Thesis Hydro Treating

Chapter #1
Introduction
CHAPTER # 1
IN TR OD UC TION
1.1 NAPHTHA
Naphtha is a petroleum fraction invariably consists of c6 to c10 hydrocarbons. Naphtha is widely used in fertilizer plants and petrochemical industries as a feed stock. It is a highly volatile product, manufactured from crude oil by direct atmospheric distillation and by catalytic cracking of heavy residues. There are two types of Naphtha marketed namely, High Aromatic Naphtha (HAN) and Low Aromatic Naphtha (LAN) known as Naphtha (Petrochemical). Naphtha esse ntially consists of paraffin, naphthenic and aromatic Hydrocarbons. The presence of Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Naphtha is very critical especially when it is used in fertilizer plants. In fact, the design of a fertilizer plant may entirely depend upon the composition of Naphtha available or a refinery has to produce Naphtha according to the needs and specifications demanded by a fertilizer plant. This is one of the reasons that IS Specifications for Naphtha has been withdrawn. Naphtha is used as a fuel in fertilizer plant reformers where high temperatures are required. It is also used as a fuel for steam generation in the plants where reforming is done with the help of steam. Some gas turbines for power generation have also been installed recently which will require Naphtha as fuel.
1.2 HYDROTREATING OF NAPHTHA

Hydrotreating processing is commonly used to remove Platforming catalyst poisons from straight run or cracked naphthas prior to charging to the Platforming Process unit. It can be seen that the primary function of the naphtha Hydrotreating Process can be characterized as a Clean up Operation. The catalyst used 1n the Naphtha Hydrotreating Process 1s composed of an alumina base impregnated with compounds of cobalt or nickel and molybdenum. The catalyst is insensitive to most poisons which affect
Hydrotreating of Naphtha
Chapter #1
Introduction
dehydrogenation reactions. A relatively high percentage of carbon on the catalyst does not materially affect its sensitivity or selectivity. Volumetric recoveries of products depend on the sulfur and olefin contents, but usually are 100% + 2% The Naphtha Hydrotreating Process 1s a catalytic refining process employing a selected catalyst and a hydrogen-rich gas stream to decompose organic sulfur, oxygen and nitrogen compounds contained in hydrocarbon fractions. In addition, hydrotreating removes organo-metallic compounds and saturates olefinic compounds. Organo- metallic compounds, notably arsenic and lead compounds, are known to be permanent poisons to platinum catalysts. "The complete removal of these materials by Hydrotreating processing gives longer catalyst life in the Platforming unit. Sulfur, above a critical level, is a temporary poison to Platforming catalysts and causes an unfavorable change 1n the product distribution. Organic nitrogen is also a temporary poison to Platforming catalyst. It is an extremely potent one, however, and relatively small amounts of nitrogen compounds in the Platformer feed can cause large deactivation effects, as well as the deposition of ammonium chloride salts in the Platforming unit cold sections. Oxygen compounds are detrimental to the operation of a Platformer. Any oxygen compounds which are not removed in the hydrotreater will be converted to water 1n the Platforming unit, thus affecting the water/ chloride balance of the Platforming catalyst. Large amounts of olefins contribute to increase coking of the Platforming catalyst. Also, olefins can polymerize at Platforming operating conditions which can result in exchanger and reactor fouling. The Naphtha Hydrotreating Process makes a major contribution to the ease of operation and economy of Platforming. Much greater flexibility is afforded in choice of allowable charge stocks to the Platforming unit. Because this unit protects the Platforming catalyst, it is important to maintain consistently good operation in the Hydrotreating Unit. In addition to treating naphtha for Platformer feed, there are uses for the UOP Naphtha Hydrotreating Process in other areas. Naphthas produced from thermal cracking Hydrotreating of Naphtha 2
Chapter #1
Introduction
processes, such as delayed coking and visbreaking, are usually high in olefinic content and other contaminants, and may not be stable in storage. These naphthas may be hydrotreated to stabilize the olefins and to remove organic or metallic contaminants, thus providing a marketable product.
1.3 PROCESS SELECTION

History:
Until the end of World War 2, there was little incentive for the oil industry to pay significant attention to improving product quality by hydrogen treatment. However, soon after the war the production of high sulphur cr udes increased significantly, which gave a more stringent demand on the product blending flexibility of refineries, and the marketing specifications for the products became tighter, largely due to environmental considerations. Furthermore, the catalyst used in the Platforming process can only handle sulfur in the very low ppm level, so hydrotreating of naphtha became a must. The necessity for hydrotreating of middle distillates (kerosene/gas oil) originates from pressure to reduce sulfur emissions into the environment. Overall, this situation resulted in an increased necessity for high sulphur removal capability in many refineries.
REFINING PROCESSES
Today's refinery is a complex combination of interdependent processes. These processes can be divided into three basic categories: a. Separation processes The feed to these processes is separated into two or more components based on some physical property, usually boiling point. These processes do not otherwise change the feedstock. The most common separation process in the refinery is distillation.
Chapter #1 b. Upgrading processes
Introduction
These processes improve the quality of a material by using chemical reactions to remove any compounds present in trace amounts that give the material the undesired quality. Otherwise, the bulk properties of the feedstock are not changed. The most commonly used upgrading processes for jet fuel are sweetening, hydrotreating, and clay treatment. c. Conve rsion processes These processes fundamentally change the molecular structure of the feedstock, usually by "cracking" large molecules into small ones, for example, catalytic cracking and hydrocracking Here we are concerned with upgrading processes for petroleum
UPGRADING PROCESSES
Sweetening processes remove a particular class of sulfur-containing compounds called mercaptans from jet fuel. Mercaptans are undesirable because they are corrosive and also because of their offensive odor. Processes for merceptans removal: Several processes have been developed to remove mercaptans by converting them to disulfides. These disulfides are not corrosive and their odors are not as strong as the mercaptans they replace. Sodium plumbite and coppe r chloride have been used as catalysts for this conversion in the past. Merox Process: In recent years, the Merox (mercaptan oxidation) process, which uses a cobalt-
based catalyst, has almost completely replaced the older technologies. Most of these chemical sweetening processes do not change the total sulfur
content of the fuel; they merely convert sulfur from one chemical form to another.
Chapter #1
Introduction
Some versions of the Merox process extract the disulfides that are formed and
thus lower the total sulfur content
Hydrotreating Process: The objective of the Hydrotreating processes is to remove sulfur as well as other unwanted compounds, e.g. unsaturated hydrocarbons, nitrogen, oxygen, organo- metallic compounds from refinery process streams. It is catalytic hydrogenation process with very high efficiency, even some plants remove sulphur up to 0.2ppm. A main representative reaction is shown as under.
PROCESSES FOR HYDROTREATING

For Hydrotreating, two basic processes are applied, 1. The liquid phase (or trickle flow) process for kerosene and heavier
straight-run and cracked distillates up to vacuum gas oil 2. Vapor phase process for light straight-run and cracked fractions.
Both processes use the same basic configuration: the feedstock is mixed with hydrogenrich make up gas and recycle gas. The mixture is heated by heat exchange with reactor effluent and by a furnace and it enters a reactor loaded with catalyst, in the reactor, the sulphur and nitrogen compounds present in the feedstock are converted into hydrogen sulphide and a mmonia respectively. The olefins present are saturated with hydrogen to become di-olefins and part of the
Chapter #1
Introduction
aromatics will be hydrogenated. If all aromatics need to be hydrogenated, a higher pressure is needed in the reactor compared to the conventional operating mode. The reactor operates at temperatures in the range of 300-380 0C and at a pressure of 10-20 bars for naphtha and kero, as compared with 30-50 bar for gas oil, with excess hydrogen supplied. The temperature should not exceed 380 0C, as above this temperature cracking reactions can occur, which deteriorates the color of the final product. The reaction products leave the reactor and, after having been cooled to a low temperature, typically 40-50 0C, enter a liquid/gas separation stage. The hydrogen-rich gas from the high pressure separation is recycled to combine with the feedstock, and the low pressure off- gas stream rich in hydrogen Sulphide is sent to a gastreating unit, where hydrogen Sulphide is removed. The clean gas is then suitable as fuel for the refinery furnaces. The liquid stream is the product from hydrotreating. It is normally sent to a stripping column where H2 S and other undesirable components are removed, and finally, in cases where steam is used for stripping, the product is sent to a vacuum drier for removal of water. Some refiners use a salt dryer instead of a vacuum drier to remove the water. The catalyst used is normally cobalt, molybdenum and nickel finely distributed on alumina extrudates. It slowly becomes choked by coke and must be renewed at regular intervals (typically 2-3 years). It can be regenerated (by burning off the coke) and reused typically once or twice before the breakdown of the support's porous structure unacceptably reduces its activity.
Chapter #1
Introduction
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HYDROTREATING AND HYDRODESULPHURIZATION:

A hyrotreater and a hydrodesulphuriser are basically the same process but A hydrotreater termed is used for treating kerosene or lighter feedstock A hydrodesulphuriser mainly refers to gas oil treating. The hydrotreating process is used in every major refinery and is therefore also
termed as the work horse of the refinery as it is the hydrotreater unit that ensures several significant product quality specifications. In most countries the Diesel produced is hydrodesulphuriser before its sold.
Sulphur specifications are getting more and more stringent. In Asia, countries such as Thailand, Singapore and Hong Kong already have a 0.05%S specification and large hydrodesulphurization units are required to meet such specs. The by-products obtained from HDT/HDS are light ends formed from small amounts of cracking and these products are used in the refinery fuel gas pool. The other main byproduct is Hydrogen Sulphide which is oxidized to sulphur and sold to the chemical industry for further processing. In combination with temperature, the pressure level (or rather the partial pressure
of hydrogen) generally determines the types of components that can be removed and also determines the working life of the catalyst. At higher (partial) pressures, the desulphurization process is 'easier', however, the unit becomes more expensive for instance due to larger compressors and heavier reactors. Also, at higher pressure, the hydrogen consumption of the unit increases, which can be a significant cost factor for the refinery. The minimum pressure required typically goes up with the required severity of the unit, i.e. the heavier the feedstock, or the lower levels of sulphur in product required.
Chapter #1
Introduction
1.4 APPLICATIONS OF HYDROTREATING PROCESS:

A more recent development is the application of Hydrotreating for pretreatment of feedstock for the catalytic cracking process. By utilization of a suitable hydrogenationpromoting catalyst for conversion of aromatics and nitrogen in potential feedstock, and selection of severe operating conditions, hydrogen is taken up by the aromatic molecules. The increased hydrogen content of the feedstock obtained by this treatment leads to significant conversion advantages in subsequent catalytic cracking, and higher yie ld of light products can be achieved. Hydrotreating can also be used for kerosene smoke point improvement (SPI). It closely resembles the conventional Hydrotreating Process however an aromatic hydrogenation catalyst consisting of noble metals on a special carrier is used. The reactor operates at pressure range of 50-70 bar and temperatures of 260-320 0C. To restrict temperature rise due to the highly exothermic aromatics conversion reactions, quench oil is applied between the catalysts beds. The catalyst used is very sensitive to traces of sulphur and nitrogen in the feedstock and therefore pretreatment is normally applied in a conventional hydrotreater before kerosene is introduced into the SPI unit. The main objective of Smoke Point Improvement is improvement in burning characteristics as the kerosene aromatics are converted to naphthenes. Hydrotreating is also used for production of feedstock for summarization unit from paralysis gasoline (pygas) which is one of the byproducts of steam cracking of hydrocarbon fractions such as naphtha and gas oil.
CONCLUSION
It is obvious from economical data of many commercial Plants that the fixed Capital Investment on Merox sweetening Process is 90% less then Hydrotreating and the operating Cost is almost 95% less then Hydrotreating, But the efficiency of Hydrotreating Units are normally above 99% which cannot be achieved by Merox process, the feed
Chapter #1
Introduction
quality requirements of Platformer Section cannot be fulfilled by Merox Process. Further more hydrotreating also removes many other impurities and saturated some olefins as well. This is why; Hydrotreating Process is employed as feed preparation unit, where ever Platformer Plant is to be installed.
Chapter #2
Description of Process Flow
CHAPTER 2
DESCR IP TION OF PROC ESS FLOW

