized polygons from the images of
these two periods (Figure 16, Annexe 4), some vegetation recovered areas were found as
well, covering in overall 5.29 ha and representing 2.8% of the total area; this is, some
vegetation areas were cleared before or in year 2003 and afterwards abandoned. Some of
the recovered areas correspond as well to vegetation patches cleared as part of the
coastal road that eventually shifted to areas covered with sucesional vegetation.
25
Under a sector‐level analysis it was found that sector IV contained the highest values
of denudated vegetation in the zone (114.28 ha; 8% of the total) followed by sector II
(13.21 ha; 7% of the total), sector I (10.62 ha; 6% of the total) and sector III (13.21 ha; 7%
of the total) (Table VIII).
Figure 16 Detail of a section of the study zone showing some of the polygons digitized
to determine the denudated vegetation cover area (in gray the area for year 2003, in
black outline the area for year 2007)
Table VIII Denudated vegetation area and denudation proportion per sector from the Uvero-
Punta Piedras section 2007
Sector Vegetation Denudated vegetation Proportion
area (ha) area (ha) from total (%)
I 27.27 10.62 6
II 37.91 13.21 7
III 49.32 10.05 5
IV 72.56 14.28 8
Total 187 48.16 26
26
Socioeconomic and cultural Diagnosis
Questionnaires were applied to 25 people dwelling in the study zone, covering by
this an estimate of 40% of the whole local population in the zone, which allowed the
description of a population with a complex and contrasting socioeconomic and cultural
situation.
Basically, the local population can be segmented in three mayor blocks depending
on its origin. This is, people living in the Costa Maya region for at least 8‐10 years and
mostly inhabiting the study zone full time (40% of the total population); people coming
from other regions of Quintana Roo state and other surrounding states inhabiting the
zone part of the time (47%), and the people coming from abroad, like North America
and Europe, inhabiting the zone most of the time (13%).
The general population´s economic activities (91%) were fishing and “guarding‐
clearing/cleaning” other people´s land. The fishing ranges from low (self‐sustaining) to
medium (commercial) intensity with target groups like finfish (grunts, snappers,
barracuda, pork fish, and trigger fish), shark, lobster, conch and clam. Most of them use
long lines and nets but some use harpoon and traps as well. There is a fishing
cooperative with authorization to fish in the entire zone though apparently problems
exist from the way that it is managed, so many of the fishermen stay in an “artisanal”
status. Most of the commercial fishing volume gets distributed around Mahahual (a
neighbouring fishermen´s village which has been transformed into the number two‐
cruise ship arrival pier in the Mexican Caribbean) and Chetumal (the capital city). The
remaining 9% were people focused on tourism, mainly the foreign people hiring some
local people, working on their own or associated with the cruise‐ship companies
operating in Mahahual.
In essence the people live in very basic and small wooden‐made housing with
exception just for few locals and for the foreign people who basically build concrete‐
made homes. The zone lacks of the basic public services. The water is obtained from
27
wells and the wastewaters are directed to mangroves or underground. Drinking water is
brought from Mahahual, as most of the supplies are. People live without the electricity
or generate it by the usage of car batteries, petrol‐based generators or solar power cells.
The rubbish is basically burnt or deposited into the mangrove swamps in “filling
points” and being covered with sea grass and remnants of cleared off vegetation.
All the people surveyed commented that the coastal landscape and resources in the
zone were indeed attractive for tourism and would like to have tourism developed in
the zone; however, a small number of people (12%) mentioned to expect a “non‐
massive, not nature/social‐degrading type of tourism, like the scheme being followed in
Cancun or Mahahual”. The population also would like to have all the public services
installed in order to offer better services and obtain benefits by tourism affluence. 85% of
the people stated that so far, their lives had not been influenced by tourism and believe
that tourism won’t proffer any negative effects but a better quality of life, brought in by
more job opportunities and better monetary income. All the people answered as well
that the natural resources in the study zone are in a good condition, yet a decrease in its
quantity had been noticeable from a period of 5 years ago to nowadays, principally in
same fish volume. Many said terrestrial fauna had undergone decrease as well.
Almost 80% of the population stated to know about the protected status of some of
the natural resources, and denied performing any illegal activity on them, though 70%
confessed having seen other people either harvesting these marine invertebrates in their
banning‐time or clearing mangrove off. The same amount of people thought this issues
happen because of lack of education or because there is no other subsistence option.
More than 70% mentioned knowing about the existence of tourism/development
legislation for the zone but less than 8% develop their lands under the Costa Maya
Ecologic Territory Ordering Programme (POET for its spanish abbreviation). Some
people stated that land shorefront development should be only the owner´s concern and
28
should not be ruled by the government, though 80% of the total declared to be
interested in the creation of a zone committee to reach out for knowledge on
development guidelines and regulations.
A great number of the people declared not to be legal owners of the land they live
on (87%) and manifested their uncertainty for the future as they will eventually be
forced to give the lands back, like some have already had. This population pointed out
their concerns about the lack of job opportunities and the impossibilities to obtain
sufficient wages to sustain their families; they expect to be integrated into the
development of the zone and not being excluded like some already had experienced in
waiting for the Mahahual tourism wave to arrive onto the zone and start to take
advantage of their beach lots whereas some of them just want to enjoy of a retire‐home.
