CHAPTER 11 SLOPE STABILITY INFINITE SLOPES Factor of safety of a slope

FS =

f m

Factor of safety due to the shear strength of soils governed by the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion ESA: FS = TSA: FS =

n tan N tan = Tm m su m

Factor of safety for the ESA in the case of a slope without seepage and groundwater below the slip plane
FS = N j tan Tj = W j cos s tan tan = W j sin s tan s

Maximum slope angle of a coarse-grained soil at limit equilibrium, FS = 1 s = Normal force on the slip plane when seepage is parallel to the slope
N j = W j cos s = b j z j cos s

Factor of safety for the ESA in the case of groundwater within the sliding mass and seepage parallel to the slope
FS = N j tan Tj = b j z j cos s tan sat b j z j sin s = tan sat tan s

Slope angle of a clean, coarse-grained soil at limit equilibrium, FS = 1

tan s =

tan sat
W j sin s lj W j sin s cos s bj b j z j bj

Shear stress on the slip plane for a TSA

j = Tj lj = = = sin s cos s = z j sin s cos s

Factor of safety for the TSA

FS =

su su 2s u = = j z sin s cos s z sin(2 s ) 1 1 2s u sin z 2

Slope angle at limit equilibrium, FS = 1

s =

Depth equation obtained from solving the slope angle equation for z

z=

2s u sin (2 s )

Critical depth of tension cracks occurs when s = 45o z = z cr = 2s u

METHOD OF SLICES

Bishops Method Sum of forces vertically on a circular slip surface

N j cos j + T j sin j W j X j + X j +1 = 0

Normal effective force along the slip surface from the principle of effective stress
N j = N j u j l j Equilibrium equation obtained from combining the above two equations
N j cos j = W j + X j X j+1 T j sin j u j l j cos j

Pore water pressure ratio

ru = u jb j Wj

Substitution of pore water pressure into equilibrium equation above

N j cos j = W j (1 ru ) T j sin j + (X j X j+1 )

Bishops moment equilibrium equation

W x T R = 0
j j j

Equation for the summation of mobilized shear forces

T =
j

Wj x j R

= W j sin j

Factor of safety with the soil shear force at failure

FS =

(Tf ) j f = Tj m
N j tan() j Tj

Factor of safety for an ESA

FS =

Mobilized shear force Tj = N j tan() j FS N j tan () j sin j FS

Substitution of mobilized shear force in the equilibrium equation N j cos j = W j (1 ru ) + (X j X j+1 )

Normal effective force along the slip surface

N j = W j (1 ru ) + (X j X j+1 ) tan () j sin j cos j + FS

Constant, m j

mj = cos j +

1 tan () j sin j FS

Simplified equation for the normal effective force along the slip surface
N j = {W j (1 ru ) + (X j X j+1 )}m j

Combination of the summation of mobilized shear forces equation and factor of safety equation for an ESA

N j tan() j FS

= W j sin j

Bishops equation for an ESA

FS =

{W (1 r ) + (X X W sin
j u j j

j+1 j

)} tan() j m j

Bishops simplified equation for an ESA neglecting (X j X j+1 )

FS =

W (1 r )} tan() m W sin
j u j j j

Factor of safety when groundwater is below the slip surface, ru = 0

FS =

W tan() m W sin
j j j j

Mobilized shear force on the slip surface for a TSA Tj = (s u ) j l j FS

Combination of the summation of mobilized shear forces equation and the mobilized shear force on the slip surface for a TSA FS =

(s ) l W sin
u j j j

Bishops factor of safety equation for an ESA

FS =

(s )
u

bj
j

W sin
j

cos j
j

Janbus Method Factor of safety, defined with respect to equilibrium of horizontal forces on a noncircular slip surface FS =

(T ) cos resisting forces = disturbing forces {W + (X X )}tan

f j j j j j+1

Factor of safety for an ESA

FS =

{W (1 r ) + (X X )}m tan {W + (X X )}tan

j u j j+1 j j j j+1 j

cos j

Simplified form of Janbus equation for an ESA

FS = f o W j (1 ru )m j tan j cos j

tan j

Factor of safety when groundwater is below the slip surface, ru = 0

FS = f o

W m tan cos W tan

j j j j j u j j

Factor of safety for a TSA

FS =

(s ) b {W + (X X )}tan
j j j+1

Simplified form of Janbus equation for a TSA

FS = f o

(s ) b W tan
u j j j

APPLICATION OF THE METHOD OF SLICES

Factor of safety using Bishops simplified method ESA: FS =

W (1 r
j

) tan j (m j )