2.1 PROCESS DESCRIPTION
A typical Naphtha Hydrotreating unit processing a straight run naphtha for Platfonner feed will have a reactor section and a stripper 'section. In addition, some units have a prefractionation section upstream of the reactor section. A. Prefractionation Section In some special applications, it is desirable to produce a narrow boiling range naphtha cut for feed to a Platformer. An example of this would be an operation aimed at making aromatics, where the end point of the feed to the Platformer is limited to about 160C (325F) to concentrate aromatic precursors in the feed. A full boiling range naphtha cut from the crude unit could be processed through a prefractionation section to accomplish this task. The prefractionation section typically consists of two fraction-action columns in series, with the overhead of the second (rerun) column being the heart cut for processing in the reactor section of the hydrotreater. The heart cut boiling range is controlled by the amount of light naphtha taken overhead in the prefractionation column and by the amount of heart cut taken overhead in the rerun column. For example, if a 38-204C (100-400F) boiling range naphtha is charged to a prefractionation section, the overhead temperature controller of the first column sets the amount of overhead product, and increasing the overhead temperature will increase the endpoint and quantity of the overhead product. This cut is what controls the initial boiling point of the heart cut. The prefractionator column bottom is charged to the second (rerun) column, where the desired product is taken overhead, again controlled by an overhead temperature controller. Increasing the overhead temperature will increase the amount of material
10
Chapter #2
taken overhead and will increase its endpoint. Thus, if a heart cut of 82-174C (180345F) is desired, it can be obtained by adjusting the prefractionation column overhead/ temperature to set the initial boiling point, and the rerun column overhead temperature to set the endpoint. Usually, the feed to the prefractionator will be heat exchanged with rerun column bottoms, and a steam heater can be used to provide the remaining heat that is required. The prefractionator bottom is normally pumped directly to the rerun column without any reheat. Both columns have reboilers to provide the heat necessary for vaporization of naphtha so that sufficient reflux can be maintained. The overhead product from the prefractionator and the rerun bottoms product are sent to storage for blending or further processing downstream units. A typical prefractionation flow scheme 1s depicted in Figure IV-1. B. Reactor Section Naphtha feed can enter the unit either from intermediate storage or from another process unit. In the case of feed from storage, the tank must be properly gas blanketed to prevent oxygen from being dissolved 1n the naphtha. Even trace quantities of oxygen and/or olefin in the feed can cause polymerization of olefins in the storage tank when stored for long periods or in the combined feed/reactor effluent exc hangers if the feed is not prestripped. 'This results in fouling and a loss of heat transfer efficiency. Naphtha feed from the charge pump combines with a-hydrogen-rich gas stream, and this combined feed enters the combined feed/ reactor effluent exchanger s, where the feed is heated and the reactor effluent is cooled. The combined feed leaving the exchanger 1s all vapor, and flows to the ch_aj2ge_jTe^tej^here it is heated to the required reaction temperature. The amount of fuel burned in the heater is controlled by the temperature of the combined feed leaving the heater and flowing to the reactor. Most reactors are designed for down flow operation, and contain/ sufficient catalyst to remove contaminants to the level required. The reactor effluent flows through the combined feed/reactor effluent exchanger, usually
11
Chapter #2
on the tube side, and then to the product condenser. A water wash injection point is provided in the reactor effluent line to the product condenser so that any salt buildup in the line or condenser may be washed out. Reactor effluent flows out of the condenser at a low enough temperature to ensure complete recovery of the naphtha and enters the product separator. A mesh blanket coalescer is provided in the separator to ensure complete separation of gas, hydrocarbon liquid, and water. The product separator is also provided with a water boot to collect the water injected for salt removal. This water is usually pressured to a sour water stripper for disposal. There are alternate methods for providing the required hydrogen-rich gas to the reactor. Most common is a recycle gas compressor taking suction from the top of the product separator with the discharge joining the naphtha feed upstream of the combined feed/reactor effluent exchanger. Since the process consumes hydrogen, a hydrogen-rich gas stream is brought into the unit as makeup just upstream of the product condenser. This stream is controlled by the product separator pressure controller, allowing gas to enter and hold a constant separator pressure. This flow scheme is depicted in Figure IV-2. In some units, rather than having a recycle gas compressor, a comparable amount of a hydrogen-rich gas stream is brought Into the unit on flow control, and flows on a oncethrough basis through the reactor section to the product separator where it is vented ''on pressure control. This flow scheme is depicted in Figure IV-3. The choice between these two flow schemes is made during the design of each unit based upon the availability of a high pressure hydrogen-rich gas stream, and the cost of compression for each stream. Stripping Section The liquid hydrocarbon in the separator is pressured on level control through the stripper feed/bottoms exchanger, and thus heated enters near the top of the stripper. A reboiler is provided to supply the required heat input for generating vapor. This vapor strips hydrogen sulfide, water, light hydrocarbons and dissolved hydrogen from the feed to the stripper, which then passes overhead to the overhead condenser and to the overhead
12
Chapter #2
receiver. Normally, no net overhead liquid product is produced, and all of the liquid in the receiver is pumped back to the stripper as reflux. A reflux/feed ratio of approximately 0.25 is sufficient to strip the light ends and water from the tower. The re flux is pumped into the stripper on receiver level control. To increase the amount of reflux, the reboiler heat Input must be Increased to provide more overhead material. The net overhead gas leaves the receiver on pressure control, usually to amine scrubb ing and then to fuel gas. The stripper overhead system is equipped with inhibitor addition facilities to prevent corrosion of the process lines and equipment by the hydrogen sulfide in the overhead vapor. The corrosion inhibitor is pumped directly from a drum, diluted with a small' slipstream of reflux, and injected directly into the overhead vapor line at the top of the stripper. The stripper bottoms material is pumped through the feed/bottoms exchanger and usually is charged directly to the Plat forming unit. On many units, a small slipstream of stripper bottoms is further cooled in a trim cooler and sent to storage for later use as sweet startup naphtha. This flow scheme is depicted in Figure IV-4. The dry, stripped naphtha hydrotreating unit product must meet the following specifications to be acceptable as Plat former feed: Total Sulfur, wt-ppm0.5 max. Total Nitrogen, wt-ppm EP, F 400 max. *Lead, wt-ppb <20 max. *Arsen1c, wt-ppb 1 max. 1 max. <25 max. 0.5 max.
*Iron + Chloride, wt-ppm
*Copper + Heavy Metals, wt-ppb
Additionally, water plus total oxygen must be low enough to produce less than 5 mole
13
Chapter #2
ppm water in the Platformer Recycle Gas with no water injection to that unit.
2.2
CHEMISTRY
As previously stated, the main purpose of the Naphtha Hydrotreating Process is to "cleanup" a naphtha fraction so that it is suitable as charge to a Platforming unit. There are six basic types of reactions that occur in the hydrotreating unit. A. Reactions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. B, 1. Conversion of organic sulfur compounds to hydrogen sulfide Conversion of organic nitrogen compounds to ammonia Conversion of organic oxygen compounds to water Saturation of olefins Conversion of organic halides to hydrogen halides Removal of organo-metallic compounds Discussion Sulfur Removal
For bimetallic Platforming catalysts, the feed naphtha must contain less than 0.5 weight ppm sulfur to optimize the selectivity and stability characteristics of the catalyst. In general, sulfur removal in the hydrotreating process is relatively easy, and for the best operation of a Platformer, the hydrotreated naphtha sulfur content should be maintained well below the 0.5 weight ppm maximum. Commercial operation at 0.2 weight ppm sulfur or less in the hydrotreated naphtha is common. Typical sulfur removal reactions are shown below. a. (Mercaptan) C-C-C-C-C-C-SH + H2 > C-C-C-C-C-C +H2 S
14
Chapter #2
b. (Sulfide) C-C-C-S-C-C-C t 2H?> 2 C-C-C + H2S c.(Disulfide) C-C-C-S-S-C-C-C + 3H2 > 2 C-C-C + 2 d.(Cyclic sulfide) C - C-C + 2\\2 > C-C-C-C-C +
C C-C C
e. C C-C
(Thiophenic) C C-C + 4H2 > C-C-C-C-C + H2S C
It is possible, however, to operate at too high a temperature for maximum sulfur removal. Recombination of hydrogen sulfide with small amounts of olefins or olefin Intermediates can then result, producing mercaptans in the product. C-C-C-C = C-C + H2S> C-C-C-C-C -CIf this reaction is occurring, the reactor temperature must be lowered. Generally, operation at 315-340C (600-645F) reactor Inlet temperature will give acceptable rates of the desired hydrogenation reactions and will not result in a significant amount of olefin/hydrogen sulfide recombination. This temperature is dependent upon feedstock composition, operating pressure, and LHSV. 2. Nitrogen Removal
Nitrogen removal is considerably more difficult than sulfur* removal in naphtha hydrotreating. The rate of denitrification is only' about one-fifth the rate of desulphurization. Most straight run naphtha contain much less nitrogen than sulfur, but attention must be given to ensure that the feed naphtha to a bimetallic Platforming catalyst contains a maximum of 0.5 weight ppm nitrogen and normally much less. Any organic nitrogen that does enter the Platformer will react to ammonia and further with the chloride in the recycle gas and form ammonium chloride. The ammonium chloride then deposits in the recycle gas circuit or stabilizer overhead system. This problem can be very annoying and time consuming, but it can be avoided or minimized by maximizing nitrogen removal in the Naphtha Hydrotreating unit. Nitrogen removal is much more important when a Naphtha Hydrotreating unit processes some cracked naphtha, since Hydrotreating of Naphtha 15
Chapter #2
these feed stocks normally contain much more nitrogen than a straight run naphtha. The ammonia formed in the denitrification reactions, detailed below, is subsequently removed in the hydrotreater reactor effluent wash water. 5. Halide Removal Organic halides can be decomposed 1n the Naphtha Hydrotreating Unit to the corresponding hydrogen halide, which is either absorbed In the reactor effluent water wash or taken overhead in the stripper gas. Decomposition of organic halides is much more difficult than desulphurization. Maximum organic halide" removal is thought to be about 90 percent, but is much less at operating conditions set for sulfur and nitrogen removal only. For this reason, periodic analysis of the hydrotreated naphtha for chloride content should be made, since this chloride level must be used to set the proper Platformer chloride injection rate. A typical organic chloride decomposition reaction is shown below. C-C-C-C-C-C-C1 H2 > HC1 + C-C-C-C-C-C 6. Metal Removal Most metallic impurities occur at the part per billion (ppb) levels in naphtha. The UOP Hydrobon catalyst is capable of removing these materials at fairly high concentrations, up to 5 weight ppm or more, on an intermittent basis at normal operating conditions. Most metallic Impurities are permanently deposited on the catalyst when removed from the naphtha. The catalyst loses activity for sulfur removal as higher metal loadings are reached. Some commonly detected components found on used Hydrobon catalyst are arsenic, iron, calcium, magnesium, phosphorous, lead, silicon, copper, and sodium. Removal of metals from the feed normally occurs in plug flow with respect to the catalyst bed. Iron is found concentrated at the top of catalyst beds as iron sulfides. Arsenic, even though it is rarely found in excess of 1 weight ppb in straight run naphtha's, is of major importance, because it is a potent Platinum poison. Arsenic levels of 3 weight percent and higher have been detected on used Hydrobon catalysts that retain their activity for sulfur removal / Contamination of storage facilities by leaded gasoline and reprocessing of Hydrotreating of Naphtha 16
Chapter #2
leaded gasoline in crude towers are the common sources of lead on used Hydrobon catalysts. Sodium, calcium and magnesium are apparently due to contact of the feed with salt water or additives. Improper use of additives to protect fractionators overhead systems from corrosion or to control foaming account for the presence of phosphorus and silicon. Removal of metals is essentially complete above temperatures of 315 C (600F) up to a total metal loading of about 2-3 weight percent on the catalyst:. Above this level, the catalyst begins approaching the equilibrium saturation level rapidly, and metal breakthrough is likely to occur. In this regard, mechanical problems inside the reactor, such as channeling, are especially bad since these results in a substantial overload on a small portion of the catalyst in the reactor. I.e Reaction Rates and Heats of Reaction The approximate relative reaction rates for the three major reaction types are: Desulphurization Olefin Saturation Denitrification 100 80 20
The approximate heats of reaction (1n kJ per kg of feed per cubic meter of hydrogen consumed) and relative heats of reaction are: Heat of Reaction Desulphurization Olefin Saturation Denitrification 8.1 40.6 0.8 Relative Heat of "Reaction 1 5 0.1
As can be seen from the above summary, desulphurization is the most rapid reaction taking place, but it is the saturation of olefins which generates the greatest amount of heat. Certainly, as the feed sulfur level increases, the heat of reaction also increases.
17
Chapter #2
However, for most of the feedstock processed, the heat of reaction will just about balance the reactor heat loss, such that the Naphtha Hydrotreating reactor inlet and o utlet temperatures are essentially equal. Conversion of organic chlorides and oxygenated compounds are about as difficult as denitrification. Consequently, more severe operating conditions must be used when these compounds are present. The following table summarizes the physical properties of UOP Hydrobon catalysts. TABLE I UOP HYDROBON CATALYSTS FOR NAPHTHA HYDROTREATING SERVICE Designator Base Form Size ABD ABD (lbs/ft3 ) 36 38 45 45 45 S-6* Alumina Sphere 1/16" S-9* Alumina Sphere 1/16" S-12 Alumina Extrudate 1/16" S-15 Alumina Extrudate 1/16" S-16 / Alumina Extrudate 1/16"
Lbs/Drum
250
275
300
325
300
Metals:
Ni
N1
Ni
Mo
Mo
Mo
Mo
Mo
Co
Co
Co
Regeneration:
Steam/
Steam/
Inert
Inert
Inert
A1r
A1r
Gas
Gas
Gas
*Also available In 1/8" spheres designated as S-6 (L) and S-9(L).
18
Chapter #2
2.3
PROCESS VARIABLES
A. Reactor Pressure The unit pressure is dependent on catalyst life required and feed stock properties. At higher reactor pressures, the catalyst is generally effective for a longer time and reactions are brought to a greater degree of completion. For straight run naphtha desulphurization, 20 to 35 kg/cm2 g (300 to 500 psig) reactor pressure is normally used, although design pressure can be higher if feed nitrogen and/or sulfur contents are higher than normal. Cracked naphtha contain substantially more nitrogen and sulfur than straight run naphtha and consequently require higher processing pressures, up to 55 kg/cm2g (800 psig). Similarly, higher operating pressures are necessary to completely remove organic halides. Halide contamination of naphtha is usually sporadic in occurrence and is normally due to contamination by crude oil well operators. The selection of the operating pressure is influenced to a degree by the hydrogen to feed ratio set in the design, since both of these parameters determine the hydrogen partial pressure in the reactor. The hydrogen partial pressure can be increased by operation at a higher ratio of gas to feed at the reactor inlet. The extent of substitution is limited by economic considerations. Most units have been designed so that the desulphurization and denitrification reactions go substantially to completion well below the design reactor temperature, for the design feedstock. Small variations in pressure or hydrogen gas rate in the unit will not cause changes great enough to be reflected by significant differences in product quality. B. Temperature Temperature has a significant effect in promoting hydrotreating reactions. Its effect, however, is slightly different for each of the ' reactions that occur. Desulphurization increases as/ temperature 1s raised. The desulphurization reaction begins to take place at temperatures even as low as 230C (450F) "With the rate of reaction increasing markedly with temperature. Above 340C (650F) there are only slight increases in
19
Chapter #2 further removal of sulfur compounds due to temperature.
The decomposition of chloride compounds in low concentrations (< 10 weight ppm) will require about the same temperature as the sulfur compounds decomposition. Olefin saturation behaves somewhat similarly to the desulphurization reaction with respect to temperature, except that olefin removal may level off at a somewhat higher temperature. Because this reaction is very exothermic, the olefin content of, the feed must be monitored and perhaps limited to keep reactor peak temperature within an acceptable temperature range. At very high temperatures, an apparent equilibrium condition limits the degree of olefin saturation. This may even cause the residual olefins in the product to be greater at higher temperatures than would be the case at lower operating temperatures. In certain cases, when processing a naphtha with a significant amount of light ends over fres h catalyst, S can react with these olefins to form mercaptans. In such a case, lowering the reactor temperature can eliminate residual olefins and thus mercaptan formation. Decomposition of oxygen and nitrogen compounds requires a somewhat higher temperature than desulphurization or olefin saturation, and the removal of these compounds does not appear to level .off in the same way at elevated temperatures. Units with significant levels pf nitrogen or oxygen must be designed for high pressure and low LHSV to ensure complete conversion. The demetalization reactions are not very dependent on temp erature. Above 315C (600F), metals removal is essentially complete. Below this temperature, there may be some cases where all the metals will not be removed. The .recommended minimum reactor inlet temperature to ensure a properly prepared Platformer feed is 315C (600F). There are two factors which are important in determining this minimum temperature; first, below the minimum temperature, reaction rates for contaminant removal may be too low. Second, the temperature must be maintained high enough to ensure that the combined feed (recycle or once-through gas plus naphtha) to the charge heater is all vapor. Hydrotreating of Naphtha 20
Chapter #2
Normal reactor design temperatures for both straight run and c racked naphtha (SRN) are 399C (750F) maximum. "Actual operating temperatures will vary, depending upon the feed type, from 285C (550F) to 285 C (650F). Cracked stocks may require processing at higher temperatures because of the higher sulfur, nitroge n, and olefin contents. For these feeds, the reactor delta T will be higher, 1n the range of 10-55C (20-100F). As the catalyst ages, the product quality may degenerate, which may be corrected by Increasing reactor inlet temperature. If increasing the temperature does not improve the product quality, a regeneration or change of catalyst will be required, depending on the history of the operation and catalyst state. In addition to catalyst deterioration, scale and polymer forma tion at the top of the bed may cause high reactor pressure drops which may result in reactor channeling. This may be corrected by skimming the top of the catalyst bed; and/or unloading, screening and reloading. High pressure drop problems should be/ corrected as soon as possible to minimize the possibility of equipment damage and degradation of product quality C. Feed Quality For normal operation, daily changes in hydrotreater inlet temperature to accommodate changes in feed quality should not be necessary. However, in some cases, suc h as when a refinery is purchasing outside crude from widely different sources, the naphtha quality may change significantly, and adjustment of reactor Inlet temperature may be necessary. The final selection of reactor temperature should be based upon prod uct quality. The above relations of feed quality and temperature assume operation within the normal temperature operating ranges given 1n the preceding section. D. Hydrogen to Hydrocarbon Ratio The minimum hydrogen to feed ratio (nm3 /m3 or SCFB) is dependent on hydrogen consumption, feed characteristics, and desired product quality. For straight run naphtha of moderate sulfur content, 40-75 nm3 /m3 (250-400 SCFB) is normally required. Cracked naphtha must be processed at higher H2 ratios [up to 500 Hydrotreating of Naphtha 21
Chapter #2
nm3 /m3 (3000 SCFB)]. As feedstock varies between these limits, the hydrogen to feed ratio is proportioned between the extremes. Ratios above 500 nm3 /m3 (3000 SCFB) do not contribute to the rate of reactions. The use of low purity hydrogen as makeup gas is limited by economical operation of the recycle compressor. Recycle gas with hydrogen sulfide contents up to 10X and with large quantities of carbon monoxide and nitrogen are not harmful/ to the catalyst, again when reasonable desulphurization is the only criterion. For nitrogen removal or complete' sulfur removal, high hydrogen purity (70X minimum) is necessary, and CO may act as a temporary catalyst poison. The prevention of excessive carbon accumulation on the catalyst requires maintenance of a minimum H2 partial pressure, so impurities present in the makeup gas require higher operating pressures. Lower hydrogen to hydrocarbon ratios can be compensated for by increasing reactor inlet temperature. The approximate relation for these variables is 10C (18F) higher reactor temperature .requirement for a halving of the hydrogen/feed ratio. This rule assumes operation above the minimum values of 315C (600F) reactor inlet temperature and 40 nm3/M3 (250 SCFB) hydrogen ratio. This relation is approximate, and it should a gain be pointed out that product quality should dictate the actual reactor temperature utilized. E. Space Velocity The quantity of catalyst per unit of feed will depend upon feedstock properties, operating conditions, and product quality required. The liq uid hourly space velocity (LHSV) is defined as f ol1ows: LHSV = volume of charge per hour volume of catalyst With most charge stocks and product objectives, a simplified kinetic expression based on sulfur and/or nitrogen removal determines the initial liquid hourly space velocity. This initial value may be modified due to other considerations, such as size 'of unit, extended first cycle catalyst service, abnormal levels of feed metals and requirements of other processing units in the refinery flow scheme. Relative ease of conversion for Hydrobon catalysts indicate that olefins react most easily sulfur compounds next, then nitrogen and Hydrotreating of Naphtha 22
Chapter #2
oxygen compounds. There is considerable overlap with several reactions occurring simultaneously and to different degrees. Charge stock variability is so large that only approximate ranges of space velocities can be indicated for the various feed types. SRN is processed at 4-12 LHSV and cracked naphtha at 2-8 LHSV. For daily changes in the LHSV, inlet temperature on the Naphtha Hydrotreating reactor may be adjusted according to the equation below: T2 = Ti - 45 in LHSVi or T2 = TI - 25 in LHSVi (for C) LHSV2 " " " " LHSV2 (for F) LHSV2
Where T^ = required inlet reactor temperature at LHSVi T2 =
The above relation assumes operation between 4 and 12 LHSV and assumes that reactor temperatures are within the limits discussed in Section II. F. Catalyst Protection, Aging, and Poisons
The process variables employed affect the catalyst life by their effect on the rate of carbon deposition on the catalyst. There is a moderate buildup of carbon on the catalyst during the initial days of operation, but the rate of increase in carbon level soon drops to a very low figure under normal processing conditions. This desirable control of the carbonforming reactions is obtained by maintaining the proper hydrogen to hydrocarbon ratio and by keeping the catalyst temperature at the proper level. Temperature is a minor factor in respect to the hydrotreating catalyst life. A higher catalyst temperature increases somewhat the rate of the carbonforming reactions, with other factors being equal. It must be remembered that a combination of high catalyst temperatures and inadequate hydrogen is very injurious to the catalyst activity. Catalyst deactivation Is measured by the decrease in relative effectiveness of the catalyst at fixed processing conditions after a period of catalyst use.
23
Chapter #2
The primary causes of catalyst deactivation are: 1. accumula tion of coke on the active sites, and 2. chemical combination of contaminants from the feedstock with the catalyst components. In normal operation, a carbon level above 5 wt-% may be tolerated without significant decrease in desulphurization although nitrogen removal ability may be decreased. Permanent loss of activity requiring catalyst replacement 1s usually caused by the gradual accumulation of inorganic species picked up from the charge stock, makeup hydrogen or effluent wash water. Examples of such contaminants are arsenic, lead, calcium, sodium, silicon and phosphorus. Very low concentrations of these species, ppm and/or ppb, will cause deactivation over a long period of service because buildup of deposits depends on the integrated effect of both temperature and time. This effect is important in SRN processing for Platformer feed. Apparent catalyst deactivation may be caused by the accumulation of a deposit on top of the catalyst bed. The flow pattern through the balance of the bed is disturbed and product quality is diminished. This condition is easily remedied by skimming a portion of the catalyst, screening and reloading, or replacing with fresh catalyst. The deposit is generally iron sulfide, Hydrobon catalysts exhibit a high tolerance for metals such as arsenic and lead. Total metals content as high as 2 to 3 wt-% of the catalyst have been observed with the catalyst still effective. However, if the calculated metals content of the catalyst is 0.5 wt-%, the frequency of product analyses should be increased to prevent metal breakthrough to the Platforming catalyst. Organic lead compounds are decomposed by Hydrobon catalysts and for the most part deposit in the upper portion of the catalyst bed as lead sulfide. Metals are not removed from the catalyst during regeneration. When the total metals content of the catalyst starts to approach 1 to 2 wt-%, consideration should be given to replacing the catalyst. The only certain method of minimizing the effect of trace metal contaminants on the catalyst is to limit their entry to the system. This is done by careful, conscientious feed analysis and correcting the source of, or conditions, causing the presence of the metal
24
Chapter #2 contaminant.
Dissolved oxygen, though not a catalyst poison, should be eliminated from the feed. With oxygen in the feed, excessive fouling of equipment, particularly the feed-effluent exchangers can occur.
25
Chapter #3
Material and Energy Balance
CHAPTER 3
MA TER IAL A ND E NER GY B ALAN CE

3.1
Basis
4000 Barrel of Naphtha per stream day to be Hydrotreated Bbl/hr Hydrotreated = = MW Density So Weight of Naphtha = 166.66 bbl/hr 42/lbbb gallons = = 3.78 lt/1us gallon 19539.18 kg/hr 42987 lbs/hr 0.7424kg/1lit = = 4000/24 166.66 bbl/hr 109.7 0.7424 kg/lit
MATERIAL BALANCE
For getting high %age desulphurization we take 400 SCF H2 Per bbl (from literature) So Feed rate of H2 = = 166.66 400
66664 scf/hr 26
Chapter #3 Taking H2 purity = 0.712
(from analysis of fresh and recycle gas) H2 lb moles = = = Total H2 Stream = = As avg M.W of H2 Stream So w.t. of H2 Stream = = = 66664/379 175.9 lb mol 79.95 kg moles 79.95/.712 247.05 lb 10.02 2475.44 lb 1125.2 kg
Balance Around Heat Exchanger and furnace is same as same amount of combined feed is entering and leaving that is Wt of comb feed = = = BALANCE AROUND REACTOR As first we know how to calculate the chemical hydrogen consumption in the reactor. As there are a number of reactions going on in reactor so the scientist have developed a formula for calculation of chemical hydrogen consumption that is as follows. The general formula for the chemical hydrogen consumption applicable to all feed stocks can be written as 42987 + 2475 45462 lbs/hr 20664.5 kg/hr
27
Chapter #3 (aS+bN+cB+E) % Wt H2 on feed where in: S N Br E
Sulphur content in feed minus. Sulphur contents in product Nitrogen contents as above Bromine number of fed g/100gm extra consumption
a, b,c coefficient, depending on type of feed stokes According to our feed specification a b c E = = = = 0.12 (coefficient accounts for desulphurization) 0.57 (coefficient accounts for denitrification) 0 (coefficient accounts for olefin saturation) 0.042 (coefficient accounts for extra consumption) = = = N 2 contents in feed Wt% N 2 contents removed from feeds = 0.10335% .10335 .1033 0.001% 0.95 0.9995
Wt% sulfur contents in feeds Wt% sulfur contents in removed
= 0.001 =
0.0095 % wt 0.042
Extra Cons. Putting values in formula
= 0.12 =
0.1033 + 0.57
0.0095 + 0 + 0.042
0.0598 wt % H2 on feed 28
Chapter #3 So
H2 Consumption
0.0598 42987 100
= = Lb moles H2 S formed =
25.71 lbs 11.68 kg/hr

0.1033 42987 100 32
= =
1.388lbs 0.63 kg mol/hr
The reactor effluents pass through H. exchanger & after this some amount of condensate is added for removing salts coming with Naphtha and for dissolving some NH3 which is formed in reactor. Water added = = BALANCE AROUND SEPARATOR In separator some gases streams are separated in gas phase and most of water added is separated from boot (The remaining waters evaporated). So Combined reactor effluent in = Water in Water out from boot Gaseous stream out = = = 45462 lbs/hr 1750 lbs 1736 lbs 1257 lbs 1750lbs 795.45 kg/hr
29
Chapter #3 Naphtha out = 44219 lbs/hr
BALANCE FOR STRIPPING SECTION In stripping section the remainder gases ion naphtha are removed and hydrotreated product is obtained SO Naphtha in Gases out Pure Naphtha out = = = = = 44219 lbs/hr 1275 lbs/hr 44219-1275 42944 lbs/hr 19520 kg/hr
Detailed material balance is tabulated with Process flow sheet
3.2
ENERGY BALANCE
BALANCE AROUND EXCHANGER TRAIN E-110

Cold Side Naphtha flow rate = = H2 stream flow rate Naphtha + H2 Stream in at = = 42987 lb/hr 19539.18 kg/hr 1125.2 kg /hr 120 F = 49 C
Heat Capacity of liquid Naphtha from (120 F) 49 C to 248.0 (4708.4 F) Cp = (0.388+0.00045T)/(SP.G)
30
Chapter #3
.388 0.00045 120 (0.7424)1 / 2 2

Cp1 =
.388 0.00045 478 (0.7424)1 / 2
0.605 Kcal/kgm (Equation might subject an error 4% up to)
Heat Capacity of H2 Stream Taking molar weighted heat capacity and neglecting. Molar heat capacity departure from weighted value Cp2 = 0.745 k cal/kg
Heat capacity of Naphtha vapor for the range = Cpg Cp = (478.4 F) 248 C to (621 F) 327.2 C (4-Sp) (T+670)/(6450)
(4 .7424)(478.4 670) (4 .7424)(621 670) 2 6450
=
Now calculating heat loads
0.616 kcal/kg
Heat Requirements for heating liquid Naphtha up to boiling point = = = m Cp T 19539.18 .650 (248-49)
2352419.57 kcal/hr
31
Chapter #3 Latent heat requirements for vaporizing Naphtha = = = m 19539.18
98
1,914,839.64 kcal/hr
Hear requirements for superheating Naphtha Vapors up to 327.22 C = = = m Cp T 19539.18 /616 (327.22-248)
953.502.60 kcal/hr 327.22 C
Heat Requirements for heating hydrogen gas stream from 49 C = = = Total heat load of exchanger train E1 = 2352419.57 + 1914839.64 + 953502.6 + 233244.59 = =
Hot side
m Cp T 1125.2 .745 (327.22-49)
233,224.59 kcal/hr
5,453,986.4 kcal/hr 5.5 109 cal/hr
Inlet stream at Overall Cp
= =
374 C 0.715
Mass flow rate in
20664.2 kg/hr
32
Chapter #3
Heats required to cool the reactor effluents up to condensation Temp = = = Latent heat of condensation = 19539.18 Neglecting pressure effects) Change in = 1914839.64 kcal/hr 98 mCp T 20664.2 0.715 0.715 (374-242)
1950287.19Kcal/hr
Heat required to lower the temp of liquid naphtha + gaseous stream up to 115 C. For Naphtha = = For H2 Stream = = Total load = 19539.18 .615 (242-110)
1586176 kcal/hr 1125.18 105453.74 105453.74 0.71 (242-110)
1950287.19 + 1914839 + 15861756 + = 5.5 109 cal/hr
BALANCE AROUND FURNACE E-120 Flow rate of Naphtha + H2 stream = = Feed in at = = Over all Cp = 19539.18 + 1125.2 20664.38 kg/hr 621 F 327.2 C 0.715 33
Chapter #3 Out Temp = = Heat Requirements in F1 = = = BALANCE AROUND REACTOR R-130 Feed flow rate in Feed inlet Temp = = 696 F 368.8 C m Cp T 20664.38
0.715
41.68 C
615 954.65 kcal/hr
20664.38 kg/hr 368.8 C

.12 0.1033 .19539.18 100 2
H2 Consumed in desulphurization reactions = =
1.21 kg moles
Overall heat of reaction for H2 consumption in hydrosulphurization reaction = So Heat evolved due to desulphurization = = 1.21 11000 13310 kcal/hr 1100 kcal/kg mol
As Extra Consumption of H2 is assumed to be due to saturation of Aromatics So