Few others stated a willing to aid on the development of an equilibrated community in
ecological and social terms.
29
Discussion
Integrated diagnosis
The great biodiversity of the habitats in the state of Quintana Roo has been
internationally renowned, especially for its coral reefs. Particularly, the coral reefs
located from Punta Gruesa to Mahahual, including Uvero, El Placer and Chahuay have
been ranked with high biological priority for the MBRS (Kramer & Kramer, 2002).The
coral reef habitat has been well documented in certain localities of the region, as is the
case of Sian Ka´an, Mahahual, Xahuaxol and Xcalak reefs (Gutiérrez‐Carbonell et al.
1993; Beltrán‐Torres y Carricart‐Ganivet 1999; Steneck y Lang, 1999; Bastida‐Zavala et al.
2000; Núñez‐Lara et al. 2003; Ruiz‐Zárate et al. 2003; Gutierrez‐Carbonell et al. 2005;
Núñez‐Lara et al. 2005; Rix et al. 2005; Woods‐Ballard et al. 2005). The reefs at the Uvero‐
Punta Piedras have not been subject to the same levels of study intensities, despite their
biological importance for the MBRS and the identified potential of this zone for
becoming one of the future main development localities in the government´s tourism‐
based development plan.
The results obtained from this study revealed that the stony coral cover in the inner
fore‐reef section has undergone a considerable reduction in the last 14 years. Gutierrez‐
Carbonell (et al. 2005) reported an average coral cover of 30% from data collected in 1993
whereas we found a cover of less than 10%. This coral cover loss phenomenon has also
been observed in the surrounding reefs. In a lapse of ten years, the coral cover near
human establishments in the Sian Ka´an Biosphere Reserve had changed from ~23%
(Gutiérrez et al. 1993) to ~12% (Ruíz‐Zárate et al. 2003). In the same time lapse, the coral
cover from the reefs at El Placer changed from ~40% (Gutiérrez et al. 2005) to ~9% (Ruíz‐
Zárate et al. 2003). It has been noticed that Caribbean coral reefs are currently
(Lapointe 1989; Hughes 1994; McClanahan et al. 1999, Gardner et al. 2003). This process
seems to be caused by the synergic accumulation of several factors, such as the intense
30
competition amongst these two biological groups (Quan‐Young & Espinoza‐Avalos
2006), the removal of key herbivore species and top predators (Ostrander et al. 2000;
Nuñez‐Lara et al. 2003), degradation events caused by coastal development and marine
resources use (Lang et al. 1998; McCook 2001), and by the recent rise in the coral
mortality rates as consequence of a substantial increase in massive coral bleaching
occurrences (McClanahan et al. 1999; Anthony et al. 2007).
where communities dominated by reef network builders such as Acropora and
Montastraea are being replaced by non‐reef builders, for example, Agaricia, Porites, and
sponges. This phenomenon seems not occur in the inner fore‐reef section of Sian Ka´an
and El Placer (Gutiérrez et al. 1993; Salvat et al. 2002; Ruiz‐Zárate et al. 2003; Walker et al.
2003; Woods‐Ballard et al. 2005). Regardless of written evidence for this, it was not
found to be so from our findings at Uvero‐Punta Piedras reefs. Our results showed a
higher abundance of non‐reef network builders, such as, Agaricia agaricites and
Siderastrea siderea at the study site, with A. agaricites contributing with more than 30% to
the total coral cover in the inner fore‐reef section. Gutierrez‐Carbonell (et al. 2005) found
Montastraea cavernosa and M. annularis having an abundance range between 10 and 20%
of the total coral cover from data collected in 1993, in contrast with the 4 to 6% found in
this study. Ruiz‐Zárate (et al. 2003) reported cover values of between 12 and 15% for
three Montastraea species in reefs found in central and southern Quintana Roo, with
lower cover values for A. agaricites and S .siderea (9% and 7.6%, respectively) (also found
in the these regions. These latter species are considered as sucesional and opportunistic,
with limited dispersion abilities but with more resistance to the effects of habitat
disturbance (Knowlton 2001; Edmunds 2002; Gardner et al. 2003) than massive coral
species. Due to Montastraea species being one of the most important reef builders in the
central‐southern region of Quintana Roo (Ruiz‐Zárate et al. 2003), an up to date
31
assessment of the outer fore‐reef section needs to be undertaken in order to complete a
more precise knowledge of the coral cover status of the study zone.
Although we found a higher number of reef fish species in this reef section in
comparison to the last estimation undertaken in the year 1993 (98 vs. 47 from Gutierrez‐
Carbonell, et al. 2005), we found that the fish density had undergone an alarming
decrease, from 263 individuals/100m2, reported in 1993, to 64 ± 47 individuals/100m2
observed in 2007. Gutierrez‐Carbonell and colleagues also indicated that this inner fore‐
reef section showed the densest fish abundances of the entire reef zone; moreover, they
found some of the highest densities from all central‐southern Quintana Roo reefs within
the region between Punta Pulticub (one kilometre north Punta Piedras) and El Placer.