1 2 2 w z cr z s + z cr 2 3 Wj sin j + R

(s
TSA: FS =

)j

bj cos j

1 2 2 w z cr z s + z cr 2 3 Wj sin j + R

STABILITY OF SLOPES WITH SIMPLE GEOMETRY

Taylors Method Factor of safety for a TSA with a stability number FS = N o

(s ) (z )
u

j j

Bishop-Morgenstern Method Factor of safety for an ESA with stability coefficients that depend on the friction angle and the geometry of the slope FS = m - nru

CHAPTER 2 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SOILS AND SOIL INVESTIGATIONS PHASE RELATIONSHIPS Total volume of the soil
V =Vs +Vw +Va =Vs +Vv

Weight of the soil W = Ws + Ww Water content w= Ww 100 % Ws

Void ratio e= Vv Vs
V =1+e Vs

Specific volume
V =

Porosity

n=

Vv V
e 1+ e

Relationship between porosity and void ratio

n=

Specific gravity

Gs =

Ws Vs w
V w wG s or Se = wG = s e Vv

Degree of saturation
S =

Unit weight (bulk unit weight)

W G s + Se = w V 1+ e

Saturated unit weight (S=1) G +e sat = s w 1+ e Dry unit weight d = Ws G s = w = V 1+ e 1+ w

Effective or buoyant unit weight G -1 = sat - w = s w 1+ e Relative density Dr = emax - e emax - emin

DETERMINATION OF PARTICLE SIZE OF SOILS Particle Size of Coarse-Grained Soils Percent retained

% retained on i th sieve =
Percent finer

Wi 100 W

% finer than i th sieve = 100 (% retained on i th sieve)

i =1

Particle Size of Fine-Grained Soils Diameter of the particle at time tD

D=

18 z (G s - 1) w t D

Characterization of Soils Based on Particle Size Uniformity coefficient

Cu = D 60 D10

Coefficient of curvature Cc= (D30 )

2

(D10 D 60)

PHYSICAL STATES AND INDEX PROPERTIES OF FINE-GRAINED SOILS Plasticity index

Ip = w LL - w PL

Liquidity index

IL =

(w - w PL) Ip

Activity that describes the importance of the clay fractions on the plasticity index

A=

IP clay fraction (%)

DETERMINATION OF THE LIQUID, PLASTIC, AND SHRINKAGE LIMITS Fall Cone Method to Determine Liquid and Plastic Limits
w PL = w LL 2 w = w LL - 4.2w log10 (M 2 / M1)

Shrinkage Limit

w SL = (

m1 m 2 V1 V2 w ) x 100 m2 m2 g

SOIL CLASSIFICATION SCHEMES Line called A-line that delineates the boundaries between clays and silts and organic soils

Ip = 0.73 ( w LL - 20) (%)

ONE-DIMENSIONAL FLOW OF WATER THROUGH SOILS Head Total head according to Bernoullis principle

H = hz + hp +

v2 2g

Total head in soils

H = hz + hp = hz + u w

Darcys Law Flow in any direction, j

vj = kj

dH dx j
H = k xi l

Darcys Law
vx = k x

Seepage velocity that is the velocity through the void spaces vs = kj n i

Volume rate of flow

qv = v j A = Ak j i

Empirical relationships for K Taylor proposed a relationship linking k with void ratios

w C1e3 k=D 1+e

2 50

Hazens proposed relationship for k

2 k = CD 10 cm / sec

Flow parallel to soil layers Unit width of flow in the y-direction

q = Av = (1 H ) k x ( eq ) i = (1 h 1 ) k x1i + (1 h 2 ) k x 2 i + .. + (1 h n ) k xn i

Equivalent permeability in the horizontal (x) direction

k x ( eq ) =
1 (h1k x1 + h2 k x 2 + .. + hn k xn ) Ho

Flow normal to soil layers Head loss in the soil mass

H = h 1 + h 2 + .. h n
Use of Darcys law and knowing that the velocity in each layer is the same

k z ( eq )

h h 2 h n H = k z1 1 = k z 2 = .. = k zn H h1 h2 hn
H h1 h h + 2 + .. + n k z1 k z 2 k zn