0.042 19539.18 100 2
H2 Extra consumption
4.103 kg mol/hr
34
Chapter #3 Heat evolved in Saturation of aromatics = = Total heat evolved = = Cp Temp rise in reactor = 4.103
Material and Energy Balance 16000 kcal/kg mol
65651.64 kcal/hr 65651.64 + 13310 78961.64 kcal/hr 0.72 Kcal/kg
Q Q/mCp
= =
mCp T T
78961.64 20664.38 0.72
= So reactor out let temp = =
5.3 C 368.8 + 5.3 374 C
BALANCE AROUND AIR COOLED HEAT EXCHANGER E-140 Inlet Temp Outlet temp Heat load = = = 93.3 C 60 C mCp0.A T
( Subscript CpOA stands for Over all Heat capacity)
21460
0.62
(93.3-60)
35
Chapter #3 =
Material and Energy Balance 443063 Kcal/hr
BALANCE AROUND TRIM COOLER E-150 Inlet temp Outlet Temp Heat load = = = = = BALANCE AROUND COLUMN FEED/EFFLUENT HEAT EXCHANGER E-185 Inlet temp Outlet temp Heat load = = = = = BALANCE AROUND ACHE E-182 Inlet Temp Outlet Temp = = 151.66 C 60 C m 4645 .95 43.3 C 173.9 C mCp0.A T 20098 (173.9-43.3) (0.626) 60 C 43.3 C mCp T 21460 0.618 (60-433)
221480 kcal/hr
1643156.7 kcal/hr
Heat required for condensation of vapours = =
36
Chapter #3 =
Material and Energy Balance 441275 kcal/hr
Heat required to Fall the temps of combined mixture upto 60 C = = Total load of ACHE = = 441275 + 296932.5 7.38207 105 kcal/hr 5225 0.62 (151.66-60) 296932.5 Kcal/hr
BALANCE AROUND TRIM COOLER E-183 Inlet temp Outlet temp Heat load = = = = = 60 C 43.3 C mCp0.A 5225 T 0.618 (60-43.3)
53925.13 kcal/hr
37
Chapter #3
38
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
CHAPTER 4
EQU IP MEN T DES IGN

4.1 SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER DESIGN Introduction:
In the majority of chemical processes heat is either given out or absorbed, and fluids must often be either heated or cooled in a wide range of plant such as furnaces, evaporators, distillation units, dryers and reaction vessels. The process of heat exchange between two fluids that are at a different temperature and are separated by a solid wall occurs in many chemical engineering applications. And the device used to implement this exchange is known as heat exchanger.
Definition:
The word exchanger really applies to all type of equipment in which heat is exchanged but is often used specifically to denote equipment in which heat is exchanged between two process fluids. Such as: Heaters And Coolers: Exchangers in which a process fluid is heated or cooled by a plant service stream. Vaporizer: If the process stream is vaporized the exchanger is termed as a vaporizer.
39
Chapter #4 Reboiler:
Equipment Design
If the stream is essentially completely vaporized then the exchanger is a reboiler. It is associated with a distillation column. Evaporator: For the purpose of concentration of a solution the exchanger is called as an evaporator. Fired exchange r: It is used for exchangers heated by combustion gases, such as boilers.
Modes Of Heat Transfer

Heat transfer will take place in one or more of three different ways: Conduction: In a solid, the flow of heat by conduction is the result of the transfer of vibrational energy from one molecule to another and in fluids it occurs in addition as a result of the transfer of kinetic energy. Heat transfer by conduction may also arise from the movement of free electrons. Convection: Heat transfer by convection arises from the mixing of elements of fluid. It occurs as a result of actual mixing of hotter part of the fluid with the colder part of fluid due to density variation caused by temperature difference. There are two type of convection: (a) Natural convection
when convective heat transfer is caused by temperature variation. (b) Force convection
when convective heat transfer is caused by temperature variation and so me external
40
Chapter #4 source for the mixing purpose. Radiation:
Equipment Design
All the bodies radiate thermal energy in the form of electromagnetic waves at a certain temperature. These waves pass through vacuum and air and falls on a body then there are three possibilities either they are: Transmitted Reflected Absorbed Depending upon the material upon which they fall. Only the absorbed radiations affect the heat transfer. In many of the applications of heat transfer in process plants, one or more of the mechanisms of heat transfer may be involved. For example in the case of heat exchangers heat passes through a series of different intervening layers before reaching the second fluid.
TYPES OF HEAT EXCHANGERS:

Following are the ways of classification of heat exchangers : (1) 1. 2. According to transfer process: Direct contact type Indirect contact type (a) (b) Direct transfer type Storage type
41
Chapter #4 (2) 1. 2. (3) 1. According to surface compactness: Compact (Surface density > = 700 m2 /m3 )
Equipment Design
Non compact (Surface density < 700 m2 /m3 ) According to construction: Tubular (a) (b) (c) Double pipe Shell And Tube Spiral Plate
2.
Plate (a) (b) (c) Gasketed Spiral Lamella
3.
Extended Surface (a) (b) Plate-Fin Tube-Fin
4.
Regenerative (a) (b) Rotary Fixed- matrix
42
Chapter #4 (4) 1. According to Flow arrangement: Single Pass (a) (b) (c) 2. (5) 1. 2. 3. (6) 1. 2. 3. 4. Parallel Flow Counter Flow Cross Flow
Equipment Design
Multi Pass According to Number of Fluids: Two-Fluid Three-Fluid n-Fluid(n >3) According to Heat transfer mechanism flow arrangement: Single phase convection on both sides Single phase convection on one side, two phase convection on other side Two phase convection on both sides Radiation heat combined transfer convection
Principal Types Used in Chemical Industry:

The principle types of heat exchanger used in the chemical process and allied industries are as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Double pipe exchangers Shell and tube exchangers Plate and frame exchangers Plate- Fin exchangers Spiral heat exchangers
43
Chapter #4 6. 7. 8. 9. Air cooled: coolers and condensers Direct contact: cooling and quenching Agitated Vessels Fired Heaters
Equipment Design
Selection of Heat Exchanger Type:

One of the more important actions taken by the design engineer in arriving at a satisfactory solution for a specific heat exchange is the careful selection of the heat exchanger type that should be used. The selection process include a number of factors, all of which are related to the heat transfer application. These are as: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Thermal requirement Material Compatibility Operational maintenance Environmental, health, and safety considerations and regulations Availability Cost
In the chemical industry the preferred choice has been the shell and tube heat exchanger due to the fact: (1) (2) (3) These exchangers give a large surface area in a small volume Good mechanical layout Uses well-established fabrication techniques
44
Chapter #4 (4) (5) (6) (7) Can be constructed from a wide range of materials Easily Cleaned Well-established design procedures
Equipment Design
More than one heat exchanger can be used in a parallel or series arrangement to
meet special heat transfer or physical requirements. (8) High thermal performance, even with fouled heat transfer fluids.
Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger
___________________________________________
Tube Side Outlet Temp=T2= 230 o F=110 oC Shell Side Inlet Temp = t1 =120.2 o F=49 oC
Tube Side Inlet Temp= T1 = 323.6 o F=162 oC
Shell Side Outlet Temp = t2 =219.2 o F=104 oC
45
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
Shell Side: (cold)

Naphtha + H2 Temp of naphtha + H2 inlet Temp of naphtha + H2 outlet Total Pressure Temp of reactor effluents inlet Temp of reactor effluents outlet Flow rate of naphtha stream entering Flow rate of naphtha stream leaving Flow rate of reactor feed and effluent Designing Steps: STEP 1 To Calculate Heat Duty Q:
Tube Side: (hot)

Reactor effluents = t1 = 49 o C = 120.2 o F = t2 = 104 o C = 219.2 o F = 451 psia = 30.68 atm = T1 = 162o C = 323.6 oF = T2 = 110o C = 230 oF = 42987 lb / hr = 42987 lb / hr = 2475 lb / hr
For Exchanger E-1:

For naphtha = mCp T = 42987 x 0.6 (219.2-120.2) = 2553427.8 Btu / hr For H2 Stream = mCp T = 2475 x 0.73 (219.2-120.2) = 178868.25 Btu / hr Total Heat Load (Q) = 2553427.8+ 178868.25
46
Chapter #4 = 2.74 x 106 Btu / hr STEP 2 Assumed Overall Coefficient: U = 50 Btu /hr ft2 o F STEP 3 Log Mean Temperature Difference: T1 T2 ln T1 T2 (T1 t2 ) - (T2 t2 ) = ln (T1 t2 ) (T2 t1 ) (323.6 219.2) - (230 120.2) = ln (323.6 219.2) (230 120.2) 104.4 - 109.8 = ln (104.4) (109.8) = 107 F
o
Equipment Design
Tl m =
47
Chapter #4 For True Temperature Difference: (T1 t2 ) R = (T2 t1 ) 323.6 230.0 = 219.2 120.2 (t2 t1 ) S = (T1 t1 ) 219.6 120.2 = 323.6 120.2 (Using Figure 12.19 for 1-shell 2-tube pass) Ft = 0.86 Tm = Ft x Tl m = 0.86 x 107 = 92.02 o F STEP 4 Provisional Area: As Q = UA Tm 1 = (2.74 x 106 ) / (50 x 92.02) = 496 ft2 = 55.1 m2 = 0.48 = 0.94
Equipment Design
48
Chapter #4 STEP 5 Heat Exchange r Specifications: 1 2 Pull Through Floating Head Type
Equipment Design
Tubes
16BWG Outside Dia 0D = inch = 0.75 inch = 0.0625 ft = 0.0208 1D = 0.620 inch = 0.0516 ft (Table 10 Kern) = 12 ft = 3.65 m = 1 inch = 0.0833 ft
Inside Dia
Length of Tubes L Square pitch
Baffles:
25% cut horizontal segmental baffles Area of single tube = (0.1623 x 12 x 30.48) / 100 = 0.1809m2 No. of tubes = 55.1 / 0.1809= 304.8
(From nearest count table 9) No. of Tubes = 324 For 2 pass
Bundle Dia:
Db = do (Nt / K1 )1/n 1 (From Table 12.4 Coulson) For Square Pitch: Hydrotreating of Naphtha 49
Chapter #4 K1 N1 Db = = = = Shell: (From Fig 12.10) Shell-bundle clearance: C = shell inside dia bundle dia Shell dia inside (Ds) Baffle Spacing (B): B =0.6 x shell dia = 0.6 x 0.673 = 0.4 m = 1.31 ft No of Baffles: No. of Baffles = 3.65 / 0.4 = 9.1 STEP 6 Physical Properties: Average Temp Shell Side Average Temp Tube Side = 169 o F = 276.8 o F 9 Baffles = = = 0.093 m 0.093 + 0.58 0.673 m = 2.21 ft = 0.31 ft 0.156 2.291 0.0208 (324 / 0.156) 1/2.291 0.58 m = 1.9 ft
Equipment Design
50
Chapter #4 API Gravity k for H2 in feed stream k H2 in leaving stream k for naphtha in feed stream k for naphtha in leaving stream Heat capacity of naphtha in feed stream = = = = = = 59
Equipment Design
0.122 Btu / lb ft2 o F 0.135 Btu / lb ft2 o F 0.0858 Btu / lb ft2 o F 0.0845 Btu / lb ft2 o F 0.545 Btu / lb o F 0.650 Btu / lb o F 0.9 Btu / lb o F 1.025 Btu / lb o F 0.0099 cP 0.011 cP 0.3 cP 0.2 cP
Heat capacity of naphtha in leaving stream = Heat capacity of gases in feed stream Heat capacity of gases in leaving stream for H2 in feed for H2 in product for naphtha in feed stream for naphtha in leaving stream Mean Properties: (Feed) (i) Mean Heat Capacity = = = = = =
0.9314 x 2475 + 0.545 x 42987 C = 2475 +42987 = 0.61 Btu / lb o F (ii) Mean Density 0.635 x 2475+ 46.325 x 42987 = 2475 +42987
51
Chapter #4 = (iii) Mean Viscosity 0.0099 x 2475+ 0.3 x42987 = 2475+42987 = = 0.285 c 0.6897 lb / ft hr. 43.958 lb / ft3
Equipment Design
(iv) Mean Thermal Conductivity 0.122 x 2347.88 + 0.0858 x 42987 k= 2347.88 +42987 = 0.087 Btu / lb ft2 o F
Mean Properties: (Product Stream) (i) Mean Heat Capacity 0.0099 x 2475 + 0.3 x42944 = 2475 +42944 = 0.669 Btu / lb o F
(ii) Mean Density 1.74 x 2475+ 0.650 x 42944 = 2475 +42944 = 4309 lb / ft3
52
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
(iii) Mean Viscosity 0.011 x 2475 + 0.2 x 42944 = 2475 +42944 = = (iv) Mean (k) 0.027 Btu / lb ft2 o F STEP 7 Over All Heat Transfer Coefficient: Shell Side Calculations:
1.
0.19 cP x 2.42 0.4598 lb / ft hr.
Flow Area : ID x C x B as ID = PT = 0.673 m = 0.673 x 3.281 = 2.2 ft. C = 1 0.75 = 0.25 inch. = 0.0208 ft. B = 0.4 m
53
Chapter #4 = 1.3124 ft Pt as = 1 inch = 0.0833 ft. 2.2 x 0.0208 x 1.3124 = 0.0833 = 2. Equivalent Dia. For square pitch: 1.27 De = do do Pt De 3. Mass Velocity Gs = Ws / as = 45506.67 / 0.66 = 68949.5 lb/hr ft2 4. Reynolds No Re.s = = 0.6897 De Gs / 0.078 x 68949.5 = tube outside dia = 0.625 ft. = 0.083 ft = 0.078 ft (Pt 2 0.785 do2 ) 0.72 ft2
Equipment Design
= 7797.68
54
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
5.
jH Factor From fig (28) jH = 47
6.
Prandtl No Pr = = (c / k) 1/3 1.6475
7.
Outside Heat Transfer Coefficient ho = jH k (c / k) 1/3 ( / De

0.14 w)
= 47 x (0.087/0.078) x 1.6475 x 1 ho = 86.36 Btu/ hr. ft2 o F
Tube Side Calculations: 1. Flow Area: Nt at at = n n Nt at = = = = 2 324 0.3302 in2 (From Table 10) 0.0021 ft2
55
Chapter #4 324 x 0.0021 at = 2 = 0.34 ft2 2. De = ID of tube = 0.62 inches = 0.0516 ft. 3. Mass Velocity Gt = Wt / at = 45506.67 / 0.34 = 133843.14 lb/hr ft2 4. Reynolds No Re.t = De Gt /
Equipment Design
0.0516 x 133843.14 = 0.4598 = 15020.2 5. jH Factor jH 6. Prandtl No Pr = (c / k) 1/3 = 1.5228 = 70
56
Chapter #4 7. Inside Heat Transfer Coefficient jH k (c / k) 1/3 ( / hi = De = 70 x (0.087 / 0.0516) x 1.5228 = 179.7 Btu/ hr. ft2 o F 8. Inside to Outside Heat Transfer Coefficient hio = hi x ID/OD = 179.7 x (0.0516 / 0.0625) = 148.36 Btu/ hr. ft2 o F 9. Clean Ove rall Coefficient: hio x ho Uc= hio + ho 148.36 x 82.69 = 148.36 + 82.69 12267.8 = 231.05 Uc 10. = 53.09 Btu/ hr. ft2 o F
0.14 w)
Equipment Design
Corrected Overall Coefficient: Q Ud = A x Tm A = Nt a L = 324 x 0.1623 x 12 = 631.0 ft2
57
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
Corrected Area 2.74 x 106 Ud = 631.0 x 92.02
= 58.6 m2
Corrected Overall coefficient Rd 11. Rd Ud STEP 8 Pressure Drop: Shell Side Pressure Drop: ( Ps ) For single phase flow: Ps = Re.s f = = = Ds = = N+1 De = = f Gs 2 Ds (N + 1) 5.22 x 1010 De S 7797.68 from fig (29) 0.0023 0.642 m 2.11 ft. 10 0.078 ft.
s
= 47 Btu /hr. ft2 0 F = 0.00243
Dirt Overall Coefficient: 1 = Ud = 48 Uc Btu /hr. ft2 0 F 1
58
Chapter #4 s Gs Ps = For two phase flow: ( PTP) PTP =

2 lo
Equipment Design = = 0.7424 68949.5 lb / hr ft2 0.0023 x (68949.5) 2 x 2.11 x 10 = 0.076 Psi 5.22 x 1010 x 0.7424 x 0.078
x Plo
Where
2 lo
= 1 + (Y2 1)[B xo g (1 - xo g) + xo g2 ] = flow quality of liq phase Or mass flow rate of liq phase = total mass flow rate 42987 = 4.88 = 2 0.95
xg
B B Y
= Y+1 = = =
2 lo
0.25 2/2.25 1 8-1 = 7 1 + (72 1) [0.25 x 0.95 (1 0.95) + 0.952 ] 49 [0.01187 + 0.9025]
= = =
44.8
59
Chapter #4 PTP = = 44.8 x 0.076 3.42 Psi
Equipment Design
Tube Side Pressure Drop: ( Pt) For single phase flow: f Gt 2 Ds Ln Pt = 5.22 x 1010 De s Re.t f = = = L n De s Gt Pt = = = = = = 15020.2 from fig (26) 0.00025 12 ft. 2 0.0516 ft. 0.7424 133843.14 lb/hr ft2
t
0.00025 x 133843.142 x 12 x 2 5.22 x 1010 x 0.0516 x 0.7424
= 4n Pr = s 2g
0.053 Psi v2
60
Chapter #4 From Fig (27) V2 2g = Pr = 0.7424 = PT PT = = = For two phase flow:

2 lo 2 lo
Equipment Design
0.0023 x 46/144
7.3 x 10-4
4 x 2 x 7.3 x 10-4
7.8 x 10-3 Pt + P r 0.053 + 0.0078 0.0608 psi
= = = =
1 + (Y2 1)[B xo g (1 - xo g) + xo g2 ] 1+ ( 72 1 )[ 0.25 x 0.95( 1- 0.95 ) + 0.952 ] 49 [ 0.001187 +0.9025 ] 44.8

2 lo
PTP
= = =
x PT
44.8 x 0.0608 2.7 psi
61
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
SPECIFICATION SHEET
Identification: Unit Item No. Type Shell And Tube Heat Exchanger E-110-A 1-2 Pull Through Floating Head
Function:
To heat the reactor feed
Operation: Heat Duty Q Heat Transfer Area A Uc Ud Rd 690480 kcal/hr 58.6 m2 301.5 W/ m2 . K 272.55 W/ m2 . K
0.00243
Shell Side Fluid Circulated Flow Rates Temperature Naphtha + H2 20664.5 kg / hr Inlet 49 o C Outlet 104 o C Pressure Drop Material Of Construction Specification 0.23 atm Carbon Steel I.D C B 0.67 m 0.094 m 0.4 m
Tube Side Naphtha + H2 20664.5 kg / hr Inlet 162 o C Outlet 110 o C 0.18 atm Carbon Steel I.D O.D Pt L n Nt 0.015 m 0.019 m 0.0253 m 3.65 m 2 324
62
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
4.2 FURNACES
Introduction: Furnace is a device for generating the control heat with the objective of performing work. Definition: A furnace is an enclosed place in which heat is produced by the combustion of fuel, as for reducing ores or melting metals, for warming a house, for baking pottery, etc. this is drawn sufficiently wide terms to cover almost all heating operations. The range of operation and the condition under which those processes must be carried out cover a very wide field, and the types of furnaces are equally diverse; therefore, no attempt will be made to describe or figure particular types of furnace. Furnaces may operate over a range of temperature from 300 F or thereabouts, to upwards of 3000 F and they may be intermittent or continuous in operation. The capacity may vary from that of a small pot furnace used for the tempering steel springs, where a few gallons of oil is heated to about 500 F to a blast furnace producing a thousand tons of pig iron a day at a temperature of about 3000 F. The number of types are as great as the number of heating operations, but most comprise a combustion chamber in which the fuel is burned and a hearth (or its equivalent) on which the charge is heated. The principle of fuel economy is the same in all furnaces, and involve a) The complete combustion of fuel b) The rejection of the products of combustion at the lowest practicable temperature b) The reduction of external losses by means of suitable insulation Types of Furnaces However we have made an attempt to classify the furnaces so only the names are indicated here, which also shows the purposes for which the furnaces are employed.
63
Chapter #4 (1) Classification on the basis of fuel used - Fuel heated furnaces (a) Fuel and charge in contact (1) Hearth furnaces Without blast With blast (2) Shaft furnaces Natural draught Forced blast (b) Charge heated by flame alone (1) Reverberatory Furnace Natural Draught Forced Draught (2) Rotary Furnace (3) Sintering machines (c) Closed Vessel Furnaces Charge heated by conduction of heat through the walls of the vessel (d) Charge containing its own fuel Solid charge Liquid Charge
Equipment Design
64
Chapter #4 - Electrical furnaces