This decrease of fish abundance can not only be explained by the reduction of the
coral cover, but also as a result of the knock on effects of the fishing activities within the
inner fore‐reef zone.
These activities can affect the reef communities in many ways. Either directly by the
chronic removal of key herbivore species and top predators, or indirectly by habitat
damage caused by the fishing equipment or anchoring (Russ & Alcala 1996; Turgeon et
al. 2002). From speaking to the local fishermen, they have noticed a substantial decrease
in fish stock levels in 5 years ago from the last study, claiming the ever increasing
number of fishing boats in the zone has lead to this fall.
Although the statistical analysis did not show significant differences amongst the
studied sectors in the study zone given the high variability of the data, the ecologic
descriptors utilized (species richness, abundance and density) suggested the presence of
a gradient of these from greater to lesser, running from north to south along the reefs in
the zone. It is known that a substantial part of the biological and ecological processes of
reef fish is due acting in response to the architectural coral reef environment (Sale 1998).
The structural and geomorphologic features of this habitat may be an explanation to this
gradient, given the existence of a greater topographic complexity level and a higher
32
benthic cover in the spur‐and‐groove reef type of the central and southern sections of
the study zone (sectors II to IV). The conditions of these types of reef seem to be
particularly favourable for the establishment and persistence of resident reef fishes
(Nuñez‐Lara et al. 2003).
Overall, the coral and reef fish communities in this study zone showed to be
representative of the biodiversity of the entire region. Taking into account the ecologic
this is surely a zone that needs efficient management and conservation mechanisms in
order to maintain and protect these valuable assets from unregulated human activities.
The terrestrial section of the study zone also presents a series of difficulties that act
in detriment of its development potential and natural assets. The deforestation process
in the zone is spreading along the coastline and the road, altering the wetlands habitat
and eroding the land. The deforestation rate of almost ‐1% per annum, obtained by this
study, is found to be in correspondence with the deforestation estimates for the entire
country, ranging between ‐0.8% and ‐2% per annum (FAO 2000). Should this tendency
to continue, which seems even more likely to increase given the high immigration to this
zone, we found that by year 2025 it would only maintain 24.5% of its total vegetation
cover. In addition to the impacts by the projected population increase in this area, the
biodiversity and the environmental services that are offered to humans could be
severely jeopardized.
The deforestation phenomenon in Quintana Roo state has severely altered the wild
forest equilibrium and it has aggravated in the last years. Deforestation has occurred
from a 60% forest cover (1990) to 53% (2000) with a reduction average rate of 0.76% per
annum (UQROO 2004). The Quintana Roo´s State Territory Ordering Programme (PEOT
for its Spanish abbreviation; UQROO 2003) states that the biologic degrading land rate
of Quintana Roo is extreme, higher than 2.5% per annum as a result of the lack of
33
conservation policies over the coastal modification processes such as vegetation clearing
for hotel and urban development.
Because of the statements above, characterizing the land cover, its use and the
spatial‐time change caused by human activities, consequently becomes fundamental to
the understanding, and therefore the prediction of the dynamics of the landscape
components (Dupuy et al. 2007). Moreover, it provides a reference frame for the study of
such dynamics in order to allow a better design for planning policies and strategies, as
well as conservational and natural resource sustainable management (Ojima et al. 1994).
The incursion and shorefront development of the local community has occurred in
an unplanned and unregulated manner generating environmental demeaning. It is
known that a strong interaction and dependence exists amongst coastal ecosystems
(Beatley et al. 2002; Clark 1992), occurring these in such an extent that any impacts over
one habitat inevitably extend to the others; i.e. mangrove removal can trigger from
damage to devastation on neighbouring habitats, which depend on mangrove as a
crucial organic provider (Stafford‐Deitsch 1996). This could be the case of the vegetation
cover loss linked to the coral health observed in the study zone. The highest numbers of
bleaching, disease and mortality occurrences were found in the southern section of the
zone, coinciding where the highest denudation value was found and where tourism
activities take place more intensively. It is known that some of the factors affecting coral
addition to other factors like sea temperature anomalies, high solar radiation levels,
amongst others (Anthony et al. 2007). Nevertheless, detailed and long‐term monitoring
is needed to identify the very sources of the coral diseases and mortality found in the
southern section of the study zone.
This study represents the first registered effort to describe the socio‐economic
condition of the population at this zone and revealed that the people depend mainly on
the fishing and land clearing activities, with just a small percentage working in the
34
tourism industry. Therefore, it seems unlikely that the general population can get
involved in the tourism market without any complications, unless intense and
continuous capacitating programmes are offered in order to aid in technical knowledge
acquiring (Báez & Acuña 2003), and to encourage the community members’ aptitudes
and attitudes. The integration and capacity building of local population ensures the
continuity and outreach of the maximum expected benefits, an equal distribution of
such benefits in addition to environmental and socio‐cultural impacts mitigation (Boo
1990; INE 2000). It is also important to encourage the creation of programmes that seek
to avoid folklorization and transculturization by local resources loss in exchange of big‐
enterprise tourism services (González‐Damián et al. 2007). This has already happened in
the neighbouring village of Mahahual, where the cruise ship tourism industry generates
more environmental risks and socio‐economic impacts than real benefits for local people
(Benito Juarez Municipality 2003; Quintana Roo´s Hotel and Motel Association 2003).