Equivalent permeability in the vertical (z) direction

k z ( eq ) =

DETERMINATION OF THE COEFFICIENT OF PERMEABILITY Constant Head Test Coefficient of permeability in the vertical direction
k= q QL = Ai tAh

The experimental value of the coefficient of permeability is corrected to a baseline temperature of 20 o k 200C = k T 0C T 0C 200C = k T 0C R T

Temperature correction factor

R T = 2.42 - 0.475 ln(T)

Falling Head Test Coefficient of permeability in the vertical direction

k=

h aL ln( 1 ) A( t 2 t 1 ) h 2

Pumping Test to Determine the Coefficient of Permeability Coefficient of permeability

r q ln 2 r 1 k= 2 2 h 2 h1

DRY UNIT WEIGHT-WATER CONTENT RELATIONSHIP Dry unit weight

 Gs Gs d = w = wG s 1+ e 1+ S

CHAPTER 3 STRESSES, STRAINS AND ELASTIC DEFORMATIONS OF SOILS STRESSES AND STRAINS Normal stresses of a cube subjected to forces normal to three adjacent sides
z =

Py P Pz , x = x , y = xy yz xz y x z , x = , y = y x z

Strains of a cube being compressed by these forces

z =

Volumetric strain p = x + y + z Shear stress caused by a shearing force = F xy

x z

Small shear strains caused by angular distortion of a body by shearing forces

zx =

IDEALIZED STRESS-STRAIN RESPONSE AND YIELDING Material responses to normal loading and unloading Change in vertical stress
z = P A z zo r ro

Vertical and radial strains

z = r =

Poissons ratio

r z

HOOKES LAW General State of Stress Hookes Law for a general state of stress

0 0 0 x x 1 1 0 0 0 y y z 1 1 0 0 0 z = 0 0 2(1 + ) 0 0 xy xy E 0 yz 0 0 0 0 2(1 + ) 0 yz zx 0 0 0 0 2(1 + ) zx 0 Elastic stress-strain constitutive equation from Hookes Law

zx =

2(1 + ) zx = zx E G

Shear Modulus G= E 2(1 + )

Principal Stresses Reduced Hookes Law if stresses applied are principal stresses

1 1 1 1 2 = 1 2 E 1 3 3 Inverse of reduced Hookes Law to show stiffness matrix on right-hand side

1 1 1 E 1 2 2 = (1 + )(1 2 ) 1 3 3
Displacements from Strains and Forces from Stresses Vertical displacement
z = z dz

Axial force
Pz = z dA

PLANE STRAIN AND AXIAL SYMMETRIC CONDITIONS

Plane Strain Hookes Law for plane strain conditions

1 = 3 = 1+ [(1 )1 3 ] E 1+ [(1 ) 3 1 ] E

2 = (1 + 3 ) Matrix form

1 1 + 1 1 = E 1 3 3
Inverse matrix form

1 1 1 E = 1 3 3 (1 + )(1 2 )
Axisymmetric Conditions Hookes Law for axisymmetric conditions
1 = 3 = 1 [1 2 3 ] E 1 [(1 ) 3 1 ] E

Matrix form

1 1 1 2 1 = 3 E 1 3
Inverse matrix form

1 1 2 1 E = 1 3 3 (1 + )(1 2 )

ANISOTROPIC ELASTIC STATES

Transverse anisotropic, elastic equation for axisymmetric conditions

 1 z E z = r zr Ez

2 rz E r z (1 rr ) r Er

STRESS AND STRAIN STATES

Mohrs Circle for Stress States Relationship between the principal stresses and the stress components

+ x x 2 1 = z + z + zx 2 2
+ x x 2 3 = z z + zx 2 2
Angle between the major principal stress plane and the horizontal plane
2

tan =

zx 1 x

Stresses on a plane oriented at an angle to the major principal stress plane

=
=

1 + 3 1 3 + cos 2 2 2
1 3 sin 2 2 z + x z x + cos 2 + zx sin 2 2 2 z x sin 2 2

Stresses on a plane oriented at an angle to the horizontal plane

= zx cos 2

Maximum shear stress at the top of Mohrs Circle with magnitude

max =

1 3 2

Mohrs Circle for Strain States Major principal strain

 + x x zx 1 = z + z + 2 2 2
Minor principal strain

+ x x zx 3 = z z + 2 2 2
Maximum simple shear strain max = 1 3

TOTAL AND EFFECTIVE STRESSES

The Principle of Effective Stress Equilibrium equation for total stress

= + u
Terzaghis principle of effective stress

= u
Effective stress for unsaturated soils = u a + (u a u w ) Effective Stresses Due to Geostatic Stress Fields Total vertical stress
= sat z