( 2)Classification on the
Equipment Design
basis of material heating
(a) Boiler furnace (To get steam from water) Fire Tube Boiler Water tube Boiler Longitudinal Drum Cross Drum Straight tubes Cross Drum Bend tubes (b) Refinery furnace (Crude oil cracking) De Florez circular furnace Box Type furnaces Double Radiant section Box Type Furnace Furnace with overhead convection bank (c) Metallurgical furnaces Metal Industries The metallurgical furnaces are further classified on the basis of following purpose For Tempering For Annealing For Carbonizing For Forging Hydrotreating of Naphtha 65
Chapter #4 For Ensiling (3)Classification on the basis of nature of transfer of heat (a) Oven Furnaces
Equipment Design
On the basis of method of firing Oven furnaces have four types Direct Fired Over Fired Side Fired Under Fired (b) Muffle Furnace (c) Liquid Bath Furnaces (d) Recirculating type Furnace (e) Radiant tube furnace (4) Classification on the basis of material handling (a) Batch furnaces (b) Continuous furnaces Fired Heaters Introduction and operation: Most of the fired heaters used in the petroleum refinery and petrochemical and other chemical plants is a pipe still heater, which is designed to heat process fluid in tubes effectively by burning fuel. The function of the heater is similar to that of the steamgenerating boiler except that usually process fluid is heated instead of water.
66
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
Basically a pipe still heater consists of a combustion chamber for heat release, surrounded by tubes through which the process feedstock flows to absorb heat by both radiation and convection. Using a predetermined air mix ratio, the heat is supplied by the gas or oil burners provided on the floor or on the walls of combustion chamber. The feedstock is fed into and passed through tubes inside the heater. If a convection section is provided, the feedstock is fed to the convection section first, then introduced into the radiant section. During passage of the feedstock through the fired heater, it is subjected to both radiant and convection heat. The inside walls of the heater are refractory lined, to cope with the high temperatures generated by the firing fuel. The feed stock is heated to the required temperature at the specified phase and fed to the next unit in the process sequence; e.g., distillation column, fractionators or reactor etc. the temperature of the feed stock when leaving the fired heater differs according to the operating requirements, but is generally with in a range of 250 o C to 500o C. The fired heaters most generally used are the box type and the vertical cylinder type. Types of Fired Heaters Fired heaters are classified by their construction and purpose. There are basically two types of construction, the box type and the vertical cylinder type. These are further divided by their tube layout, combustion method, purpose and characteristics. Although there are many types of construction to meet process requirements Purpose of fired heaters 1) Heating Raising the temperature of a liquid Raising the temperature of a gas Vaporizing a liquid
67
Chapter #4 2) Thermal Cracking Gas cracking Liquid cracking 3) Thermal Reforming Gas reforming Heat Transfer
Equipment Design
The purpose of a fired heater is to transfer heat to the process feedstock at a predetermined temperature. This is accomplished by burning a fuel or gas, causing large quantities of flue gas to enter the heater. The heat is transferred to the feedstock by radiation, conduction and convection. Heat Transfer in Fired Heaters In the radiant section, the heat is transmitted to the tubes by heat radiation from the burner flame and the heater walls. This heat is transferred to the feedstock by conduction and convection. In the convection section, the heat is transmitted to the tubes by convection of the hot flue gas and is then transferred to the feedstock by conduction and convection Mechanical drafts are induced, forced or balanced. All the four draft methods are used in fired heaters, although a natural draft is more generally applied. Heater Components Burners The following types of burners are used for the combustion of oil or gas, or both in fired heaters: 1) Premix gas burner 2) Non-Premix gas burner
68
Chapter #4 3) Steam atomizing oil burner 4) Combination gas and oil burner
Equipment Design
The burners are designed to produce a uniform flame suitable to the type of firebox involved, together with the most efficient, safe and complete combustion of the fuel. Refractory The following kinds of refractories are used in fired heaters to protect the heater casing (insulating materials) from hot flue gas: 1) Cast able (aluminum cement +aggregates) 2) Brick (fire bricks & insulation fire bricks) 3) Ceramic fiber (Al2O3 and SiO2) Heating tube Heating tube is a kind of container in which high temperature and high pressure process feed stock is contained and receives the heat of combustion. In some special heaters the tube metal temperature will be more then 8000C. The material of heating tube is selected from among carbon steel, low alloy and high alloy steel depending upon service temperature, corrosiveness of process feed stock and others. Generally the heating tube is classified into three types, that is, bare tube, finned tube and studded tube. Tube Support The tube support is literally, the component that supports the tubes. Tube supports are usually of high alloy casting.
69
Chapter #4 Auxiliary Equipment
Equipment Design
There are some auxiliary equipment for fired heaters to achieve higher heater efficiency and to keep the fired heater in proper condition. Air Preheater The flue gas at the exit of the fired heater still contains so me available heat which is high enough to heat the combustion air. Air Preheater is a kind of heat exchanger and is designed to exchange the heat between flue gas and combustion air efficiently. With preheated combustion air the fuel quantity required can be reduced, since preheated air has more heat than ambient air. When the flue gas is cooled too much some trouble may occur in the air preheater elements, fan elements and the refractories in the duct or stack, since flue gas generally contains sulfur compounds. Soot Blower When fuel oil is used as a fuel, a large amount of ash, carbon etc. will be generated and accumulate onto the convection heating tubes, resulting in low heat transfer. Furnace Calculation Step 1 Partial pressure of CO 2 and H2 O (P) is found from graph which is plotted against excess air. Step 2 Emmisivity is found from the graph, it is plotted against PL (product of partial pressure and flame length) different curves for different temperatures.
70
Chapter #4 Step 3
Equipment Design
Exchange factor finally is found by graph, where it is plotted against ratio of refractory area to cold plane area, (AR/a ACP ), different curves for different emmisivities. What is meant by design of a furnace? When we talk about furnace design it means we want to find 1. Size require for the given heat duty 2. Number of tubes require 3. Arrangement of tubes 4. Flue gas temperature 5. Amounts of fuel air steam Methods for designing There is no universally applicable method for the furnace design for all types of the furnaces specially fuel used determent the design method applicable , there are four known design methods 1. Method of Lobo and Even 2. Method of Wilson Lobo and Hattel 3. The Orrak- Hudson equation 4. Wohlenberg Simplified Method Here we shall consider only method of lobo and evans. This is a trial and error method which make use of the overall exchange factor ( ) and a Stefan-Boltzmann type equation. It has a good theoretical basis and is used extensively in refinery furnace design work. It is also recommended for oil or gas fired boilers.
71
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
As in all trial and error solutions, a starting point must be assumed and checked. For orientation purposes, we shall estimate the number of tubes required in the radiant section by assuming an average flux circumferential tube area). Here we have taken vertical tube cylindrical furnace Furnace Design Calculation By Method Of Lobo And Evvans 1-Average radiant heat flux: First of all we shall assume radiant heat flux. In literature, permissible average radiant rate for different types of feedstocks are available. From table 19.2 (Kern) For naphtha hydro treating charge heater Average radiant heat flux= 3000 Btu/(hr)(ft2 of circumferential tube area) 2-Find Q/ Acp: =2 x Average flux =20x3000 =6000 Btu/(hr)(ft2 of circumferential tube area) Where, Acp= Equivalent cold plane surface (ft2 ) = effectiveness factor Acp=effective cold plane surface (ft2 ) Q= heat transferred to cold surface (Btu/hr) ( permissible average radiant rate ) Btu/(hr)(ft 2 of
72
Chapter #4 3- Overall exchange factor ( ) :
Equipment Design
Assume overall exchange factor. Normally it is in the range of 0.55 to 0.65 Here lets take = 0.57
4- Actual heat transfer between hot and cold surfaces: Q/ Acp = 6000/0.6 = 10000(Btu/ hr. ft2 ) 5- Tube surface tempe rature (Ts): It is fixed depending upon the desired temperature of fluid in tubes. Lets, Ts=800 F
6- Evaluate tempe rature of the gases leaving the radiant section: From fig. 19.14 (Kern) Tg= 1140 F Or by substituting Q/ Acp and Ts in the following heat transfer equation Q/ Acp =0.173[(Tg/100) 4 -(Ts/100) 4 ]+7(Tg-Ts) Where, all the terms have usual meaning as described . 7- Heat balance: Heat balance is necessary for the solution of heat absorption problem. The heat balance is as follows: Q = Qf + Qa + Qr + Qs Qw Qg Where,
73
Chapter #4 Q = total radiant section duty , (Btu/hr)
Equipment Design
Qa =Sensible heat above 60F in combustion air, (Btu/hr) Qf = Heat liberated by fuel, (Btu/hr) Qr =sensible heat above 60F in recirculated flue gases, (Btu/hr) Qs =Sensible heat above 60F in steam used for oil atomization, (Btu/hr) Qw =Heat loss through furnace walls, (Btu/hr) Qg =Heat leaving the furnace radiant section in the flue gases, (Btu/hr) A- Total required heat duty (Q): Q =2.3x 106 Btu/ hr (from overall energy balance) B- Efficiency of furnace ( ): Suppose the overall efficiency of furnace = = 0.70 C- Heat liberated by fuel (Qf): Qf=Q/ = (2.3x106 )/ 0.70 =3.28x106 Btu/hr. D- Lower heating value of fuel (L.H.V): We have taken refinery gases as fuel which are obtained during distillation , cracking and other processing of petroleum and its fractions which contain paraffins (e.g. methane ethane , propane and butane) olefins (e.g. ethylene, propene and butene) and hydrogen are called refinery gases.
74
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
L.H.V of refinery gases = 20500 kcal/ Nm3 =20500x(1/0.252)x(22.4/1)x(1/2.2) =828282.82 Btu / lb.mol. E- Amount of fuel consume d (qf): qf =Qf/L.H.V =3.28x106 /828282.82 =3.96 lb.mols. / hr. as the composition of refinery gas is:
COMPONENT S Propane Butane Ethane Methane Hydrogen COMPOSIT ION % 40 30 10 10 10 =0.4 x 44 =0.3 x 58 =0.1 x 30 =0.1 x 16 =0.1 x 2 LBS./LB.MOLS. 17.6 17.4 0.3 1.6 0.2 =39.8
Lbs of fuel gas = qf =3.96x39.8 =157.6 lbs./ hr. F- Sensible heat in combustion air (Qa): (a)- evaluate lb. Air/ lb. Fuel for 20 %excess air lb. Air / lb. Fuel = 20.67 ( from table 18-10 ( nelson)) (b)- evaluate air required (qa): qa = qf x (lb.of air / lb.of fuel)
75
Chapter #4 =157.6x20.67 = 3263.43 lbs. / hr. (c)- air enter at ambient temperature = 77 F enthalpy of air at this temperature = Ha = 10.78 Btu/lbs. (d)Qa = qa x Ha = 3263.43 x10.78 = 35179.8 Btu/ hr. G- heat loss through wall ( Qw) : Qw= 2% of Qf =0.02 x3.28x 106 = 65714.28 Btu/ hr. H- Sensible heat in steam (Qs): Since it is a gas fuel , no steam is required for atomization , so qs. = 0 lb.mols. / hr. Qs = 0 lb.mols. / hr. I - Heat in the flue gases (Qg): Qg = Q(N 2 ) +Q(O 2 ) + Q(CO2 ) +Q(H2 O) aMass flow rate of the flue gases (qg) = qf +qa +qs = 157.6 + 3263.43 + 0 = 3421.23 lbs.hr.
Equipment Design
76
Chapter #4 b- basis : 1 lb.mol. of fuel gases:

O2 (lb.mols.) Required
Equipment Design
CO2 Produced (lb.mols)
H2 O Produced (lb.mols.)
H2 O + 0.5O2 H2 O CH4 +2 O2 2 H2 O + CO2 C2 H6 +3.5 O2 2 H2 O + CO2 C3 H8 +5 O2 3 CO2 +4 H2 O C4 H10 +6.5 O2 4 CO2 +5H2 O
0.05 0.2 0.35 2 1.95 =4.55 0.1 0.2 1.2 1.2 =2.7
0.1 0.2 0.3 1.6 1.5 =3.7
As, Fuel gas required (qf) =3.9657 lb.mols. O 2 required = 4.55 (lb O2/ lb.mol. Fuel gas) x 3.965 (lb.mol fuel gas) =18.044 lb.mols. with 20% excess air O2 fed = 18.044x1.2 = 21.65 lb.mols. N 2 entered = (21.65 x 0.79)/ 0.21 = 81.45 lb.mols. = N 2 leaving O 2 consumed = 18.044 lb.mols. O 2 unconverted = 21.65- 18.044 = 3.606 lb.mols. = O 2 leaving CO2 leaving = 2.7 x 3.9657 =10.707 lb.mols. H2 O leaving = 3.7x3.9657 = 14.67 lb.mols.
77
Chapter #4
b-
Equipment Design enthalpies of flue gases as flue gas temperature :
COMPONENT OF FLUE GAS N2 O2 CO2 H2 O
ENTHALPY OF COMPONENT AT T g (Btu/ lb.mol.) 8004 8427 12200 9602
So, Q (N 2 ) = 81.4x8004 = 651925.8 Btu/ hr. Q (O 2 ) = 3.606x8427 =8430.606 Btu/ hr. Q (CO2 ) = 10.207x12200 =124525.4 Btu/ hr. Q (H2 O) = 14.67x9602=140861.34Btu/ hr. Therefore, Qg = Q(N 2 ) +Q(O 2 ) + Q(CO2 ) +Q(H2 O) = 925743.146 Btu/ hr. So overall heat balance is: Q = Qf + Qa + Qr + Qs Qw Qg = 3.28 x 106 + 35179.8 + 0+0 - 65714.28 925743.146 = 2.3 x 106 Btu/ hr.
78
Chapter #4 8- Establis h the number and Sizes of tubes: Fix tube length = l = 22 ft Fix outer diameter of tubes = 3.5 inch. = 3.5/12 ft. Area of tubes = xDx l = x (3.5/12)x 22 = 20.158 ft.2
Equipment Design
Heat transferred per tube = Average flux x surface area per tube =3000x20.158 = 60444 Btu/ hr. Number of tubes = total radiant section duty (Q)/ heat transferred per tube = 2.3 x106 / 60444 = 38 tubes 9- Arrangement of the tubes: Height of furnace = 23.5 ft Center to center distance = (3.5+ 4) /12 = 0.625 ft Tubes are vertically mounted in a single row along the wall of the cylindrical furnace about one tube diameter away from wall. Diameter of furnace (D) =(number of tubes x center to center distance)/ = (38x0.625)/ 3.14 = 8 ft.
79
Chapter #4 Checking the performance of furnace 10- Evaluate effectiveness factor ( ): For C-C distance / O.D = 2.3
Equipment Design
& Arrangement of tubes is single row when only one is present From fig 19.11 (kern) = 0.79 11- Evaluate equivalent cold plan surface area (Acp): Acp = (number of tubes)x (length of each tube) x (C-C distance) = 38 x 22 x 0.625 = 523.21 ft2 So, Acp. = 0.79 x 523.21 = 413.33 ft2 12- Evaluate the total area of furnace surface (At): For cylindrical furnace, At = xD xH =3.14x8x23.5 = 590.32 ft2
80
Chapter #4 13- Evaluate effective refractory surface (Ar): Ar = At - Acp = 590.32- 413.33 = 176.99 ft2 14- Evaluate (Ar/ Acp): Ar/ Acp = 179.99/ 413.33 = 0.43 exchange factor) 15- evaluate mean beam length (L):
Equipment Design
(this would be used to evaluate
It depends on the dimensions of the furnace & found from any suitable formula from table (19.1) Here, for cylindrical furnace whose dimensions are like Dx2D L = 1x diameter of furnace (D) = 1x8 = 8 ft 16- evaluate gas emissivity ( g): aEvaluate partial pressure of (CO 2 + H2 O) At 20% excess air p(CO 2 + H2O) = 0.24 atm. from fig. 1-7 (Evans)
81
Chapter #4 bCalculate pxL: pL = p (CO 2 + H2 O) xL = 0.24x8 =1.92 atm.ft. cAt pL =1.92 atm.ft. & Tg = 1140 F g = 0.44 17- Evaluate Overall exchange Factor ( ):
at g = 0.44 & A r/ Acp = 0.43 = 0.55 (fro m fig. 19.15 Kern)
Equipment Design
from fig (1-8) (Evans)
18- CHECK: Check of gas temperature (Tg) required to effect assumed duty on assumed surface) aCalculate Q/ Acp using the above calculated value of = 0.55 Q = 2.3e6 Acp. = 413.33 ft2 Q/ Acp = 2.3e6 /(413.33x0.55) = 10117.3 Btu/ hr. ft2 b- Evaluate Tg (actual) at calculated Q/ Acp & Ts
82
Chapter #4 Tg = 1170 F
Equipment Design
So, trial indicates that less duty than 2.2 million Btu/ hr. is performed since this duty does not cool the fuel gases to 1140 F but to only 1170 F , while the flux corresponding to this duty could be effected by a gas temperature of 1140F. In short as assumed Tg (1140 F) is quite different from calculated Tg (1170 F), so we have to repeat the calculations by assuming another value of Tg. SECOND TRIAL: Suppose Tg = 1160 in step 6 (basically we have supposed = 0.57 in step 3 so
that Tg will come out to be 1160F after performing step 6) Qf, Qa, Qw, will remain the same, only Qg (heat taken away by the flue gases) changed. enthalpies of flue gases as flue gas temperature :
COMPONENT OF FLUE GAS N2 O2 CO2 H2 O
ENTHALPY OF COMPONENT AT T g (Btu/ lb.mol.) 8774 9251 13470 10562
So, Q (N 2 ) = 81.4x8774 = 714203.6 Btu/ hr. Q (O 2 ) = 3.606x9251 =33359.1 Btu/ hr. Q (CO2 ) = 10.207x13470 =137488.29 Btu/ hr. Q (H2 O) = 14.67x10562=154944.54 Btu/ hr.
83
Chapter #4 Therefore, Qg = Q(N 2 ) +Q(O2 ) + Q(CO2 ) +Q(H2 O) = 1039995.53 Btu/ hr. So overall heat balance is: Q = Qf + Qa + Qr + Qs Qw Qg = 3.28x106 + 35179.8 + 0+0 - 65714.28 1039995.53 = 2.20 x 106 Btu/ hr. So number of tubes:
Equipment Design
Number of tubes Nt = total radiant section heat duty / heat transferred per tube =(2.0x106 )/60444 =36 (In the previous trial, no of tubes were 38. as there is very small change in t he no. of tubes so we use the previous value (i.e. 38 ) to avoid the repetition of calculations) Similarly assuming that does not change (actually it will fall slightly) i.e. (Calculated) = 0.55 so, Q/ Acp = 2.3e6 / (413.33x0.55) = 101173.38 Btu/hr.ft.2
84
Chapter #4 We have, Tg = 1155F (calculated) Where as assumed Tg was 1160 that is close enough. Circumferential flux = Q / ( Dl) (Nt) =(2.3x106 )/ (3.14x0.29x22x38) = 3019 Btu/hr.ft2 As compared with the specified flux =3000 Btu/hr.ft2 Such a difference is negligible. Final Results Number of tubes = 38 Flue gas temperature = 1160F Heat duty = 2300000 Btu / hr Flux calculated 1 = 3019 Btu/ hr ft2 Dimension of furnace = 23.5 x 8 % Error = [(3000-3019) / (3000)]x 100 = 0.63 %
Equipment Design
85
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
SPECIFICATION SHEET
Identification: Unit Item No. Type Function: Ope ration: Heat Duty Q 2.42*109 J/hr To heat the reactor feed Furnace E-120 Vertical Cylinderical
Furnace Fluid Circulated Flow Rates Temperature Combustion Gases
Tube Naphtha + H2 20664.5 kg / hr Inlet 327 o C Outlet 369 o C
Material Of Construction Refractory material Specification
Carbon Steel Refractory Brick Diameter 2.44 m Height B 6.55 m 0.4 m L.T O.D
Carbon Steel
6.096 m 0.088 m
C-C.Dis 0.1905 m
86
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
4.3 REACTOR
Types of Reactors
The most common types of Reactors are
1. 2. 3.
Fixed bed Reactor Fluidized bed Rector Stirrer tank Reactor
Fixed bed reactor can be further classified on the biases of either heat is supplied during reaction or not. o o Adiabatic Non adiabatic
The reactions taking place within the reactor may be in gas phase or there might a case of trickle operation. For gas phase reactions some important reactor configurations are as under. 1. 2. 3.
4.
Single adiabatic bed Radial flow Adiabatic beds in series with intermediate cooling or heating Direct- fired non-adiabatic
Except reactor type and configuration some other factors are important like , Distribution system and Sporting ceramic balls which also serves for uniform distribution of flow as well. Our Reactor in this case is non isothermal adiabatic reactor with basket type distribution system and standard ceramic balls installation . Detailed calculations of distribution system is given in design calculations.
87
Chapter #4 REACTOR DESIGN CALCULATIONS
Equipment Design
Temp = 369oC Pressure = 29.4atm Sulpher Contents = 1033.5ppm Feed rate = 20664Kg/hr
Temp =374oC Pressure = 29.12atm Sulpher contents = .5ppm
88
Chapter #4 PLANT SPECIFICATIONS Feed rate Wt % S in Feed Wt % S in Product Operating Pressure Operating Temperature = 4000 bbl/std
Equipment Design
= .10335 = .00005 = 430 Psi =28.4atm = 374o C
= 700 F
Pressure Drop maximum allowable = 10 Psi Catalyst Each pellet (dimention 1/8 inch = .3175 cm) Area = = 2*.785*.31752 + .3175 .474cm2 .3175
Dp = diameter of a sphere of same surface = (.474 )1/ 2 = .388cm Diameter of a sphere of same volume 2 ( /4)(0.31752 )(0.3175) 1/ 3 4 /3 = Outer surface / unit volume solid = 0.388cm 0.474 / ( /4)(0.31743 ) = Volume of solid /cu ft bed is (1-e) = 18.9 cm2 /cm3 0.6 cu ft
89
Chapter #4 Total Pellet surface in sq ft /cu ft bed = = (0.6)(18.9)(30.48) 345 ft 2 / ft 3
Equipment Design
However, some of surface is blocked where the pellets touch. A better figure is 310ft 2 = 28.81m2
Per cu ft bed, obtained by graphical interpolation of the values given by Sherwood and Pig ford, p. 87. Pellet surface in sq ft/ cuft of bed From test data Kg = Gm/(aPl) p f dy/y = 45.9 ln(.10335/.00005) (310)(30)(9) = Feed rate = 4000bbl * 24hr 42gal * 1bbl 0.004186 3.76 lit 1 gal * 0.7424 Kg * 2.2 lbs 1 lit 1Kg
= 42987 lbs/hr = 19539.5 kg/hr Moler Feed rate = 42987/109.7 = 391.86 lb mols/hr = 178.1Kg mol/hr H2 stream Feed rate = 245.7 lb mols /hr =111.68 Kg mol / hr Mixed feed rate = 391.86 + 245.7 = 637.6 lb mols/hr Letting S be crossectional area , ft2 L be bed height in ft As Gm = G/S
90
Chapter #4 So our design equation for calculating bed volume is Gm p

f
Equipment Design
dy/y = aPKg L
Putting values in above equation according to our conditions We get 637.6 * ln 0.10335 = 310*29.25*0.004186 L S 0.00005
Sl = Volume of catalyst bed = 128.23 ft3 =11.91m3 Know we have to calculate height and dia of catalyst bed suitable for our bed volume, Which is decided on the base of pressure drop across the catalyst bed. For using equation for pressure drop, which is in Perry chemical engineering handbook on p. 393, we have to calculate Nre first Nre = DpG
Nre
0.364 G (30.48)(0.0383)(2.42)
= Total average molar flow rate Average molecular weight = =
0.128G 637.6 4`2987+``2475 637.6
71.3
91
Chapter #4 Gas density at 710 F And equation for P P/L = 2f U2 = 2fG2 gcDp gc Dp = G = 45462/S F = 5Nre G 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 6000
1
Equipment Design = 2.31 lbs/cuft =37Kg/ m3
(2fG2 ) (30.48) (32.2)(36002 )(2.31)(0.364) 0.0000001737fG2
+ 0.4Nre
0.1
Nre 128.00 192.00 256.00 320.00 384.00 448.00 512.00 576.00 640.00 704.00 768.00
5/Nre
0.4/Nre
P/L
S 45.46 30.31 22.73 18.18 15.15 12.99 11.37 10.10 9.09 8.27 7.58
L 2.82 4.23 5.64 7.05 8.46 9.87 11.28 12.69 14.10 15.51 16.92
P 0.08 0.25 0.56 1.06 1.78 2.76 4.05 5.67 7.67 10.08 12.94
dia 7.61 6.21 5.38 4.81 4.39 4.07 3.80 3.59 3.40 3.24 3.10
0.039063 0.246229 0.285 0.03 0.026042 0.236445 0.262 0.06 0.019531 0.22974 0.015625 0.22467 0.249 0.10 0.24 0.15
0.013021 0.220611 0.234 0.21 0.011161 0.217236 0.228 0.28 0.009766 0.214355 0.224 0.36 0.008681 0.211845 0.221 0.45 0.007813 0.209624 0.217 0.54 0.007102 0.207636 0.215 0.65 0.00651 0.205837 0.212 0.76
92
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
6500 7000
832.00 896.00
0.00601 0.00558
0.204196 0.21
0.89
6.99 6.49
18.33 19.74
16.28 20.15
2.98 2.87
0.202689 0.208 1.02
Reactor design Parameters