The PEOT (UQROO 2003) and the revised Costa Maya POET (Government of
Quintana Roo state et al. 2005) identify the whole territory of Costa Maya (included the
study zone) as an especially suitable territory for alternative‐type tourism, for wildlife
maintenance and for fishing use, as well as marginally suitable for massive beach‐
tourism and urban development. These documents also highlight that this region is
particularly suitable for protection and conservation given the high biodiversity that
contains; they also distinguish it as a unique‐value zone for it includes special biologic
tourism development policies, as they have triggered evident habitat impact in
Mahahual (Olivera‐Gomez & Campos Cámara 2007).This locality has become the main
expansion target for the development of the Costa Maya region.
35
Considerations and guidelines for the future management of the zone
The coastal population growth in Quintana Roo is vertiginous, accompanying a
great occupation demand, services, education, hospitals, work centres, etc., all with
space as its main required feature (Castillo‐Villanueva 2007). Unless a cautious planning
and a vigilant environmental management programme are instituted, it would be quite
likely that countless conflicts may take place over these conversion spaces. The
degradation of valuable coastal resources might constitute the main obstruction cause to
future development opportunities over such spaces (Post & Lundin 1996).
The integration of the data obtained by this assessment tool triggered the conception
of a set of guiding principles prepared under an environmental and developmental
factors regarding the tourism‐based development projected by the government of
Quintana Roo state, as follows:
• Importance of the zone by its location. This zone plays a quite important role for the
regional biodiversity conservation given that it represents a buffer zone between the
closest development spot (Mahahual) and the Sian Ka ´an Biosphere Reserve. Taking
into account the development level that the Mahahual zone will reach in a close future
and the environmental impact tendency associated to such population centre (Olivera‐
Gomez & Campos Cámara 2007), the Uvero‐Punta Piedras section will need an effective
management strategy. This should entail low‐impact tourism and efficient biodiversity
conservation plans, which must be joined together in order to maintain the integrity of
the ecosystems, allowing them to represent a functional extension habitat of the Reserve
while at the same time offering an attractive scenery for tourism.
• High fragility of the zone. The nature of the extremely porous substrate in the Costa
Maya region demands special water and liquid waste management due to there being a
high risk of chemical pollution by infiltration (UQROO 2004). The only freshwater
source is rainfall, which infiltrates into the karstic soil and accumulates into fresh‐water
36
lens floating above denser saline water in shallow depth (Smart et al 2005; Gonzalez‐
Herrera 2002); this fact reinforces the important role that coastal vegetation plays in the
hydrological processes in wetlands and poses limitations for the establishment of
infrastructure (UQROO 2004). In some sections of the study zone the strip separating
the coastline and the inland lagoons is very slender; the vegetation clear‐off in this very
zones represents an enormous erosion risk, whereas the disposal of wastes signify water
pollution hazards (for both underground and lagoon waters). Moreover, cyclonic
phenomena frequently assail these coastlines, adding destructive pressures over the
coastal resources and increasing the risk level to the development of the zone. Hence,
the land use on the zone and especially on high risk sections should be planned under
extreme precaution and the activities over them ought to follow strict monitoring
surveillance.
• The litter problematic. The promotion of the Costa Maya´s natural attractions and
landscapes for tourism would result incongruent if an effective waste management
program had not been previously implemented. Impacts of beach and marine litter on
wildlife have been documented globally e.g. by tangling, ingestion, and smothering
(Pringle 2005; Storrier 2004). The litter bordering coastlines can seriously disrupt
ecological communities and can result in chemical and physical hazards as well as
human health risks, affecting tourism and recreational use (Pringle 2005). The litter
management is of utmost importance to be carefully planned and considered with the
study zone given its actual magnitude and different sources, which range from local to
cruise‐ship tourism waste. It has been noted by the findings that a multitude of foreign
labelled plastic object have been found within the study zone.
• Need for the institution of a local management‐land ordering programme. The POET
Costa Maya establishes indeed regional regulation guidelines for the productive
activities and the establishment of human settlements; however this document has not
found operative mechanisms therefore the application of its principles is scarce and
37
ineffective. This ordering model considers the potential construction of 30,000 hotel
rooms on the region and a population up to 200,000 inhabitants for year 2025. The
environmental implications of this POET can be the generation of thousands of m3/day
of waste waters and hundreds of ton/day of solid wastes and yet it is not known the
capacity of the ecologic systems to answer this demand (Zárate et al. 2003). Thus, it is
paramount to make sure emphasis on the limits that the ordering programmes have to
its applications, as it is the determination of the carrying capacity in terms of resource
extraction, vegetation cover loss and waste generation not incorporated in the coastal
zone land use and management models (Zárate 2004). In addition to these limitations,
we find the inexistence of evaluation and monitoring mechanisms for feedback and
updating of the land use models, the infrastructure maintenance and coastal ecosystems
functioning. The precautionary principle is an important criterion to address in order to
avoid posterior expensive damages that on most occasions, can be extremely difficult to
remediate e.g. the chronic erosion‐caused beach loss in Cancun, which remediation
attempts by beach replenishment projects, have cost more than US$20 million (Varillas
2007).
It is clear that Quintana Roo state is found trapped in the tourism dilemma; the
income from tourism is wanted while at the same time the negative social and
environmental impacts are deplored. It is also clear that environmental change is an
unavoidable consequence of development, but it is necessary to keep that change within
acceptable limits (Clark 1996). This can only be made possible under proper planning,
development control mechanisms and education of the local communities so as to
ensure the tourism destiny and community´s sustainability.
The implementation of touristic developments with “eco” or “low–impact” labels is
not a miracle solution for environmental and social issues. Management plans should
utilize the most effective means, being these institutional, regulatory, legislative or
38
economic to integrate environmental and social policies focusing their emphasis not
only in the tourist´s benefit but the local population´s welfare (Miller 1988).
Many obstacles may be found in the search for solutions leading to a more
environmentally friendly development than the one brought by the conventional coastal
sprawl, yet the potential of the implementation of strategies in the local and regional
levels is huge if we think in the medium and long‐terms. It might be the opportunity for
the instauration of a true low‐impact development and high acquisitive power in the
south section of Quintana Roo state.
The information generated by this research can be utilized as base‐line knowledge
for decision making and management. The methods used herein could be applied either
for future data updating on the study zone or to make further rapid assessments of the
nearby zones in the Costa Maya region. This study intends to contribute to the planning
and management of spaces where to merge recreation and conservation activities in the
most successfully as possible way.
39
Conclusion
The coastal zone comprising the Uvero‐Punta Piedras section is evidently undergoing a
process of change. This process is basically a by‐product of overfishing pressures,
population sprawl and the tourism activities in the zone.
As a result, a considerable dune vegetation volume, including mangrove, has been
lost almost in an imperceptible manner; the same case occurs with the fish resources and
with the stony coral cover.
This biodiversity loss implies a huge diminish on the environmental services that it
provides, necessary for the human populations as for the maintenance of the processes
and functions within the great coastal system.
Should this pattern of terrestrial habitat degradation to continue, for the year 2025
the remaining vegetation quantity would be of less than the fourth part of the original
vegetation cover. Unfortunately, this pattern is expected to grow bigger given the high
immigration rate to the zone and the poor regulation of the human activities taking
place in it.
Likewise, the reduction patterns over the coral cover and the reef fish volumes are
rising in an alarming hasty rate. These phenomena imply the urgent need to establish
effective management mechanisms in order to preserve the remnant resources and
assure the sustainability of the future activities in the region.
It is fundamental to recognize that any type of development that is to be projected in
this zone, depends completely on the condition and the extension of these habitats,
especially if it is to be a touristic‐type one.
The Costa Maya region is already showing the consequences brought by the
deficient management and the search of short‐term benefits of the tourism activities.
Thus, the instauration of low impact tourism models in this region, which integrate the
local communities in every management level, becomes an urgent task. This is indeed a
40
difficult process but a necessary one if a socially‐fair and environmentally‐appropriate
development is to be achieved.
Studies evaluating the condition of these habitats are of great aid for the coastal
resource management given the imperious necessity of quick and integral data
generation for its use in the planning process of coastal projects. The continuity of this
kind of researches is quite of assistance in terms of social, economic and environmental
benefits.
The information generated by this research can be utilized as base‐line knowledge
for further monitoring, decision making and management; even tough, is necessary to
recognize that the data generated herein require eventual updating given that this was
obtained before hurricane Dean´s strike in August 2007, which undoubtedly modified
the marine and terrestrial habitat conditions.
The methods used herein could be applied either for future data updating on the
study zone or to make further rapid assessments of the nearby zones in the Costa Maya
region. This study intends to contribute to the planning and management of spaces
where to merge recreation and conservation activities in the most successful as possible
way.
41
Recommendations
Proposal of a participative planning scheme for the study zone
It is clear that in scale terms, a local‐level territory ordering and management have to
the interest of this study as well to propose a procedure intended to assist in the
development of a low‐impact tourism model by taking in account sustainable
development guidelines regarding the environment and the local population of the
study zone. Hence, a participative planning scheme is proposed as it follows:
(1) Establishment of primary mechanisms of interaction with the local people. Coastal planning
and management programmes require the highest levels of public participation: people
ought to be involved in the formulation of policies and regulations regarding the coastal
resources use, if they are to support them. Clark (1996) states that participation needs to
be a true dialog between all parties concerned with a particular resource in order to
ensure there is a sharing of agendas; it is not a means to get a particular group or sector
aligned to the needs of another group but ensures an appropriate shift from single
sectored concerns and self‐centred concerns to a collective agenda which all parties will
be better prepared to address. It is argued that rural communities are willing to
participate proactively in initiatives and that their relatively close association with the
natural resources in question dictates that such participation is of particular importance
(Edwards et al. 1998). It is clear that the complex situation of the inhabitants of the zone
turns hard the task of gathering the population in workshops for presentation, diffusion
of ideas and communication in general; even though, this is a necessary mechanism to
the recognising of the actors in the zone and to make them participate directly into the
development project. The fact of supporting the involvement of the community in
decision making and in the course of the development allows the people to recognize
themselves with the process and develop an own local identity, therefore enhancing the
course of the future development in a positive manner.