25.00
Height, Pressure drop, Dia
20.00
15.00
10.00
5.00
0.00 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 G (mass velocity) 6000 7000 8000
Know choose a value of G and calculate Nre, f, P/L, S, L, and P From above table we suggested value of Dia of bed = 3.8ft = 1.158m Height of bed = 11.28ft3.44m G = 4000lb/ft2 .hr = 19560Kg/(m2 .hr) P = 4.05 Psi =0.2755atm Know we have to select the distribution system for the feed
93
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
According to stander procedure ceramic balls are located at both ends of catalyst bed. Generally the balls used are of 3mm Dia, 6mmdia and 19mmdia. For a reactor ID of 3.8ft from table V-4 Main inlet distribution baskets Dia = 2 ft = 0.61m Small distribution baskets dipped in catalyst bed, Dia = 6 inches = 0.1524m Small baskets height Number of small baskets = 4 ft = 1.219m =7
According to the conventional procedure 60% of small baskets is dipped in catalyst bed, So increase in catalyst bed height due to dipping o f small baskets. = 7x (0.52 ) x 4 x 0.6 4 x 13ft2 = So Corrected bed height = 11.28 + 0.217 = 11.5 ft Bed height with ceramic ball = 11.5 +2 = 13.5 ft Giving 20% vacant space on top and bottom. Additional Reactor height = .4 x 11.5 = 4.6 ft Total Reactor Height = 18.1ft = 5.51m 0.217 ft = .0661m
Reactor Dia = catalyst bed Dia = 3.8 ft = 1.158m
94
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
SPACIFICATION SHEET REACTOR-130 Identification: Unit Item No. Type Reactor R-130 Fixed Bed, Catalytic, Adiabatic, Nonisothermal Hydrotreating of Naphtha Continuous, Gas phase operation
Function: Type of Operation
Reactor Fluid Circulated Feed Rates Temperature Inlet 369 o C Outlet 374 o C P = 0.278atm Naphtha + H2 Stream 20664.5 kg / hr Sulphur Contents Feed 1033.5ppm
Catalyst Name S-7 Composition 5% Cobalt Oxide 10% Nicle Oxide 20% Molybdenium oxide On Silica / Alumina Sport Material
Product: 0.5ppm
Material Of Construction
Killed Steel Distribution System No Dia 0.61m 0.152m Height 0.914m 1.21m
Specification
3
Bed volume 11.9m Diameter 1.16 m Height 5.51 m
Main basket Small Baskets
1 6
95
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
96
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
4.4 AIR COOLED HEAT EXCHANGER

An ACHE is a device for rejecting heat from a fluid directly to ambient air. This is in contrast to rejecting heat to water and then rejecting it to air, as with a shell and tube heat exchanger. Air cooler has many advantages over water cooling so there is a comparison between air and water cooling Air Versus Water Cooling
Air
1.
Water
Air is available free in 1 Water is corrosive and require
abundant quantity with no preparation treatment to control both scaling and cost. 2. deposition of dirt. Mechanical design of an air 2 Danger of process fluid
cooler is very much easy as the process contamination is much greater. fluid is always on the tube side. 3 3. Operating cost for water Cleaning and Maintenance cooler is high, because of higher cooling water circulation pumps HP & water treatment cost. 4. Non corrosive in nature.
is easy in air coolers.
97
Chapter #4 TYPES OF AIR COOLED HEAT EXCHANGER 1) Forced Draft 2) Induced Draft
Equipment Design
98
Chapter #4 An ACHE consists of the following components: One or more bundles of heat transfer surface. An air-moving device, such as a fan, blower, or stack.
Equipment Design
Unless it is natural draft, a driver and power transmission to mechanically rotate the fan or blowe r. A plenum between the bundle or bundles and the air-moving device. A support structure high enough to allow air to enter beneath the ACHE at a reasonable rate. Optional heade r and fan maintenance walkways with ladders to grade. Optional louvers for process outlet temperature control. Comparison of forced and induced draft Air cooled Heat exchangers
Forced Draft ACHE Lower HP requirement if the effluent air is hot.
Induced Draft ACHE Better distribution of air. The hoods offer protection
Better maintenance.
accessibility
for from weather. More difficult to work on fan
Easy assembly.
to
work
on
fan assembly, due to heat from the bundle and due to their location.
Offered higher heat transfer coefficient.
99
Chapter #4 DESIGN CALCULATIONS OF AIR COOLER Mass flow rate of naphtha Mass flow rate of water Total mass flow rate = = = = Feed Temperature: Inlet temperature Outlet temperature Q = = = = = Assuming, U Calculation of temperature difference: T1 = Process fluid inlet temperature T2 = Ta1 = Fins Selection: Circular fins of aluminum Height of fins = process fluid outlet temperature Air inlet temperature = = = = 75 Btu/hr.ft2 . 0 F 2000 F 1400 F mCpT 42987lb/hr 1750lb/hr
Equipment Design
42987+2475+1750 47212.2 lb/hr
47212.2x0.74x(200-140) 2096221.68Btu/hr
2000 F 1400 F 900 F
5/8in
100
Chapter #4 Thickness 8fins/inch Number of tube rows Ft2 bare tube area /ft2 face area Tube OD Air velocity employed For calculating face area required of bundle Through factor calculation and then through graph UAt / KVf = = From graph KVfAf/wCp So, Af = 1.8 = = = = 4 =
Equipment Design 0.017in
5.04 1 in 650ft/min
75x5.04/1.08x650 0.5384
= 1.8x47212.2x0.74/1.08x650 = 90ft2
So a bundle of standard size 4x24 ft2 face area should be selected A safety factor of 6.6% is provided Air temperature rise for 90ft2 face area = = Q/KAfVf 2096221/1.08x90x650
101
Chapter #4 = Air outlet temperature from bundle = = Tlm = 33.170 F 90+33 1230 F
Equipment Design
(200-123)-(140-90)/ln (200-123)/ (140-90) = P = = = R = = = 62.54 0 F t2 -t1 /T1 -t1 123-90/200-90 0.3 T1 -T2 /t2 -T1 60/33.1 1.81
From graph we found the correction factor for log mean temperature difference For two pass flow, FT Tlm = = = As, Q Required surface area = = = U A LMTDc 2096221/61.9x75 451.41 ft2 0.99 62.54x0.99 61.90 F
102
Chapter #4 Surface area from 90 ft2 face, Area = = 90x5.04 453.1 ft2
Equipment Design
This is close enough so, selection of U is right Tube area of 4x24 bundle face for 4 row bundle, Area = = 96x5.04 483.84 ft2
Number of tubes /Row = Total bare area/No. of row x Length x Tube bare area /ft of tube 23 Total no of tubes = = 483.84/4x24x0.2260 90 tubes
Two pass flow of tube side process stream Air face velocity Density of air =air Gross free area = = = = Fin blockage = = Net free area Free area /face area = = = 650 ft /min 0.073 lb/ft3 12(2.375-1) 16.5 in2 12x8x2x0.017x0.625 2.041 in2 14.4 m2 14.46/2.375x12 0.508
103
Chapter #4 Gm = = From figure, h =
Equipment Design 650x0.073x60/0.508 5604.3 lb/ft2 .hr
9.8 Btu/hr ft2 0 F
For fin efficiency for alluminium curve (2h/kt) 1/2 xL = = Dfo /Dt = = From above two factors using graph Fin Efficiency Fin area = = = = Tube bare area per length feet of tube = = = Ratio of fin area to tube area = = do (1-nt) L 3.14x1x(1-8x.017)x12/144 0.2261 ft2 4.33/0.2261 19.15 86% 12x8[(2.25)2 -12 ]x2x/4 + x2.25x0.017 624in2 4.33ft2 (2x9.8/120x0.017x12)1/2 x0.625/12 0.56 2.25/1 2.25
104
Chapter #4 Air side heat transfer coefficient Based on outside diameter ho = = 9.8(1915x0.86+1) 171. Btu/hr ft2 0 F
Equipment Design
Now calculating inside heat transfer coefficient hi Cross sectional area = = G = = = Re = = = hi = 4.5 x x (0.0695)2 /4 0.1707ft2 Mass flow rate /flow area 47212/0.1707 276578.8lb/ft2 hr DG/ 0.0695x276578.8/0.46 41787.44 0.023xk/dx(Re)0.8 x(c/k)1/3
=0.023 x 0.06/0.0695 x (41787.4)0.8 x (0.71x0.46/0.061)1/3 = For air cooled heat exchanger 1/U = 1/ho + (Do/2Kw) lnDo/Di + (1/hi) Do/Di + Re = 1/171.19 + 0.083/2 x 30 ln0.083/0.0695 + 1/175 x 0.083/0.0695 + 0.0004 = U = 0.013308 75.15 175.59 Btu/hr ft2 0 F
105
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
So from above it is proved that selection of U is right so the area selected is right too Calculation Of Air Side Pressure Drop P = 18.93 (Gm Dr/)-0.316 (Pt /Dr)-0.927 (Pt /Pl) 0.515 (Gm2 n/gc) Where, Gm = mass velocity at minimum cross section through the rows of the tube normal to the flow Dr = root diameter of tube gc = acceleration of gravity 4.18x108 ft/hr hr = density of gas
Pl = longitudinal pitch between adjacent tubes in different rows measured on the diagonal, in P = 18.93(4836 x 0.0729/0.018 x 2.42) (2.375/0.875) -0.927 (2.375/2) 0.515 (4836x4/4.18x108 x0.063) = 0.17lbf/ft2 = 0.00471psi = 0.129in H2 0 P static for 4 rows = 0.516 in H2 0
P dynamic for 650 ft/min and 4 rows From graph 0.4 in H2 0 Total P = 0.916 in
106
Chapter #4 Fans
Equipment Design
As fan area is 40 to 50% of bundle face area, fan must be 6in apart from the bundle wall So, 6 fans of diameter 3ft will be suitable For a bundle of 4 x 24 ft2 Total fan area = = Motor Hp = /4x 32x 6 42.41 ft2
actual ft3 /min (at fan) total pressure drop /6356 -fan (system efficiency)- (speed reducer efficiency) = 650 x 42.41-0.916/6356 80 - 95 = 4.46Hp for 6 fans = 0.743 Hp for one fan
107
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
AIR COOLED HEAT EXCHANGER SPECIFICATION SHEET

PERFORMANCE DATA TUBE SIDE MASS FLOW RATE INLE T TEMPERA TURE OUTLE T TEMPE RA TURE PRESSURE HEA T CAPACITY VISCOSITY HEA T LOA D ALLOWABLE PRESSURE DROP DESIGN PRESS URE DROP AIR SIDE AIR VELOCITY MASS VELOCITY INLE T TEMPE RA TURE OUTLE T TEMPE RA TURE PRESSURE DROP
6
Kg/hr
0 0
21460 93.33 60 26.4 0.0035 0.72 2.0910 0.916in H2O
m/min Kg/m hr
0 0 2
198.12 23635 32.2 50.7 0.0306
C C
0
C C
atm KJ/Kg C Kg/m hr KJ/hr atm atm
atm
CONSTRUCTION
TUBE MATE RIA L OUTE R DIA INNE R DIA NO. OF TUBES PITCH NO. OF PASSES NO. OF ROW Killed steel 0.0254 0.0211 90 0.06 2 4 FIN MATE RIA L TYPE HEIGHT NO. OF FIN /m THICK NESS ALUMINUM CIRCULAR m m
m m m
0.0158 315 0.0004
MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT
FAN NO. OF UNIT DIAME TE R OF FA N NO. OF BLA DE BLADE MA TERIAL FAN MA TERIAL POWER m PLASTIC CAS T IRON KW 1 6 0.9146 4
108
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
4.5 DESIGN OF SEPARATOR The separator used in that process is actually three phase separator in which we are adding water to remove solid particles from naphtha stream .so we have here Separated gaseous stream Liquid stream Water Here the vessel used is horizontal because Handling high capacity Water has to be separated from the stream DATA: Gas: In soluble phase In gaseous phase Liquid: Liquid Naphtha Total liquid flow rate = = = Total gas flow rate = = 42987 lb/hr 42987 + 1750 + 2475.52 - 1257.2 45955.32 lbs/hr 1257.2 lbs/hr 0.349 lb/sec = = 1275 lbs/hr 1257.2 lbs/hr
109
Chapter #4 Moles of gas = = Volume of gas: Pressurjre of gas Temperature of gas Number of moles of gas Gas constant = Volume of gas PV V R = = = = = = = = = Density of gas ( )
v
Equipment Design
1257.2/6.4 196.43 lbmoles / hr
370psi 110F = 570R
196.43 lbmoles / hr 10.72psi.ft3 / lbmole.o F ? nRT nRT / P 196.43 x 10.72 x 570/370 3245.8 ft3
= = Density of liquid ( )
l
1257.2 / 3245.8 0.387 lb/ ft3
46.9 lbs/hr
110
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
Selection of Lv/Dv The most economical length to diameter ratio depends upon operating pressure here from 290 to 507.64 psi we use Lv / Dv = 4 and the operating pressure of that process is 370psi Selection of liquid height hv hv = Dv / 2
Fraction of total area occupied by the vapor fv Fv Settling velocity of liquid droplets Ut = = 0.07 [(L v ) / v ]1/2 0.767 ft / sec = 0.5
Here the separator without demister pad is tried so for that Ua = = Vapor volumetric flow rate Qv = = = mass flow rate / density 0.349 / 0.387 0.901 ft3 /sec 0.15 x Ut 0.115 ft / sec
111
Chapter #4 Cross sectional area for vapor flow Av = = Vapor velocity Uv = = = Qv / Av 0.901 / 0.392 Dv 2 2.3 Dv -2 Dv 2 / 4 x 0.5 0.392 Dv 2
Equipment Design
Vapor residence time required for the liquid droplets to settle on the liquid s urface: = = = Actual residence time: = = = = = vessel length /vapor velocity Lv / Uv 4 Dv / Uv 4 Dv / 2.3 Dv -2 1.74 Dv 3 hv / Ua 0.5 Dv / 0.115 4.347 Dv
112
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
For satisfactory separation: Required residence time = actual residence time 4.347 Dv = 1.74 Dv 3 Dv = 1.6ft
Liquid hold up time: Liquid volumetric flow rate = 45955.32 lbs / hr = 12.76 lbs / sec = 12.76 / 46.9 = 0.272 ft3 / sec Liquid cross-sectional area = Dv 2 / 4 x 0.5 = (1.6)2 /4 x 0.5 = 1 ft2 Length Lv Lv = 4 Dv = 4x1.6 = 6.4 ft Hold up volume = area x length = 1 x 6.4 = 6.4 ft3
113
Chapter #4 Hold up time = liquid volume / liquid flow rate = = = 6.4/0.272 23.52 sec 0.392 min
Equipment Design
This is unsatisfactory, 3 minutes minimum required. Need to increase the liquid volume this is best done by increasing vessel diameter the diameter must be increased by the factor of roughly (3/0.392)1/2 = = = 2.76 1.6 x 2.76 4.42 ft 4 x Dv 16 ft cross-sectional area x Length ( (4)2 / 4 x 0.5) x (4x 4) 100.5 ft3 volume/flow rate 100.5 / 0.272 369.5 sec 6.15 min
New Dv
New Lv
= =
New liquid volume
= = =
Liquid residence time
= = = =
114
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
BOOT DESI GN:

Residence time Water flow rate = = 6.15 min 1750 ft3 / hr
Keeping interphase on 50% level of leg Amount of water = = Volume of water hold up in leg = = = Lv /Dv = 1750 x 6.15 / 60 179.4 lbs 179.4 / (2.2 x 0.987) 82.6 L 2.92 ft3 5
As interphase is on 50%,
Total volume of leg
= = Dv Lv = = =
area x length D2 / 4 x 5 x D 1.23 ft 1.23 x 5 6.2 ft
115
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
4.6 DES IGN O F DIST IL LATION COLUMN

In industry it is common practice to separate a liquid mixture by distillating the components, which have lower boiling points when they are in pure condition from those having higher boiling points. This process is accomplished by partial vaporization and subsequent condensation.
CHOICE BETWEEN PLATE AND PACKED COLUMN

Vapour liquid mass transfer operation may be carried either in plate column or packed column. These two types of operations are quite different. A selection scheme considering the factors under four headings. i) Factors that depend on the system i.e. scale, foaming, fouling factors,
corrosive systems, heat evolution, pressure drop, liquid holdup. ii) iii) Factors that depend on the fluid flow moment. Factors that depends upon the physical characteristics of the column and its
internals i.e. maintenance, weight, side stream, size and cost. iv) Factors that depend upon mode of operation i.e. batch distillation, continuous
distillation, turndown, intermittent distillation. The relative merits of plate over packed column are as follows: i) flooding. ii) If a system contains solid contents, it will be handled in plate column, because Plate column are designed to handle wide range of liquid flow rates without
solid will accumulate in the voids, coating the packing materials and making it ineffective. iii) Dispersion difficulties are handled in plate column when flow rate of liquid
are low as compared to gases.
116
Chapter #4 iv) column. v)
Equipment Design
For large column heights, weight of the packed column is more than plate
If periodic cleaning is required, man holes will be provided for cleaning. In
packed columns packing must be removed before cleaning. vi) vii) For non- foaming systems the plate column is preferred. Design information for plate column are more readily available and more
reliable than that for packed column. viii) Inter stage cooling can be provide to remove heat of reaction or solution in
plate column. ix) When temperature change is involved, packing may be damaged.
For this particular process, Acetaldehyde, ethyl alcohol and water system, I have selected plate column because: i) ii) System is non-foaming. Temperature is high (91o C).
CHOICE OF PLATE TYPE

There are four main tray types, the bubble cap, sieve tray, ballast or valve trays and the counter flow trays. I have selected sieve tray because: i) install. ii) iii) iv) Pressure drop is low as compared to bubble cap trays. Peak efficiency is generally high. Maintenance cost is reduced due to the ease of cleaning. They are lighter in weight and less expensive. It is easier and cheaper to
117
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
DESIGNING STEPS OF DISTILLATION COLUMN

Calculation of Minimum Reflux Ratio Rm. Calculation of optimum reflux ratio. Calculation of theoretical number of stages. Calculation of actual number of stages. Calculation of diameter of the column. Calculation of weeping point. Calculation of pressure drop. Calculation of thickness of the shell. Calculation of the height of the column.
118
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
Colburns Method for Minimum Reflux R m
Distillate 580 kg/hr Feed 20104.9 kg/hr
D-180
Q-181 Bottom Product 19524.9 kg/hr
Rf = ratio of key components in the liquid part of feed. Vf = XfB / XfA = 0.4345 / 0.0693 = 6.26 Xnl = Pinch composition of light key component.
X nl
rf 1 rf 1
i x fh
6.26 1 r 6.26 1 0.195

Xnl = Pinch composition of heavy key component.
0.738
119
Chapter #4 = Xnl / rf = 0.738 / 0.26 = 0.118
Equipment Design
Rm
1
LH
X dA 1 X nl
LH
X dB X nH
Rm
1 0.02448 0.0078 1.776 0.776 1 0.118 0.738