42
(2) Creation of communication channels for the socialization of information. Following the
previous point, is of great importance to establish communication mechanisms between
the social stakeholders such as the government, NGO, civil associations, specialists,
perspectives of all of these societal agents on the design of objectives and actions in a
short, medium and long term (Ganzo‐Olivares y Marco 2007). It is also important to
identify local leaders for they play key roles in the information dissemination and
feedback, given that regularly the rest of the people are already identified with their
personality and attributes and therefore the people is more likely to show their points of
view to this leaders rather to foreign people. As a result, communication flow can be
reinforced through a two‐ways consultation process with ideas growing on each of both
sides (Clark 1996). Important emphasis should be made in the confidence‐building
process; this is the encouragement of mutual confidence between managers o planners
and the local people based simply on common sense. This process involves informal
discussions, small help or good will gestures and any other activity that enhances
affinity or empathy.
(3) Organizational process. Once a fluid communication has been established amongst all
the participating parts of the development project, time comes for the definition of itself
in a process that basically will direct the efforts and actions to be followed; process
(MacIntosh 2005) that follows logic continuity and integrates the steps of elucidating the
system (scale, nature, market, size and purpose), formulation of the objectives in a
programme, information analysis and interpretation to solidify its meaning, and then
the preliminary planning once options have been considered and optional solutions
observe the architectural planes, scale models, costs calculations, income estimates and
generate the risk assessment analysis to failure. Not until this last step has been
discussed through consensus is when time comes for the direct implementation on the
43
territory: land use, infrastructure construction, public services, and financial, economic
and market programming. With the final phase of the implementation, the plan reaches
its completion and the parallel activities of process evaluation (examining the means by
goals are achieved) start.
(4) Landscape definition. The planning process in the master plan should integrate a
coherent vision and strategy as essential elements; because of this, the definition of the
concept for what the community (and the tourism venue indeed) will look like in the
future needs to be a high‐priority topic for this allows to shape the quality of the coastal
living environments, protect community character and minimizing the impact of
standards should be instituted in the planning phase in order to reduce the aesthetics
degradation of landscapes; around the study zone is possible to spot constructions that
represent visual obstacles (mostly in Mahahual, El Placer and a couple in Uvero). When
this type of constructions assemblage, they add up to the degradation of the zone
generating environmental problems like destruction of forests and degradation of water
quality (as it is happens in Cancun´s tourism development) simply because wetlands do
not have the carrying capacity to afford urban construction type (Clark 1996). Some of
the benefits of an intelligent hotel/home design are that it works well (it makes money)
but also does well (benefits the community) (Beatley 2002) consequently it also insures
the health of the community as it inputs less impacts on water and soil quality and
therefore ensures benefits to the biodiversity´s condition as well. Good designs allow
energy saving, represent lower costs over construction materials and augment economic
income by projects that both protect land and ensure a special quality level for tourism.
Examples of good coastal construction practices (Cambers 1998; Clark 1996; FEMA 2000;
OCDA 2003) include construction placed as far as possible from the coastal dune
(development setback distances), efforts to protect trees and native vegetation around
44
constructions, low‐profile construction with organic forms, elevated to allow the natural
water drainage and free movement for animals like marine turtles, the utilisation of
natural colour in ground tonalities to blend with the environment. Wooden catwalks
that allow the access to the dune o beach without vegetation damage are another
sustainable and attractive way of sustainable construction; over them any kind of
electric lines can be placed to minimize the land impact.
(5) Use of alternative strategies for the lack of public services. The study zone is quite suitable
for the inclusion of the advantages of passive solar‐source energy by means of
integrating photovoltaic cells on the constructions and by this reducing significantly the
dependence of electric energy which is not yet available in the zone. This type of energy
generation reports fine results, reducing the energy use up to a third part of the
conventional energy used (Beatley 2002); the Costa Maya Research Station (CMS;
Quintana Roo University, Amigos de Sian Ka´an Civil Association) in Mahahual used to
function just with this type of energy source for around two years supplying energy for
a research team of 15 people, before the electricity lines were installed in town (pers.
comm. Orlando Iglesias Barron, ECM coordinator 2003‐2007). It is important as well to
mention the possibility of using wind as an energy source given the strong wind
intensity in the region by winter (IUCN 1988). The utilization of rainfall water collectors
is also an option that allows the maxim use of resources taking in account precipitation
volumes in the Caribbean coast, between 500 and 1500 mm per annum; the United
Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP 1997) has developed rainfall use high‐
efficiency technologies, with roof receptors and collectors for domestic water source
which in principle have been utilized for centuries in some Caribbean islands.