= 0.31
Fenske equation
log Nm 1
Xa Xb log
Xb Xa
AB
Nm + 1 =1.298/0.249 = 5.16 Nm = 4.16
N Nm N 1 N 4.16 N 1
R Rm R 1 8 0.3 8 1
N 4.16 0.85N 0.85

N = 33.4 Viscosity
0.24 ,
LH
1.776 ,
LH
0.355
From figure 11.57 Coulson and Richardson, vol.2
0.75
120
Chapter #4 So, Actual no. of plates = 33.4 / 0.75 = 44.5 = 44 plates Maximum vapor flow rate in rectifying section = Vn = 25710 lbs Maximum liquid flow rate in rectifying section = Ln = 24434 lbs Maximum vapor flow rate in stripping section = Vm = 47193 lbs Maximum liquid flow rate in stripping section = Lm = 90132 lbs Plate spacing initial estimate = 0.5m = 18in Calculation of column diameter based on flooding velocity Calculate FLV = liquid vapor flow factor
Equipment Design
FW
LW = liquid mass flow rate kg/s VW = vapor mass flow rate, kg/s
LW VW
V L
FWTop
24434 9 25710 700.4

= 0.1076
FLV Bottom
90132 10.26 47193 742.4

= 0.22
From figure 11.27 Coulson and Richardson vol.6
121
Chapter #4 t 1 = a constant obtained from fig 11.27 K1 Top = 0.08 U f = flooding velocity K2 Bottom = 0.07
Equipment Design
Uf
K1
L V
U f Top
0.08
700.4 9 9
= 0.700 m/s
U f Bottom
0.07
742.4 10.2 10.2
= 0.6 m/s Based on 80% flooding velocity
Superficial Vapor Velocity

Ubase 0.6 0.8 0.48 m/s
U v,top
Maximum volumetric flow rate
0.700 0.8 0.56 m/s
Top
25710 0.36 m3/sec 2.2 9 3600 47193 0.58 2.2 10.26 3600
Bottom
122
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
Net Area Required

Top Bottom = = 0.36/0.56 = 0.643 0.58/0.48 = 1.2
As first trial take downcomer area as 12% of the total. Column cross sectional area Base Top = = 0.643/0.88 1.2/0.86 = = 0.73 1.36
Column Diameter
0.73 4 1.36 4
Top
Bottom
= 0.96 m Maximum liquid rate (kg/sec) Top Bottom For bottom column diameter = = = 11.38 3.08 1.31m
= 1.31 m
Column Area Ac
4
=
d2
1.33 m2
Ac Downcomer area Ad
0.12 1.33
= 0.159 m2
123
Chapter #4 Net area An = = = active area Aa = = = Hole area Ah take 10% Aa as first trial = Weir length (from figure 11.31) = Take weir height Hole diameter Plate thickness = = = Ac Ad 1.33 0.159 1.171 m2 Ac 2Ad 1.33 2(0.159) 1.012 0.1012 m2
Equipment Design
1.3 0.76
0.988 m 50 mm 5 mm 5 mm
Check Weeping
Maximum liquid rate Minimum liquid rate at 70% turn down = 11.38 kg/sec
0.7 11.38
= 7.966 kg/sec
how
= weir crust
Maximum how
11.38 750 742.4 0.159
5/ 4
= 40.29 mm liquid
124
Chapter #4
2/3
Equipment Design
Minimum how
7.966 750 742.4 0.98
= 37.86 mm liquid at minimum hw + how = 50 + 37.86 = 87.86 mm liquid from fig 11.30, Coulson and Richardson Vol.6 K2 = 30.8
U min U min
K 2 0.9 25.4 an 10.26 1 / 2 30.8 0.9 25.4 5 10.26 1 / 2

= 3.883 m/s
Actual minimum vapour velocity
minimum vapour rate Ah
0.7 0.58 0.1012

= 4.01 m/s So minimum vapor rate will be well above the weep point.
125
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
Plate Pressure Drop

Dry Plate Drop Max. vapour velocity through holes
Uh
0.58 5.73 m/s 0.1012
from fig. 11.34 for plate thickness/hole dia = 1
and
Ah Ap
Ah Aa
0 .1
lo = 0.84
hd
Uh 51 lo
2
2 V L
hd
5.73 51 0.84
10.26 = 32.8 mm liquid 742.4
Residual Head
12.5 103 742.4
hr
16.83 mm liquid
Total pressure drop = 32.8 + (50 + 40.20) + 16.83 ht = 139.92 mm liquid
126
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
Downcomer Liquid Backup

Take hap = hw 10 = 40 mm Area under apion
0.988 40 10
= 0.03952 m2 As this is less than Ad use Aap in eq. 11.92 i.e,
hdc
l 166 wd L An
hdc
11.38 166 742.4 0.039
= 25.64 mm ~ 26 mm Backup in downcomer hb = 139.92 + 40.29 + 25.64 = 205.85 mm = 0.20585 m 0.205 < (Tray spacing + weir height) So tray spacing is acceptable
Check Residence Time

tr 0.159 0.205 742.4 71.966
127
Chapter #4 = 3.03 sec > 3 sec satisfactory
Equipment Design
Check Entrainment
UV Percent flooding FLV = 0.22 Satisfactory = = 0.58 / 1.171 0.495/0.6 = = 0.495 m/s 0.082%
from fig. 11.29
= 0.018 well below 0.1
Trial Lay Out

Use cartridge type construction. Allow 50 mm imperforated strip round plate edge; 50 mm wide calming zeros. From fig. 11.32 Lw/Dc QL = = 0.76 99
Angle subtended at plate edge by imperforated strip = 180 99 = 81o Mean length, unpeeforoted edge strip tr Area of unpeeforated edge strip Mean length of calming zone
1.3 50 10
81 1.76 180
50 1.76 0.088 m2
1.3 50 10
3
sin 99 2
0.95 m
Area of calming zone
2 0.95 50 10
0.095
Total area of peeforations, Ap = 1.012 0.095 = 0.917 m2
128
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
Ah Ap
0.1012 0.917
0.11
From fig. 11.33 lp /dh = 2.6, satisfactory within 2.5 = 4.0
No of Holes
Area of one hole
1.964 10
0.1012
No. of holes
1.964 10
= 5152.74
TOP DIAMETER
Max. volume liquid flow rate Max. vapor liquid flow rate = =
V
24434 kg/hr 25710 kg/hr
9 700 .4
6.787 kg/sec 7.141 kg/sec
Liquid flow rate Vapour flow rate For above feed plate Column dia
= =
0.96 m
129
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
Ac = Column Area
d2
0.72 m2
0.0864 0.0864 m2
Ad An Ac
0.12 0.72 Ad
=
0.72
0.6336 m2 0.5472 m2 0.05472 m2
Aa = Ac 2Ad Hole area Ah take 10% Aa
= =
Weir length
0.0864 100 12 0.72

lw Dc 0.76
lw
0.76 0.96
0.7296
= = = 50 mm 5 mm 5 mm
Take weir height Hole diameter Plate thickness
Check Weeping
Maximum liquid flow rte = 6.78 kg/sec
Minimum liquid. Rate at 70% turn down
0.7 6.78 4.76 kg/sec

5/ 4
Maximum how
6.78 750 700 0.0864
130
Chapter #4 = 48.65 mm liquid
Equipment Design
Minimum how
4.76 750 700 0.729
2/3
= At min. rate = = From fig. 11.30 K2 =
33.24 mm liq. 50 + 33.24 83.24 mm liq.
30.8
U h(min)
30.8 0.9 25.4 5 91/ 2
4.146 m/s
Actual min. vapor velocity
min . vap. rate Ah
0.7 0.36 0.054

= 4.66 So well above weep point
Plate Pressure Drop Dry Plate Drop

Max. vap. Velocity strength holes
Uh
6.78 / 9 13.95 m/sec 0.054
131
Chapter #4 From fig. 11.34 for plate thickness/hole diameter = 1 and Ah / Ap = 0.1
2
Equipment Design
Ad
13.95 51 0.84
=
9 700
21.5 mm liq.
Residual Head ht = = Down comer liquid back up Take hap Area under apron = hw 10 = 40 mm 21.5 + 50 + 48.65 + 17.85 138 mm liq.
Aap
=
0.729 40 10
0.0291 m2
2
hdc
6.78 166 700 0.029

=
18.51 mm liq.
Backup in down comer hb = = = 0.255 < (Tray spacing + weir height) 50 + 48.65 + 138 + 18.51 255.16 mm 0.255 m So, tray spacing is acceptable.
132
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
Check Residence Time

tr 0.0864 0.255 700 4.76
= 3.24 sec
>
3 is Satisfactory
Check Entrainment
Uv 0.36 Ah 0.36 0.56 m/sec 0.6336
Percent flooding
0.56 0.7
0.81%
well below 0.1
FLV = 0.107, From fig. 11.29
= 0.05
Trial Layout
Use cartridge type construction. Allow 50mm upperforated strip vannd plate edge; 50mm wide calming zone. From fig. 11.32
lw
Dc
0.76
QC = 99o Angle subtended at plate edge by unperforated strip = 180 99 = 81o Mean length, unperforated edge strip
0.96 50 10
3
8 /180 1.28 m
Area of unperforted edge strip
0.96 50 10
sin 99 2
0.692 m
133
Chapter #4
3
Equipment Design
Area of calming zone
2 0.692 50 10
0.0692 m2
Total area of perforations, Ap = 0.5472 0.0692 = 0.478 m2
Ah Ap
From fig. 11.33 lp /dh = 2.6 satisfactory
0.0547 0.478
0.11
No. of Holes
Area of one hole
1.964 10
0.0547 1.764 10
m2
No. of holes
2785.13
134
Chapter #4
Equipment Design
SPECIFICATION SHEET
Identification:
Unit Item No. Type Distillation Column D-180 Sieve Tray Column
Function: Seperation of Light Components Type of Operation Continuous
DESIGN DATA
Trays design No of Trays : Tray Spacing: Diameter: Efficiency: 43 0.4m 1.3m 75% Hole design Weir Height: 1in Weir Length: 0.988m Hole area: Area of one hole: Hole diameter: 0.1012m2 0.0000196m2 0.00635in
Pressure drop per plate: 139.92mm liq
No. of holes: 5152
Down comer area: Fraction entrainment:
0.159 m2 0.018
135
Chapter #5
Mechanical Design
CHAPTER 5
MECHAN ICA L DES IGN

5.1 Shell & Tube heat exchanger:
Shell side:
Material carbon steel Working pressure 0.1N / mm 2 Design pressure 0.11N / mm 2 Permissible stress for carbon steel 95 N / mm 2 Dia of shell = 673mm
Tube side:
Working pressure = 0.5N / mm 2 Design pressure = 0.55N / mm 2
Shell thickness:
ts = PD/2f J+P = (0.11x 673) / {(2 x 95 x 0.85) + 0.11} = 0.45mm Minimum thickness of shell must be 6.3 mm Including corrosion allowance, ts = 8mm.
136
Chapter #5
Mechanical Design
Head thickness:
Shallow dished & torispherical head t h = PRcW / 2 fJ Rc crown radius W stress intensification factor W= 1/4 [Rc / Rk] 0.5 Rk = 6% Rc W= 1 / 4 [3+ (1 / 6) 0.5 ] J= 1 th = (0.11 x 1.77 x 673) / 2 x 95 = 0.689 mm. Use thickness as it for shell i.e. 8 mm
Segmental baffles:
Baffle spacing = 0.4 x 673 = 269.2 mm Thickness of baffles = 6 mm
Tie rods and spaces:

Diameter of tie rod = 10 mm Number of tie rods = 6
137
Chapter #5
Mechanical Design
Flanges:
Shell thickness = go = 8 mm Flange material IS: 2004 1962 class 2 Gasket material asbestos composition Bolting steel = 5% Cr Mo steel Allowable stress of flange material 100 MN / m2 Allowable stress of bolting material, Sg 138 MN/m2 Outside diameter = B = 673 + (2 x 8) = 689 mm
Gasket width:
do / di = [(y- pm)/ (y- p{m+1})] 0.5 m gasket factor 2.75 y min design seating stress 25.5 MN / m2 Gasket thickness = 1.6 mm Thus, do / di = 1.002 Let di of the gasket equal 683 mm [10 mm greater than she ll dia] do = 0.683 x 1.002.= 0.684m Mean gasket width = (0.684 0.683) /2 = 6.83 x 10-4
138
Chapter #5 Taking gasket width of 12 mm, do = 0.696 m Basic gasket seating width, bo = 5mm Diameter of location of gasket load reaction is, G = di + N = 0.683 + 0.012 = 0.695m
Mechanical Design
5.2
Estimation of bolt loads:

Load due to design pressure: H= G2 P / 4 = (3.14 x 0.695 x 0.11) / 4 = 0.06004 MN
Load to keep joint tight under operation:

Hp = G(26)mp =3.14 x0.695 x 2 x 5 x 10 -3 x 2.75 x 0.11 = 6.6 x10-3 MN
Total operating load:

Wo = H + Hp = 0.066MN
139
Chapter #5
Mechanical Design
Load to seat gasket under bolting up condition:

Wg = = = Gby x 0.695 x 0.005 x 25.5 0.2783 MN = 0.2783 MN Am = Wg/Sg
Controlling load
Minimum bolting area= = = 0.2783/138 2.02 x 10-3 m2
Take Bolt size M 18 x 2 Actual number of bolts 44 R g1 go = = = 0.027m go /0.707 8mm C = B +2(g1 +R) = 1.415 go for weld leg
Bolt circle diameter, = =
0.689 + 2 (1.415 x 0.008 + 0.027) 0.76564 m
Using 66 mm bolt spacing, C = = 44 x 0.066 / 0.9243 m = 0.93 m 140
Bolt circle diameter, C
Chapter #5 Flange outside diameter A = = = Check of gasket width AbSg / GN = ( 1.56 x 10-4 x 44 x 138) / = 50.43 < 2y.It is satisfied x 0.012 x 0.4 x 0.475 C + bolt diameter + 0.02 m (minimum) 0.93 + 0.018 + 0.02 0.968 = 0.97m
Mechanical Design
Flange moment computation:

For operating condition: Wo W1 = = W1 + W2 + W3 (B2 / 4) P / 4 (0.689)2 0.11 = W2 = = = W3 = = Total flange moment, 0.0410 H-W1 0.06004 0.0410 1.9 x 10 -3 Wo-H = 6.6 x 10 -3 MN Mo = W1 a1 + W2 a2 + W3 a3 a1 = (C-B) / 2 = 0.93-0.689/2 = 0.241 Hp (gasket load)
141
Chapter #5 a3 = (C-B) / 2 = 0.93-0.689 / 2 = 0.241 a2 = (a1+a2) /2 = 0.241 Mo = 1.1 x 10 -2
Mechanical Design
For bolting up condition

Mg = W. a3 W = (Am +Ab)/(2). Sg Ab = area of bolt = 44 x 1.56 x 10 -4 = 6.76 x 10 -3 m 2 Am = Minimum bolt area. =1.38 x 10 -3 m 2 Sg = 138N/mm 2 W = 0.562 MN a3 = 0.241 Mg = 0.135 MN-m Mg is controlling moment
Flange thickness:
t 2 = (MCfY)/(BSt) = (MCfY/BSfo) K= (A/B) = (0.97/0.689) = 1.407
142
Chapter #5 Assume, Cf =1 From the graph, Y = 3 M = 0.1275MN-m St = Allowable stress =100MN / m 2 t 2 =(0.1275 x 3) / (0.689 x 100) = 0.0055 t = 0.074m
Mechanical Design
Tube sheet thickness:

tts. = F x G [0.025 x P / 95] 1/2 = 1 x 0.695 [0.025 x 0.55 / 95] 1/2 = 8.36 mm tts = 11.3 mm including corrosion allowance
Channel and channel cover:

th = Gc [KP/95]1/2 = 0.695 [1.407x0.55/95]1/2 = 6.27mm th =10mm including corrosion allowance.
Nozzle:
Thickness of nozzle = PD/2fJ-P Hydrotreating of Naphtha 143
Chapter #5 Inlet & outlet dia 100 mm Vent 50 mm Drain 50 mm Opening for relief value 75 mm tn = 0.55 x 100/2 x 95 x (1-0.55) Corrosion allowance 3 mm tn = 4 mm = 0.293
Mechanical Design
Considering the size of the nozzle & the pressure rating, it is necessary to provide for a reinforcing pad on the channel cover. Area required to be compensated for each nozzle A = d x th = 100 x 10 = 1000 mm 2 .
Saddle Support:
Material- low carbon steel Diameter = 454 mm Length of the shell, L = 3.8 m Knuckle radius = 6% of diameter = 27.24 mm Total depth of head = [Dx r /2]1/2 = [454x27.4 / 2 ]1/2
144
Chapter #5 H= 78.63mm Weight of vessel & contents, W = 11943 kg. Distance of saddle centerline from shell end, A = 0.5 x R = 113.5 mm
Mechanical Design
Longitudianl bending moments:

M1 = QA [ {1- ( 1- A/L + {R2 H2 }/2AL)}/ 1+ 4L/ 3L] Q = Load carried by each symmetrical support = W/2 ( L + 4H/3) = 11943/2 ( 3.05 +4x0.078 /3) =18834.1 Kg M2 = QL/4 [{{ 1+2 {(R2 H2 ) / L2 }/ {1+ 4H / 3L}} 4A / L] So, M1 = 12.778 Kg.m M2 = 10218 Kg.m Stresses in shell at the saddle 1.At the topmost fibre of the cross section. F1= M1 / k1 R2 t K1 = 1 t = thickness of the shell f1 = 12.778 / ( 3.14 x 0.008 x 0.2272 ) = 0.9865 Kg / cm2
145
Chapter #5 2.At the bottom most fibre of the cross section F2 = M1 / k2 K2 = 1 F2 = 0.9865 Kg/cm2 Stresses are well within the permissible values. Stresses in the shell at mid span: The stress at the span is, F3 = M2 / R2 t = 789.46Kg / cm2 Axial stress is the shell due to internal pressure : Fd = P Di / 4 t = 1.12 x 673 / 4 x 8 = 23.55 Kg / cm2 f3 + fp = 813.015 kg / cm2 Stresses are well within the permissible values. R2 t
Mechanical Design
146
Chapter #6
Pump Selection
CHAPTER 6
PUMP SELEC TION

6.1 FACTORS AFFECTING CHOICE OF A PUMP
1) Many different factors can influence the final choice of a pump for a particular
operation. The following list indicates the major factors that govern pump selection. 2) The amount of fluid that must be pumped. This factor determines the size of
pump (or pumps) necessary. 3) The properties of the fluid. The density and the viscosity; of the fluid influence
the power requirement for a given set of operating conditions, corrosive properties of the fluid determine the acceptable materials of construction. If solid particles are suspended in the fluid, this factor dictates the amount of clearance necessary and may eliminate the possibility of using certain types of pumps. 4) The increase in pressure of the fluid due to the work input of the pumps. The head
change across the pump is influenced by the inlet and downstream reser voir pressures, the change in vertical height of the delivery line, and frictional effects. This factor is a major item in determining the power requirements. 5) Type of flow distribution. If nonpulsating flow is required, certain types of
pumps, such as simplex reciprocating pumps, may be unsatisfactory. Similarly, if operation is intermittent, a self-priming pump may be desirable, and corrosion difficulties may be increased. 6) Type of power supply. Rotary positive-displacement pumps and centrifugal
pumps are readily adaptable for use with electric- motor or internal-combustion-engine drives; reciprocating pumps can be used with steam or gas drives. 7) Cost and mechanical efficiency of the pump.
147
Chapter #6
Pump Selection
6.2 PUMP SELECTION OF P-111

Flow rate = 4000 bbl / std = 4000 bbl / std * 1std / 24hr * 1hr / 60min * 42 U.S . gallons / bbl = 116.6 gallons / min Inlet Pressure = 15 Psi Outlet Pressure = 461Psi Density = 46.25 Lb/ft3
Developed Pressure = 446 Psi = 64224 Psf Developed Head = 1388.62 ft
Eff = 80 0.2855 F + 3.78 x 10 - 4 FG 2.38 x 10 -7 FG2 + 5.39 x 10 4 F2 -6.39 x 10 -7 F2 G + 4 x 10 -10 F2 G2 Where Eff = Pump % age efficiency F = Developed Head, ft G = Flow rate, GPM So putting values in the equation we get Eff = 76.5% H.P = GPM (P) / 1715* eff
148
Chapter #6 Where GPM = flow rate in Gallon Per min. P = Developed pressure, Psi eff = Efficiency in fraction Pump Horsepower = H.P = 35.67 h.
Pump Selection
149
Chapter #7
Instrumentation and control
CHAPTER 7
INS TR U ME N TA TION AND CON TR OL

The important feature common to all process is that a process in never in a state of static equilibrium except for a very short period of time and process is a dynamic entity subject to continual upset or disturbance which' tend to drive it away from the desired state of equilibrium the process must then be manipulated upon or corrected to derive some disturbance bring about only transient effect in the process behavior. These passes away and the never occur again. Others may apply periodic or cycle forces which may make the process respond in a cyclic or periodic fashion. Most disturbances are completely random with respect to time a show no repetitive pattern. Thus their occurrence may be expected hut cannot be predicated at any particular time. If a process is to operate efficiently, disturbances in the process must be controlled. A process is designed for a particular objective or output and is then found. Sometimes by trail and error and sometimes by referring from the previous, experience that control of a particular variable associated with some stages of the process is necessary to achieve the desired efficiency. Each process will have associated with it number of variables which are independent of the process and/ or its operation and which are likely to change at random. Each such change will lead to changes in the dependent variables of the process one of which is selected as bring indicative of successfully operation. One of the input variable will be manipulated to cause further changes in the output variable will be manipulated to cause further changes in the output variable the original conditions, Process may controlled more precisely to give more uniform and higher quality products by the application of automatic control, often leading to higher profits additionally, process which response too rapidly to be controlled by human operators can be controlled automatically. Automatic control is also beneficial in certain remote, hazardous or routine operations. After a period of experimentation, computers are now being used to operate automatically control processing systems, which may too large and too complex for effective direct
150
Chapter #7 human control.
Since process profit is usually the most important benefit to obtained by applying automatic control. The quality of control and its cost should be compared with the economic return expected and the process technical objective. The economic return includes reduced operating costs, maintenance and of the specification product along with improved process operability and increased throughout.
7.1 COMPONENTS OF THE CONTROL SYSTEM Process

Any operation of series of operations that produce a desired final result is a process. In this discussion the process is the purification of natural
Measuring Means
As all the parts of the control system, measuring element, is perhaps the most important. If the measurements are not made properly the remainder of the system cannot operate satisfactorily. The measured variable is chosen to represent the desired condition in the process.
7.2 ANALYSIS OF MEASUREMENT Variables to he Measured

a. b. c. d. Pressure Measurement Temperature Measurement Flow Rate Measurement Level Measurement
151
Chapter #7
Variables to be Recorded
Indicated temperature, composition, pressure etc.
7.3 CONTROLLER
The controller is the mechanism that responds to any error indicated by the error detecting mechanism. The output of the controller is some predetermined function of the error. There arc three types of controllers. 1. Proportion action which moves the control valve indirect proportion to the
magnitude of the error. 2. Integral action (reset) which moves the control valve based on the time integral of the
error and the purpose of integral actions is to drive the process back to .its set point when it has been disturbed. 3. Ideal derivative action and its purpose are to anticipate where the process is
heading by cooking at the time a rate of change of error. The final control element receives the signal from the controller and by some predetermined relationship changes the energy input to the process.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTROLLER
In general the process controllers can be classified as a. b. c. Pneumatic controllers Electronic controllers Hydraulic controllers
While dealing with the gases, the controller and the final control element may be pneumatically operated due to the following reasons. i. The pneumatic controller is very rugged and almost free of
152
Chapter #7
maintenance. The maintenance men have not had sufficient training and background in electronics, so pneumatic equipment is simple. ii. pneumatic controller appears to be safer in a potentially explosive atmosphere which
is often present in the industry. iii. Transmissions distances are short pneumatic and electronic
transmissions system are generally equal up to about 200 to 300 feet. Above this distance electronic system beings to offer savings.
MODES OF CONTROL
The various types of control are called modes, and they determine type of response obtained. In other words these describe the action of controller that is the relationship of output of output signal to the input or error signal. It must be noted that is error that achieve the controller. The four basic mode of control are: 1. 2. 3. 4. On-off control Integral control Proportional control Rate or derivative control
In industry purely integral, proportional or derivative modes seldom occur alone in the control system. The on-off controller is the controller with very high gain. In this case the error signal at once off the valve or any other parameter upon which it sites or completely sets system.
7.4 ALARMS AND SAFETY TRIPS

Alarms are used to alert operators of serious and potentially hazardous, deviations in process conditions, key instruments are fitted with switches and relays to operate audible and visual alarms on the control panels.
153
Chapter #7 The basic components of an automatic trip system are 1.
A sensor to monitor the control variable and provide and output signal when a preset
value is exceeded (the instrument). 2. A link to transfer the signal to the activator, usually consisting of a system of pneumatic or electric relays. 3. An activator to carry out the required action close or open a valve, switch off a motor.
7.5 CONTROL LOOPS

For instrumentation and control of different sections and equipments of plants, following control loops are most often used. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Feed backward control loop Feed forward control loop Ratio control loop Auctioneering control loop Split range control loop Cascade control loop
Here is given a short outline of these control schemes, so that to justify our selection of a control loop for specified equipment.
FEED BACK CONTROL LOOP

A method of control in which a measured value of a process variable is compared with the desired value of the process variable and any necessary action is taken. Feed back control is considered as the basic control loops system. Its disadvantage lies in its operational procedure. For example if a certain quantity is entering in a process, then a monitor will be there at the process to note its value. Any changes from the set point will Hydrotreating of Naphtha 154
Chapter #7
be sent to the final control element through the controller so that to adjust the incoming quantity according to desired value (set point). But in fact change has already occurred and only corrective action can be taken while using feed back-control system.
FEED FORWARD CONTROL LOOP

A method of control in which the value of a disturbance is measured, and action is taken to prevent the disturbance by changing the value of a process variable. This is a control method designed to prevent errors from occurring in a process variable. This control system is better than feed back control because it anticipates the change in the process variable before it enters the process takes the preventive action. While in feed back enter system action is taken after the chanee has occurred.
RATIO CONTROL
A control loop in which, the controlling element maintains a predetermined ratio of one variable to another. Usually this control loop is attached to such as system where two different streams enter a vessel for reaction that may be of any kind. To maintain the stoichiometic quantities of different streams this loop is used so that to ensure proper process going on in the process vessel.
AUCTIONEERING CONTROL LOOP

This type of control loop is normally used for a huge vessel where, readings of a single variable may be different at different locations. This type of control loop ensures safe operation because it employs all the readings of different locations simultaneously, and compares them with the set point, if any of those readings is deviating from the set point then the controller sends appropriate signal to final control element.
SPLIT RANGE LOOP

In this loop controller is per set with different values corresponding to different action to be take at different conditions. The advantage of this loop is to maintain the proper conditions and avoid abnormalities at very differential levels.
155
Chapter #7
CASCADE CONTROL LOOP

This is a control in which two or more control loops are arranged so that the output of, one controlling element adjusts the set point of another controlling element. This control loop is used where proper and quick control is difficult by simple feed forward or feed backward control. Normally first loop is a feed back control loop. We have selected a cascade control loop for our heat exchanger in order to get quick on proper control.
7.6 INTERLOCKS
Where it is necessary to follow a fixed sequence of operations for example, during a plant start-up and shut-down, or in batch operations. Interlocks are includes to prevent operators departing from the required sequence. They may be incorporated in the control system design, as pneumatic or electric relays or may be mechanical interlocks.
CONTROL OF HEAT EXCHANGER

The Normal Way The normal method of controlling a heat exchanger is to measure exit temperature of process fluid and adjust input of heating or cooling medium to hold the desired temperature. To stabilize this feed back control, in almost all cases the control must have a wide proportional band (i.e, wide range of exit temperature change operates the control valve through full stroke). The proportional band is determined by gain of other components in the control loop by process considerations. It is an cxccniion when the usual combination of conventional control elements permits use of narrow band control mechanism. . Since heat-exchanger control require a wide proportional band for stabilization, reset response (rate of change of heating medium How proportional to exit temperature. deviation from controller set point is normally required to correct for off set in the controlled variable (temperature). It there are process load change and reset response can be eliminated in cases where disturbance such as heating fluid header pressure, product
156
Chapter #7
flow rate or inlet temperature changes have small effects relative to desired tolerance on the controlled variable. When throughout to a heat exchanger is changed rapidly a short-term error in control temperature results. The magnitude and duration of this error can normally be reduced by a factor of two by adding derivative response to the control mechanism and adjusting it properly. In derivative responses, heating fluid flow rate is proportional to rate or change of temperature derivation from the set point. A Pressure Cascade Control A pressure cascade control system cascades output of a standard three action temperature controller into the set point of a pressure controller. It achieves a more rapid recovery to process load disturbances in a shell-and-tube exchanger than can be obtained without the pressure controller. Heating fluid to the heater is regulated by the pressure controller which is normally provided with proportional and reset responses. Load change is rapidly sensed by a change is shell pressure which is compensated for by the pressure controller. The temperature control system senses the residual error and resets the pressure control set point. Bypass Improves Control of Slow-Response Exchanger In certain cascade, the time response characteristic of heat exchanger is too slow to hold temperature deviations resulting from load changes within desired tolerances. In some of these cases, the transient characteristic of the heat exchanger can be circumvented by bypassing the heater with a parallel line and bledding cold process fluid with hot fluid from the heater. In the by-pass system care must be taken in sizing valves to obtain the-desired flow sprit with adequate flow versus steam travel characteristics. Thermal elements response time is particularly important since this tie constant is a major factor influencing performance of the system.
157
Chapter #7 Flow Controllers
These are used to control tin- feed rate into a process unit Orifice plates are by far the most type of How-rate sensor. Normally orifice plates arc designed to give pressure drops in the range of 20 to 200 inch of water Venture tubes amand turbine meter are also used. Temperature controller Thermocouples are the most commonly used temperature se nsing device. The two dissimilar wires produce a millivolt emf that varies with the hot- functions temperature. Iron constant to thermocouples are commonly used over the 0 to 1300 F. temperature range. Pressure Controlle r Bourdon tubes, bellows and diaphragms are used to sense pressure
and differential pressure. For example, in mechanical system the process pressure force is balanced by the movement of a spring. The spring positing can be related to process pressure. Level Indicator Liquid levels are detected in a variety of ways. The three common are 1. 2. The following the position of a float that is lighter than the fluid. Measuring one apparent-weight of a heavy cylinder as it is buoyed up more or
less by the liquid (they are called displacement meters). 3. Measuring the difference in static pressure between two fixed elevations, one in
the vapour above the liquid and the other under the liquid surface. The differential pressure between the two level taps is directly related to the liquid level in the vessel. Transmitte r The transmitter is the interface between the process and its control system.The Job of the
158
Chapter #7
transmitter is to convert the sensor signal (millivolts, mechanical movement, pressure difference etc.) into a control signal 3 to 15 psig air pressure signal, 1 to 5 10 to 50 milli ampere electrical signal etc. Control Valves The interface with the process at the other end of the control loop is made by the final control element in an automatic control valves control the flow of heating. fluid the open or close and orifice opening as the system is raised or lowered.
7.7 FEED BACK CONTROL LOOP OF HEAT EXCHANGER E-150
Control Valve
(Final Control Element)
Pneumatic Signal
Control Scheme of
Trim Cooler E-150

Electric Signal
T
Controller
Temperature Recorder & Indicator

(Measuring Instrument)
159
Chapter #8
Cost Estimation and Economics of Plant Location
CHAPTER 8
COST ES TIMA TION AND E CONOMICS OF PLAN T

LOC A TION
8.1 PLANT COST ESTIMATION
As the final process-design stage is Complete, it becomes possible to make accurate cost estimation because detailed equipment specification and definite plant facility information are available. Direct price quotation based on detailed specification can the n be obtained from various manufacturers. However o design project should proceed to the final stages before costs are considered and cost estimate should be made through out all the early stages of the design when complete specifications are not available. Evaluation of costs in the preliminary design is said predesign cost estimation. Such estimation should be capable of providing a basis for company management to decide if further capital should be invested in the project. Evaluation of costs in the preliminary design phase is some time called guess estimations. A plant design obviously must present a process that is capable of operating under condition which will yield a profit. A capital investments is required to any industrial process, and determination of the necessary investment is an important part of a plant design project. The total investment for any process consists of the physical . equipment and facilities in the plant plus the working capital for money which must be available to pay salaries keep raw materials and products on hand and handle other special items requiring a direct cast out lay.
8.2 CAPITAL INVESTMENTS

Before an industrial plant can be put into operation, large amount of -money must be
supplied to purchase and install the necessary machinery and equipment, land and service facilities must be obtained and the plant-must be erected. Complete with all pipe controls Hydrotreating of Naphtha 160
Chapter #8
inn services. In addition it is necessary to have money available for payment of expenses involved in the plant operation. The capital needed to supply the necessary manufacturing and plant facilities is called the fixed capital investment while the necessary for the operation of the plant is termed as the working capital investment.
1. Working Capital Investment
The capital which is necessary lor the operation of the plant is called working capital investment.
2. Fixed Capital Investment
The capital needed to supply flu- necessary maMiif'acttirini1 and plant facilities is called fixed capital investment. The fixed capital investment classified in to two sub divisions, i. ii. Direct Cost Indirect Cost
DIRECT COST
The direct cost items arc incurred in the construction of the plant in addition to the cost of equipment. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Purchased Equipment Purchased Equipment Installation Instrumentation and Control Piping Electrical Equipment and Materials
161
Chapter #8 6. 7. 8. 9. Building (Including Services) Yard Improvement Services Facilities Land
INDIRECT COST
1. 2. 3. 4. Design and Engineering Contractor's Expenses Contractor's Fee Contingency
8.3 METHODS OF CAPITAL INVESTMENT

Various methods are employed for estimating capital investment. The choice of any method depends on the foil owing- factors, a. b. Amount of detailed information available Accuracy Desired
Seven methods of estimating capital investments are outlined, estimate 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Detailed item estimate Unit estimate Percentage of delivered equipment cost Lang factor approximation of capacity ratio Investment cost per capacity
162
Chapter #8
The accuracy of an estimate depends on the amount of design detail available; and the accuracy of the cost data available; and the time spent on preparing the estimate. In the early stages of a project only an approximate estimate will be required an justified by the amount of information by then developed. PERCENTAGE DELIVERED EQUIPMENT This method for estimating total investment requires the determination
of the delivered equipment cost. The cost of purchased equipment is the basis of several pre design methods for estimating capital investment.The most accurate methods for determining process equipment costs is to obtain firm bids from fabricators or suppliers. Percentage of delivered equipment cost is the method used for estimating the fixed or total capital investment requires determination of the delivered equipment cost. The other items included in the total direct plant cost are then estimated as percentage of the delivered equipment The addition components of the capital investment are based on average percentage of total direct plant cost total direct and indirect plant costs or total capital investment. Estimating by percentage of delivered equipment cost is commonly used for preliminary and study estimates. It yield most accurate results when applied to a project similar in configuration to recently constructed plants.
163
Chapter #8
DIRECT COST
PURCHASED Equipme nt Cost =E COMPONENTS Purchased equipment installation Instrumentation (installed) Piping (installed) Electrical (installed) Building (including Service) Yard improvement Service facilities Land Total direct cost Total direct cost = D % AGES OF E 47% E 12%E 66% E 11 % E 18% E 10% E 70%. E 6% E COST ($) a b c d e f g h D
INDIRECT COST
Engineering and supervision Construction Expenses Total indirect Cost Total direct and indirect cost Contractor's fee 33%E 41%E I D+I 5%(D+I)=y
164
Chapter #8 Contigency E/fixed Capital investment Working Capital investment W.C.I
Cost Estimation and Economics of Plant Location 10%(D+I)= x D+I+x+y W.C.I 15% total capital
165
Chapter #8
8.4 COST ESTIMATION OF OUR PLANT

EQUIPMENT PURCHASE COST
Heat exchanger train E-110 Furnace E-120 Reactor R-130 ACHE E-140 Trim cooler E-150 Three phases Separator H-160 Column Feed/Effluent exchanger Distillation column D-180 CHE-187 Trim cooler E-183 Phase Separator H-184 Total Purchase = = = = = = = = = = = = 68, 40, 000 Rs 1710000 Rs 5700000 Rs 1180000Rs 1220000 Rs 1300000 Rs 2230000 Rs 5759280 Rs 2145454 Rs 770000Rs Rs 860000 Rs 3, 74, 54734 Rs
Direct Cost (Rs)

Purchased equipment cost Purchased equipment installation = 0.47 = 3, 74, 54734 Rs
3, 74, 54734 = Rs.17603709
Instrumentation & Process Control = 0.12 3, 74, 54734 = Rs. 4494564 Piping (installed) = 0.66 3, 74, 54734 = Rs. 24720100
166
Chapter #8 Building (Including Services) = 0.18 Yard improvements = 0.1
Cost Estimation and Economics of Plant Location 3, 74, 54734 = Rs.6741846 = Rs. 3745473
3, 74, 54734
Service facilities (installed) = 0.7 3, 74, 54734 = Rs. 26218290 Land = 0.06 x 3, 74, 54734 Total direct plant cost = Rs. 2247282 = Rs. 123225961
INDIRECT COST
Engg & Supervision = 0.33 Construction expenses = 0.41 Total Indirect Cost Total Direct & Indirect Cost Contractors fee = 0.05 150942439 Contingency = 0.1 150942439 3, 74, 54734 = Rs.12360051 3, 74, 54734 = Rs.15356427 = Rs. 27716478 = Rs150942439 = Rs. 7547121.95 = Rs. 15094243.9
FIXED CAPITAL INVESTMEN

Fixed Capital Investment = Total direct + indirect cost + contingency + Contractors fee = Rs. 173583804.9
167
Chapter #8
Total capital investment

Now W.C = = 0.15 (T.C.I) 0.15
F.C.I + W.C
(173583804.9 + WC)
26037570.74 0.85
30632436.15 Rs = 20,42,16,241 Rs.
Total Capital Investment = T.C.I
(Twenty caroor Fourty two lakes sixteen thousands ,two hundred and fourty one rupees only)
8.5 ECONOMICS OF PLANT LOCATION

The final choice of the plant site usually involves a, presentation ol/the economic factors for several equally attractive sites. He exact type of economic study of plant locations will vary with each company making a study. It should include the following.
INVESTMENT
Plant New Money Existing facilities Working capital Annual sales Cost
168
Chapter #8 Manufacturing Distributing Selling Research Annual Earnings Operative Net after taxes Net annual return On total investment
The limitations of preliminary plan! location cost studies should be recognized pointed out a management. No matter how carefully a survey is prepared, future trends such as population and marketing shifts, development of competitive processes and the advent of new industries. Services and transportation facilities cannot be reliably predicated.
PLANT LOCATION AND SITE SELECTION