Alternatives for sewage‐water disposal exist as well, like the installation of bio‐
degrading stations connected to artificial bogs, being an efficient and viable technology
for the depuration of sewage waters (Lara‐Borrero 1999).
45
(6) Coastal growth and human activities management. It is very important to find the proper
operative mechanisms for the Costa Maya POET as it represents an orchestral document
providing guidance for the multiple decisions that are to be taken regarding the land
use on the region. Though, without the participation of the local communities the
operative process will not come before the environmental and social damage brought by
the conventional disordered development reach hard‐to‐revert levels. Some of the
obstacles for the growth management in a local level include conservative attitudes
towards government control of private property rights, lack of financial resources, the
existence of more pressing local problems and concerns, opposition to real estate and
development interests, and lack of trained personnel, amongst others (Beatley 2002).
been developed (Clark 1991) with the administrative (carrying capacity, activity‐
restriction and zoning methods) and the physical (signs, routes, infrastructure) as main
control methods. The implementation of this means is paramount in order to avoid the
standard tourism scenario (also called the auto‐destroying theory of tourism; Sobers
1988) where remote and exotic sites are transformed into tourism destinies in the search
for economic growth and prosperity, but just after had become destinies for mass
tourism, social and environmental degradation come the site causing it to lose its
attractiveness to tourism and ending up as a site with empty infrastructure,
contaminated beaches and countryside and a population that can´t go back to its ancient
way of life. When this happens, job and income loss leads to socio‐politic instability
(Clark 1996). All these problems can only be alleviated by correct growth controls and
development planning.
46
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Annexe 1 Low height photo‐mosaic built up in order to identify the denudated wetlands vegetation cover in the Uvero‐Punta Piedras
section, Costa Maya, Quintana Roo, Mexico, made up with zenital aerial photos from year 2003 (photos courtesy of SEMAR and
UQROO; a. Northern section, b. Central section and c. Southern section).
55
Annexe 2 Satellite image of the study zone (Quickbird CE90% 3m RMSE: 4m with Nadir angle
0‐15 or 0‐25; the reef section is showed in red band for a better visualization)
56
Annexe 3a Species richness list and abundance categorization values (ac) of stony corals
registered in the reefs of the study zone.
CLASS ANTHOZOA SECTORS
FAMILY GENERA SPECIES I II III IV TOTAL
Acroporidae Acropora cervicornis 1 1 2
palmata 1 2 1 4
Agaricidae Agaricia agarites 4 4 4 4 16
undata 1 1
tenuifolia 2 2
humilis 1 1 2
Helioceris cuculata 1 2 1 1 5
Astrocoeniidae Stephanocoenia intersepta 1 1
Caryophyllidae Eusmilia fastigiata 1 1 1 3
Faviidae Colpophylia natans 1 1
Diploria labyrinthiformis 1 2 3
strigosa 3 2 2 7
Manicina areolata 1 1
Montastraea annularis 1 3 2 2 8
cavernosa 3 2 2 3 10
faveolata 1 2 2 2 7
franksi 2 2
Meandrinidae Dendrogyra cylindrus 1 1
Dichocoenia stokesi 3 2 2 2 9
Meandrina meandrites 3 3 3 3 12
Mussidae Isophyllastrea rigida 1 1 1 3
Mycetophyllia aliciae 1 1 2
lamarckiana 1 1
Pocilloporidae Madracis decactis 1 1 1 3
Poritidae Porites astreoides 3 3 3 3 12
furcata 1 1 1 3
porites 1 2 2 5
Siderastreidae Siderastrea siderea 3 3 3 3 12
CLASS HYDROZOA
Milleporidae Millepora alcicornis 2 1 2 2 7
complanata 1 1
TOTAL SPECIES 30 13 24 18 23
(1) RARE SPECIES (1 to 2 colonies seen) 6 14 6 11
(2) OCASIONAL SPECIES (total contribution of < 5%) 1 4 8 8
(3) COMMON SPECIES (total contribution of 5‐30%) 5 5 3 4
(4) ABUNDANT SPECIES
(total contribution of 30‐75%) 1 1 1 1
(5) DOMINANT SPECIES
(taxon with > 75% of total contribution) 0 0 0 0
57
Annexe 3b Species richness list and abundance categorization values (ac) of reef fishes
registered in the study zone.