The location of plant has a crucial effect on the profitability of project for future expansion. Many factors are considered when A brief explanation of each factor is given below. i. Raw Materials Supply and the scope
selecting a suitable site.
Probably the location of the raw materials of an industry contributes more towards the choice of a plant site than any other factor. This is especially noticeable in those industries in which the raw material is inexpensive and bulky and is made more compact and obtains a high bulk value during the process of manufacturing.
169
Chapter #8 ii. Marketing Area
For materials that are produced in bulk quantities, such as cement, minerals acids and fertilizers, where the cost of e product per ton is relatively low and cost of transportation has a significant fraction of the sale price. The plant should be located closed to the primary market. This consideration will be less important for low volume production, high price product such as pharmaceuticals. iii. Transportation Facilities
The Transport of material and products too and from the plant will be over riding consideration in site selection. If practicable, a site should be selected that is closed to at least two major forms of transport, road, rail, water way (canal or river) or a sea port. Road transport is being increasingly used and is suitable for local distribution from a central ware house. Rail transportation will be cheaper for long distance transport of bulk chemicals. Air transport is convenient and efficient for the movement of pe rsonnel and essential equipment and supplies and the proximity of the site to a major airport should be considered. iv. Sources of Powe r
Power for chemical industry is primarily from coal, water and oil; these fuels supply (he most flexible and economical sources, in as much as they provide for generation of steam both for processing and for electricity production power can be economically developed as a by-product in the most chemical plants. If the needs are great enough, since the process requirements generally call for low-pressure steam. The'turbines of engines used to generate electricity can be operated non-condensing and supply exhaust steam for processing purposes.
170
Chapter #8
v.
Availability of Labour
Labour will be needed for construction of the p lant and its operation. Skilled construction workers will usually be brought in from outside the site area, but here should be an adequate pool of unskilled labour available locally; and labour suitable for training to operate plant. Skilled tradesmen will be needed for plant maintenance. Local trade union customs and restrictive practices will have to be considered when assessing the availability and suitability of the local labour for recruitment and training. vi. Water Supply
Water for industrial purpose can be obtained from one of two general sources: the plant's own source or municipal supply. If the demand for water is larger, it is more economical for the industry to supply its own water. Such a supply may be obtained from drilled wells, rives, lakes, dammed streams or other impounded supplies. Before a company enters upon any project, it must ensure itself of a sufficient supply of water for all industrial, sanitary and fire demands, both present and future. vii. Effluent Disposal
All industrial process produce waste products and full consideration must be given to the difficulties and cost of their disposal. The disposal of toxic and harmful effluents will be covered by local regulations and appropriate authorities must be consulted during the initial site survey to determine the standards that must be met viii. Local Community Conside rations
The proposed plant must fit in with and be acceptable to the local community. Full consideration must be given to the safe location of the plant so that it dies not impose a significant additional risk to the community. On a new site, the local community must be able to provide adequate facilities for, the plant personnel: school, banks, housing and recreational and cultural facilities.
171
Chapter #8 ix. Land Considerations
Sufficient suitable land must be available for the proposed pant and for future expansion. The land should ideally be flat, well drained and have suitable load bearing characteristics. A full site evaluation should be made to determine the need for piling or other special foundation. x. Climate
Adverse climatic conditions at a site will increase costs. Abnormally low temperature will require the provision of additional insulation and special heating for equipment and pipe runs. Stronger structures will be need at locations subjected to strong winds (cyclone hurricane areas) or earthquakes. xi. Political and Strategic Considerations
Capital grants, tax concessions, and other inducements are often given by government's direct new investment to preferred locations such as areas of high unemployment. The availability of such grants can be over-riding consideration site selection.
172
Chapter #9
Hazop Study
CHAPTER 9
HAZOP STUD Y
9.1 HYDROGEN SULFIDE POISONING Hydrogen sulfide is an extremely poisonous gas. Hydrogen sulfide poisoning results from breathing hydrogen sulfide gas (2$), even in very low concentration. Two forms of poisoning occur - acute and subacute. 1. Acute Hydroge n Sulfide Poisoning
Breathing air or gas containing as little as 0.10% (40-60 grains of H2 S per 100 standard cubic feet) for ONE MINUTE can cause acute poisoning. Much sour natural or refinery gas contains more than 0.10% (60 grains per 100 cubic feet), so care must always be taken to avoid breathing such sour gas. The naphtha hydrotreating recycle gas and high pressure stripper gas contain from 0.5 to 5% H2$, while the low pressure stripper gases contain from 10 to 50% H2 S, These gases must NEVER be breathed. One full breath of high concentration hydrogen sulfide gas will cause unconsciousness, and may cause death, particularly if the victim falls and remains in the presence of such gas. The operation of any unit processing gases containing H2 S is perfectly safe, provided ordinary precautions are taken and the poisonous nature of the gas is .recognized. No work should be undertaken on the unit where there is danger of breathing H2S, and one should never enter or remain in an area' containing it without wearing a suitable fresh air mask. 2. Symptoms of Acute Hydrogen Sulfide Poisoning Muscular spasms, irregular breathing, lowered pulse, odor to the breath, nausea. Loss of consciousness and suspension of respiration quickly follow.
173
Chapter #9
Hazop Study
After apparent recovery, edema (dropsically swelling) of the air passages or lungs may cause severe illness or death in 8 to 48 hours. 3. First Aid Treatment of Acute Poisoning Remove the victim at once to fresh air. If breathing has not stopped, keep the victim in fresh air and keep him quiet. If possible, put him to bed. Secure a physician and keep the patient quiet and under close observation for about 48 hours for possible edema of the air passages or lungs. In cases where the victim has become unconscious and breathing has stopped, artificial respiration must be started at once. If a Pulmotor or other mechanical equipment is available, it may be used by a trained person; if not, artificial respiration by mouth- mouth method must be started as soon as possible. Speed in beginning the artificial respiration is essential. Do not give up. Men have been revived after more than four hours of artificial respiration. If other persons are present, send one of them for a physician. Others should rub the
patient's arms and legs and apply hot water bottles, blankets or other sources of warmth to keep him warm. After the patient is revived, he should be kept quiet and warm, and remain under observation for 48 hours 'for the appearance of edema of the air passages or lungs. 4. Subacute Hydrogen Sulfide Poisoning Breathing air or gas containing 0.01 to 0.6% HS (6 to 40 grains per 100 cubic feet) for an hour or more may cause subacute or chronic hydrogen sulfide poisoning. 5. Symptoms of Subacute Poisoning Headache, inflammation of the eyes and throat, dizziness, indigestion, excessive saliva, and weariness are all symptoms which follow continued exposure to H2$ in low concentrations. Edema of the air passages and lungs may also occur.
174
Chapter #9 6. Treatment of Subacute Poisoning
Hazop Study
Keep the patient in the dark to reduce eyestrain and^ have a physician treat the inflamed eyes and throat. Watch for possible edema. Where subacute poisoning has been suspected, the atmosphere should be checked repeatedly for the presence of H2 S by such methods as testing by odor, with moist lead acetate paper, and by Tutweiler determination to make sure that the condition does not continue. 7. Prevention of Hydrogen Sulfide Poisoning The best method for prevention of H2 O poisoning 1s to stay out of areas known or suspected to contain it. The sense of smell is not an infallible guide as to its presence, for although the compound has a distinct and unpleasant odor (rotten eggs), it will frequently paralyze the olfactory nerves to the extent that the victim does not realize that he is breathing it. This is particularly true of higher concentrations of the gas. Fresh air masks or gas masks suitable for use with hydrogen sulfide must be used in all work where exposure to it is likely to occur. Such masks must be checked frequently to make sure' that they are not exhausted. Whenever work is done on or in equip ment containing appreciable concentrations of H2 S, men must wear fresh air masks and should work in pairs so that one may effect a rescue or call for help should-the other be overcome. As mentioned above, , the atmosphere in which men work may be checked from time to time for small concentrations such as would cause subacute poisoning. REMEMBER - JUST BECAUSE YOUR NOSE SAYS IT'S NOT THERE, DOESN'T MEAN THAT IT'S NOT 1 8. Further Information A more detailed information booklet, The Chemical Safety Data Shee t SD36, may be obtained by writing to:
175
Chapter #9
Hazop Study
Manufacturing Chemists Association 1825 Connecticut Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20009 9.2 NICKEL CARBONYL FORMATION Nickel carbonyl [Ni(CO)4 ] is known to be an extremely toxic gas. Its primary effect is to cause lung damage with a lesser effect on the liver. The maximum average exposure to nickel carbonyl recommended by NIOSH is a TLV of 0.001 ppm (1 ppb), and a maximum spot exposure of 0.04 ppm (40 ppb). In Naphtha Hydrotreating units, the potential for forming nickel carbonyl exists only with catalysts containing nickel (S-6, S-7, S-15, S-16), and only during regeneration or during the handling of unregenerated catalyst. Care must be used to ensure that the procedures used will prevent the formation of nickel carbo nyl. Data has been published showing the equilibrium concentration of Ni (C0)4 versus temperature, pressure, 'and CO concentration in a gas. The nickel carbonyl concentration drops rapidly with increasing temperature and decreasing CO concentration. At 7 kg/cm2g (100 psig) with 0.5 mol-% CO in the gas, the nickel carbonyl concentration is at the maximum recommended spot level of 0.04 ppm at 149C (300F), and 0.001 ppm at 182C (360F). The following practices should be followed to prevent the forma tion of nickel carbonyl: 1. Once a reactor containing a nickel catalyst has been exposed to oxidizing conditions (regeneration), a measurable concentration of oxygen must be maintained until the combustion of all carbon ceases and all CO 2 has been purged from the system. 2. Once a reactor containing a nickel catalyst is in a re ducing atmosphere and
regeneration is not desirable, maintain the system in a reducing or inert atmosphere until all the catalyst has been cooled to at least 66C (150F). Unregenerated catalyst should be unloaded with Ng purged before receiving used catalyst. Oxidation (burning) must be avoided. There are many published techniques for determining the concentration of nickel carbonyl in air (such as a vessel to be entered for maintena nce), and several direct reading
176
Chapter #9 instruments are available commercially. For further information, see:
Hazop Study
American Industrial Hygiene Assoc. Journal May - June, 1968 Jan. - Feb., 1965 9.3 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS FOR ENTERING A CONTAMINATED
ATMOSPHERE Anyone entering a vessel which contains- an inert or contaminated atmosphere must follow all prescribed standard safety precautions and regulations which apply. In particular, when entering a reactor containing used catalyst, and which therefore can contain some hydrocarbons and H2 S along with possible pyrophoric iron sulfide deposits, there are a number of additional precautions which apply and which should not be overlooked. For this discussion, it is assumed that entry into a reactor containing used catalyst under a nitrogen blanket is planned. In this case, the following precautions should be included in the standard procedure: 1. The reactor should be isolated by positive action, such as blinding, to exclude all sources of hydrocarbon, hydrogen, air, etc. 2. Just prior to entry, all purging of nitrogen through the catalyst bed should be discontinued, and nitrogen purge lines should be inserted at points ABOVE the catalyst bed. This is to assure that there will be no forced flow of vapors passing upward through the catalyst bed and into the working area., 3. Install an air mover outside the reactor near the open man way nozzle to sweep away the vapors leaving ,the reactor. 4. The man entering the reactor must be equipped with a fresh air mask in proper working condition, with a proper air supply. 5. "There should be available and ready for immediate use and transfer to the man in the reactor, a separate spare air supply which is independent of electrical power. 6. The man entering the reactor should wear a safety harness with a properly attached
177
Chapter #9 safety line.
Hazop Study
7. There should be a minimum of two backup men at the man way nozzle in continual surveillance of the actions of the man in the reactor. 8. There should be a spare fresh air mask complete with its own separate air supply to allow a second man to enter the reactor quickly in case of an emergency. Therefore, this spare equipment must be compact enough to allow the second man to enter through the man way while wearing the equipment. 9. It is recommended that any man working in a. reactor which is under a nitrogen blanket not be permitted to descend through any appurtenance, such as a tray or quench gas distributor. The reason for this precaution is that should the man develop some difficulty while below a tray, for example, to the point where he could not function properly or lost consciousness, it would be extremely difficult for the surveillance team outside the reactor to pull the man up through the small tray man way by use of the safety line. 10. As an added precaution, it is suggested that the man in the reactor have available to him in the reactor, an emergency self-contained air supply and appropriate associated equipment. Preferably, the emergency air supply could be connected to the fresh air mask he is wearing. Such "reserve air supply" systems are available commercially.
178
Chapter #10
Environmental Impact
CHAPTER 10
ENV IR ON MEN TAL IMPAC T

Petroleum refining is one of the largest industries in the United States and a vital part of the national economy. However, potential environmental hazards associated with refineries have caused increased concern for communities in close proximity to them. This update provides a general overview of the processes involved and some of the potential environmental hazards associated with petroleum refineries. 10.1 DEFINITION OF A PETROLEUM REFINERY Petroleum refineries separate crude oil into a wide array of petroleum products through a series of physical and chemical separation techniques. These techniques include fractionation, cracking, hydrotreating, combination/blending processes, and
manufacturing and transport. The refining industry supplies several widely used everyday products including petroleum gas, kerosene, diesel fuel, motor oil, asphalt, and waxes. 10.2 BACKGROUND The United States is one of largest producers and consumers of crude oil in the world. Based on data from the U.S. Department of Energy (1998), in 1995 the United States was responsible for about 23% of the worlds refinery production. With a record high of 324 refineries in the early 80s, the U.S. was able to produce about 18.6 million barrels per day. However, because of changes in oil prices, a shift to alternate fuel use and an increasing focus on conservation, by 1985 the industry lost several primarily small, inefficient refineries that could not continue to compete. Over the last decade, the number of refineries has continued to shrink from about 194 to the current 155. This decrease has been due in part to increasing requirements placed on the facilities for producing cleaner fuels along with a number of mandated federal and state clean air and water regulations.
179
Chapter #10 10.3 PROCESSES INVOLVED IN REFINING CRUDE OIL
The process of oil refining involves a series of steps that includes separation and blending of petroleum products. The five major processes are briefly described below: 1 Separation processes: These processes involve separating the different fractions/
hydrocarbon compounds that make up crude oil based on their boiling point differences. Crude oil generally is composed of the entire range of components that make up gasoline, diesel, oils and waxes. Separation is commonly achieved by using atmospheric and vacuum distillation. Additional processing of these fractions is usually needed to produce final products to be sold within the market. 2 Conversion processes: Cracking, reforming, coking, and visbreaking are conversion
processes used to break down large longer chain molecules into smaller ones by heating or using catalysts. These processes allow refineries to break down the heavier oil fractions into other light fractions to increase the fraction of higher demand components such as gasoline, diesel fuels or whatever may be more useful at the time. 3 Treating: Petroleum-treating processes are used to separate the undesirab le
components and impurities such as sulfur, nitrogen and heavy metals from the products. This involves processes such as hydrotreating, deasphalting, acid gas removal, desalting, hydrodesulphurization, and sweetening. 4 Blending/combination processes: Refineries use blending/combination processes to
create mixtures with the various petroleum fractions to produce a desired final product. An example of this step would be to combine different mixtures of hydrocarbon chains to produce lubricating oils, asphalt, or gasoline with different octane ratings. 5 Auxiliary processes: Refineries also have other processes and units that are vital to
operations by providing power, waste treatment and other utility services. Products from these facilities are usually recycled and used in other processes within the refinery and are also important in regards to minimizing water and air pollution. A few of these units are boilers, wastewater treatment, and cooling towers.
180
Chapter #10
10.4 ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS OF PETROLEUM REFINERIES Refineries are generally considered a major source of pollutants in areas where they are located and are regulated by a number of environmental laws related to air, land and water. Some of the regulations that affect the refining industry include the Clean Air Act, the Clean Water Act, the Safe Drinking Water Act, CERCLA (i.e. Superfund: Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act), Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know (EPCRA), OSHA (Occupational Safety & Health Administration), TSCA (Toxic Substances Control Act), Oil Pollution Act and Spill Prevention Control and Countermeasure Plans. Here is a breakdown of the air, water, and soil hazards posed by refineries: 1 Air pollution hazards: Petroleum refineries are a major source of hazardous and toxic
air pollutants such as BTEX compounds (benzene, toluene, ethyl benzene, and xylene). They are also a major source of criteria air pollutants: particulate matter (PM), nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen sulfide (H2 S), and sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ). Refineries also release less toxic hydrocarbons such as natural gas (methane) and other light volatile fuels and oils. Some of the chemicals released are known or suspected cancer-causing agents, responsible for developmental and reproductive problems. They may also aggravate certain respiratory conditions such as childhood asthma. Along with the possible health effects from exposure to these chemicals, these chemicals may cause worry and fear among residents of surrounding communities. Air emissions can come from a number of sources within a petroleum refinery including: equipment leaks (from valves or other devices); high-temperature combustion processes in the actual burning of fuels for electricity generation; the heating of steam and process fluids; and the transfer of products. Many thousands of pounds of these pollutants are typically emitted into the environment over the course of a year through normal emissions, fugitive releases, accidental releases, or plant upsets. The combination of volatile hydrocarbons and oxides of nitrogen also contribute to ozone formation, one of the most important air pollution problems in the United States. 2 Water pollution hazards: Refineries are also potential major contributors to ground
181
Chapter #10
water and surface water contamination. Some refineries use deep- injection wells to dispose of wastewater generated inside the plants, and some of these wastes end up in aquifers and groundwater. These wastes are then regulated under the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA). Wastewater in refineries may be highly contaminated given the number of sources it can come into contact with during the refinery process (such as equipment leaks and spills and the desalting of crude oil). This contaminated water may be process wastewaters from desalting, water from cooling towers, storm water, distillation, or cracking. It may contain oil residuals and many other hazardous wastes. This water is recycled through many stages during the refining process and goes through several treatment processes, including a wastewater treatment plant, before being released into surface waters. The wastes discharged into surface waters are subject to state discharge regulations and are regulated under the Clean Water Act (CWA). These discharge guidelines limit the amounts of sulfides, ammonia, suspended solids and other compounds that may be present in the wastewater. Although these guidelines are in place, sometimes significant contamination from past discharges may remain in surface water bodies. 3 Soil pollution hazards: Contamination of soils from the refining processes is generally
a less significant problem when compared to contamination of air and water. Past production practices may have led to spills on the refinery property that now need to be cleaned up. Natural bacteria that may use the petroleum products as food are often effective at cleaning up petroleum spills and leaks compared to many other pollutants. Many residuals are produced during the refining processes, and some of them are recycled through other stages in the process. Other residuals are collected and disposed of in landfills, or they may be recovered by other facilities. Soil contamination including some hazardous wastes, spent catalysts or coke dust, tank bottoms, and sludges from the treatment processes can occur from leaks as well as accidents or spills on or off site during the transport process.
182
Chapter #10
MARKET AND ENVIRONMENTAL FORCES CHANGING THE FACE OF THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY The U.S. petroleum refining industry has come under considerable strain because of several important factors and changes in the industry. Over the years, there has been an increased demand for petroleum products and a decrease in U.S. production; however, there has been no new major refinery construction in the United States in the last 25 years. This lack of infrastructure growth has caused a tremendous strain on the industry in meeting existing demand, and the U.S. has had to increase the amounts of imports to meet these needs. The Clean Air Act and stringent state regulations have also caused the industry to incur extremely high costs for environmental compliance. These costs are accrued because refineries must produce reformulated, cleaner-burning gasoline, which require companies to replace or modify existing equipment with devices for controlling emissions. These costs of compliance are having a detrimental effect on refineries trying to expand and to keep pace with the countrys increasing demand. The cost of meeting environmental regulations has led many petroleum companies to join with the federal and state governments in reducing the amounts of hazardous air pollutants being released. Consent decrees between the petroleum industry and EPA have been made to reduce air emissions by refineries. One particular agreement was made between the state of Delaware, Louisiana and the Northwest Air Pollution Authority to reduce air emissions of nitrogen oxide and sulfur dioxide from nine refineries by more than 60,000 tons per year (EPA, 2001). The settlements a re an effort to reduce the amounts of illegal releases of harmful air pollutants from these refineries by installing upto-date pollution control devices and reducing emissions from leaking valves, flares and process units within the refinery. This type of collaboration between refineries and the state and federal governments provides a cooperative effort towards addressing environmental concerns within the industry.
183
References
REF ERENCE
1. Ludwig, E.E, Applied process design , 3 rd ed, vol. 2, Gulf Professional Publishers, 2002. 2. Ludwig, E.E, Applied Process Design, 3 rd ed, vol. 3, Gulf Professional
Publishers, 2002. 3. McKetta, J.J., Encyclopedia of chemical Processing and Design, Executive ed,
vol. 1, Marcel Dekker Inc, New York, 1976. 4. Levenspiel, O., Chemical Reaction Engineering:, 3rd ed ,John Wily and Sons
Inc., 1999. 5. Peters, M.S. and Timmerhaus ,K.D., Plant Design and Economics for Chemical
Engineering , 5th ed, McGraw Hill, 1991. 6. 1990. 7. Frank L., Evans Jr. Equipment Design Hand Book For Refineries & Chemical Rase, H.F., Fixed Bed Reactor Design and Diagnostics, Butterworth Publishers,
Plants Vol 2, 2nd Ed., 1980, 8. peacock, D.G., Coulson & Richardson,s Chemical engineering,
3rd ed,vol,Butterworth Heinenann, 1994. 9. 10. Kern D.Q., Process Heat Transfer, McGraw Hill Inc.,2000. Mcabe, W.L, Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering ,5 th ed, McGraw Hill,
Inc,1993. 11. Perry, R.H and D.W. Green (eds): Perrys Chemical Engineering Hand Book, 7 th
ed. McGraw Hill New York, 1997.
184
References 12. Sinnot, R.K.,Coulson & Richardsons Chemical Engineering, 2nd ed, vol.6,
Butterword Heinenann, 1993. 13. 14. 15. 16. Rohsenow,Hartnett,Ganic Hand Book of Heat Transfer Application 2 nd edition. Fogler H.S. Elements of Chemical Reaction Engineering 2 nd Edition. W.L.Nelson. Petroleum Refinery Engineering4 th Ed ,McGraw Hill. Kern, Donald Q: Process Heat Transfer , McGraw-Hill
International Edition ,New York a. a. 17. W.L. Nelson: Petroleumner Refiy Engineering Fourth Edition,
McGraw-Hill, New York. Kirk: Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology John
Willey and Sons, New York 18. Macketta, John J: Encyclopedia of chemical Processing and
Design Marceer Dekker, INC., New York 19. Warren M. Rohenson: Hand book of Heat Transfer , McGrawHill, New York a. a. 20. 21. i. 22. 23. H. Etherington: Modern furnace technology , Third Edition,
Charles Griffin & Company Ltd. , London. Robert d. Reid: Furnace Operation
W.Trinks, M.H Mawhinney:Industrial Furnaces , 5th edition, Volume 1, John Wiley & Sons, INC., London. www.Reforming.Pdf http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0FVP
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References 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. http://www.hudsonproducts.com/Default.htm http://www.processassociates.com/process/heat/fouling1.htm#ptr http://www.processassociates.com/process/heat/uvalues1.htm#ptr http://www.processassociates.com/process/tools.htm www.ISCR17.pdf www.Radial-JM.pdf
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Chapter #1

1.2 HYDROTREATING OF NAPHTHA

1.3 PROCESS SELECTION

Chapter #1 b. Upgrading processes

thus lower the total sulfur content

PROCESSES FOR HYDROTREATING

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HYDROTREATING AND HYDRODESULPHURIZATION:

1.4 APPLICATIONS OF HYDROTREATING PROCESS:

Description of Process Flow

DESCR IP TION OF PROC ESS FLOW

Description of Process Flow

Description of Process Flow

Description of Process Flow

*Iron + Chloride, wt-ppm

*Copper + Heavy Metals, wt-ppb

Description of Process Flow

Description of Process Flow

(Thiophenic) C C-C + 4H2 > C-C-C-C-C + H2S C

Description of Process Flow

Description of Process Flow

Description of Process Flow

*Also available In 1/8" spheres designated as S-6 (L) and S-9(L).

Description of Process Flow

Chapter #2 further removal of sulfur compounds due to temperature.

Description of Process Flow

Description of Process Flow

Description of Process Flow

Description of Process Flow

Where T^ = required inlet reactor temperature at LHSVi T2 =

Description of Process Flow

Description of Process Flow

Material and Energy Balance

MA TER IAL A ND E NER GY B ALAN CE

Chapter #3 Taking H2 purity = 0.712

Material and Energy Balance

Chapter #3 (aS+bN+cB+E) % Wt H2 on feed where in: S N Br E

Material and Energy Balance

Wt% sulfur contents in feeds Wt% sulfur contents in removed

Extra Cons. Putting values in formula

Material and Energy Balance

0.0598 42987 100

25.71 lbs 11.68 kg/hr

1.388lbs 0.63 kg mol/hr

Chapter #3 Naphtha out = 44219 lbs/hr

Material and Energy Balance

Detailed material balance is tabulated with Process flow sheet

BALANCE AROUND EXCHANGER TRAIN E-110

Heat Capacity of liquid Naphtha from (120 F) 49 C to 248.0 (4708.4 F) Cp = (0.388+0.00045T)/(SP.G)

Material and Energy Balance

.388 0.00045 120 (0.7424)1 / 2 2

.388 0.00045 478 (0.7424)1 / 2

0.605 Kcal/kgm (Equation might subject an error 4% up to)

Chapter #3 Latent heat requirements for vaporizing Naphtha = = = m 19539.18

Material and Energy Balance

953.502.60 kcal/hr 327.22 C

m Cp T 1125.2 .745 (327.22-49)

5,453,986.4 kcal/hr 5.5 109 cal/hr

Inlet stream at Overall Cp

Mass flow rate in

Material and Energy Balance

1586176 kcal/hr 1125.18 105453.74 105453.74 0.71 (242-110)

1950287.19 + 1914839 + 15861756 + = 5.5 109 cal/hr

Material and Energy Balance