CLASS OSTEICHTHYES SECTORS
FAMILY GENERA SPECIES I II III IV TOTAL
Acanthuridae Acanthurus bahianus 3 2 2 3 10
chirurgus 1 1 2
coeruleus 2 2 3 2 9
Aulostomidae Aulostomus maculatus 1 1
Apogonidae Apogon sp. 1 1
Balistidae Balistes vetula 2 1 2 2 7
Cantherines macroceros 1 1
pullus 1 1 2
Canthidermis sufflamen 2 2
Melichthys niger 3 2 2 2 9
Bleniidae Ophioblennius atlanticus 1 1
Carangidae Caranx bartolomaei 1 1
ruber 3 2 3 8
Trachinotus falcatus 2 2 4
Chaetodontidae Chaetodon capistratus 2 1 2 2 7
ocellatus 2 1 1 4
striatus 2 2 4
Cirrhitidae Amblycirrhitus pinos 1 1
Clinidae Malacoctenus triangulus 1 1
Gobiidae Gnatholepis thompsoni 1 1
Gobiosoma oceanops 1 1
Grammidae Gramma loreto 1 1
Haemulidae Anisotremus surinamensis 1 1
virginicus 1 1 2
Haemulon album 1 1
aurolineatum 1 1
carbonarium 3 3
flavolineatum 3 3 3 3 12
parra 2 2 4
plumieri 3 3 2 3 11
sciurus 3 2 2 2 9
Holocentridae Holocenthrus adscensionis 2 2 2 2 8
marianus 1 1
rufus 1 1
vexillarius 1 1
Myripristis jacobus 2 1 2 5
58
Kyphosidae Kyphosus sectatrix 3 3
Labridae Bodianus rufus 2 2 2 6
Labridae Clepticus parrae 3 3 3 9
Halichoeres bivittatus 2 2
garnoti 1 1 2 2 6
Lachnolaimus maximus 1 1
Thallassoma bifasciatum 2 2 2 2 8
Lutjanidae Lutjanus analis 0
apodus 2 2 2 6
cyanopterus 2 2
griseus 1 1
mahogoni 2 2 4
synagris 2 2
Ocyurus chrysurus 2 2 2 2 8
Malacanthidae Malacanthus plumieri 3 1 4
Megalopidae Megalops atlanticus 1 1
Monacanthidae Aluteres scriptus 1 1
Mullidae Pseudupeneus maculatus 2 2 1 5
Muraenidae Gymnothorax miliaris 1 1
moringa 1 1
Ostraciidae Lactophrys triqueter 1 1
Opistognathidae Opistognathus aurifrons 1 1
Pomacanthidae Holacanthus ciliaris 1 1
tricolor 2 2 2 2 8
Pomacanthus arcuatus 1 1 1 3
paru 1 2 3
Pomacentridae Abudefduf saxatilis 2 2 4
Chromis cyanea 2 3 3 2 10
multilineata 2 2 4
Microspathodon chrysurus 1 2 2 5
Stegastes diencaeus 2 2 4
fuscus 1 2 1 4
leucostitus 1 2 2 1 6
partitus 2 2 2 6
planifrons 1 1
variabilis 1 2 3
Scaridae Scarus croicensis 1 1 2
guacamaia 1 1 2
taeniopterus 1 1 1 3
viride 2 2 1 5
Sparisoma atomarium 1 1
59
Sparisoma aurofrenatum 1 2 2 2 7
chrysopterum 2 2 2 6
radians 1 1
Scombridae Scomberomorus regalis 1 2 3
Scomberomorus maculatus 2 2
Sciaenidae Equetus acuminatus 2 2 1 2 7
punctatus 1 1
Serranidae Epinephelus cruentatus 1 1 1 3
guttatus 2 2
fulvus 2 2 2 2 8
striatus 1 1
Mycteroperca interstitialis 1 1
bonaci 1 1 1 3
Serranus tigrinus 1 1 1 3
tabacarium 1 1
Sparidae Calamus calamus 1 1
Sphyraenidae Sphyraena barracuda 1 1 1 1 4
Synodonthidae Synodus intermedius 1 1
Tetraodontidae Canthigaster rostrata 1 1
CLASS CONDRICHTHYES
Dasyatidae Dasyatis americana 1 1 2
Urolophidae Urolopus jamaicensis 1 1
TOTAL SPECIES 98 39 61 59 46
(1) RARE SPECIES (1 to 2 colonies seen) 16 29 26 16
(2) OCASIONAL SPECIES (total contribution of <
5%) 17 26 28 25
(3) COMMON SPECIES (total contribution of 5‐30%) 6 6 5 5
(4) ABUNDANT SPECIES
(total contribution of 30‐75%) 0 0 0 0
(5) DOMINANT SPECIES
(taxon with > 75% of total contribution) 0 0 0 0
60
Annexe 4 Detail of the digitized polygons to determine the denudated area of wetland
vegetation cover in the Uvero‐Punta Piedras section, Costa Maya, México (in blue, the area
corresponding to year 2003; in black outline and dotted area, to year 2007).
Sector I a
Sector I b
61
ANNEXE 4. Cont.…
Sector I c
Sector I d
62
ANNEXE 4. Cont.…
Sector II a
Sector II b
63
ANNEXE 4. Cont.…
Sector II c
Sector II d
64
ANNEXE 4. Cont.…
Sector III a
Sector III b
65
ANNEXE 4. Cont.…
Sector III c
Sector III d
66
ANNEXE 4. Cont.…
Sector IV a
Sector IV b
67
ANNEXE 4. Cont.…
Sector IV c
Sector IV d
68
ANNEXE 4. Cont.…
Sector IV e
Sector IV f
69