Pore water pressure

u = wz

Effective stress = u = sat z w z = ( sat w )z = z Effects of Capillary Sum of forces vertically in the capillary simulation of soils d 2 h c w dT cos = 0 4 Height at which water will rise in the capillary tube
hc = 4T cos d w

Proportion of capillary zones and soil pore size

zc

1 d

Effects of Seepage Seepage force per unit volume

js =

H w = i w L

Resultant vertical effective stress if seepage occurs downward z = z + iz w = z + js z Resultant vertical effective stress if seepage occurs upward z = z iz w = z js z

LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE AT REST

Lateral earth pressure coefficient

Ko =

3 1

Lateral earth pressure estimate for normally consolidated soil

K onc 1 sin cs

Relationship between normally and overconsolidated soils

K ooc = K onc ( OCR )
1 2

= (1 sin cs ) ( OCR )

STRESSES IN SOIL FROM SURFACE LOADS

Point Load Increases in stresses on a soil element located at point A due to a point load z = 3Q r 2 2 2 z 1 + z
5 2

r =

Q 3r 2 z 1 2 2 5/ 2 2 r + z 2 r2 + z2 + z r2 + z2

1/ 2

Q (1 2 ) 2 z 2 3 / 2 2 2 1 2 2 1 / 2 2 r + z + z(r + z ) (r + z )

3Q rz 2 rz = 2 2 (r + z 2 )5 / 2 Increase in vertical stress with an Influence factor I

z =
Q I z2
5

Influence factor 3 1 I = 2 2 1+ r z 2

The vertical displacement is 1 Q (1 + ) 2(1 ) + z = 1 2 2 2 r r 1+ 2Ez 1 + z z and the radial displacement is:
Q (1 + ) 2Ez 1 + r z
2

(3.59)

r =

( )

r z 1+ r z

( ) (1 2 )( r z ) ( ) } {1 + (r z ) } + 1
2 2 1 2

(3.60)

Line Load Increase in stresses due to a line load

z =

2Q z3 x2 + z2

2Q x 2 z x = x2 + z2

 zx =

2Q xz 2 x2 + z2

Line Load Near a Buried Earth Retaining Structure Increase in lateral stress due to a line load x = 4Q a 2b H o ( a 2 + b 2 )2

Increase in lateral force

Px = 2Q a2 +1

Strip Load Increase in stresses due to an area transmitting a uniform stress

z = x = zx =

qs { + sincos( + 2)} qs { sincos( + 2)} qs sin sin ( + 2)

The relative vertical displacement between the center of the strip load (0,0) and a point at the surface (x, 0) is 2qs (1 2 ) B B B B B x ln x x + ln x + + B ln E 2 2 2 2 2

z ( x, 0) (0, 0) =

Increase in stresses due to an area transmitting a triangular stress

z = qs x 1 sin 2 B 2

x =
zx =

qs

x z R2 1 ln 1 + sin 2 2 B B R2 2

qs z 1 + cos 2 2 2 B

Increase in stresses due to an area transmitting a uniform stress near a retaining wall

 x =

2q s ( sincos 2 ) 2q s [H( 2 1 )]

Increase in lateral force due to an area transmitting a uniform stress near a retaining wall

Px =

Location of lateral force due to an area transmitting a uniform stress near a retaining wall H 2 ( 2 1 ) + (R Q) 57.3Bh z= 2H( 2 1 ) Uniformly Loaded Circular Area Increases of vertical and radial stresses under the center of a circular area of radius, ro
3/ 2 1 z = q s 1 = qs Ic 1 + (ro / z )2

r = =

qs 2(1 + v ) 1 (1 + 2v ) + 1/ 2 2 2 2 1 + (ro / z ) 1 + (ro / z )

3/ 2

Influence factor
3/ 2 1 Ic = 1 1 + (ro / z )2

The relative vertical displacement between the center of the strip load (0, 0) and a point at the surface (x, 0) is

z ( x, 0) (0, 0) =

x2 B2 qs (1 2 ) B 2 x2 B ln B ln x + ln B x + x 2 2 2 B 2 2 E 2

Vertical elastic settlement at the surface due to a circular flexible loaded area below center of loaded area: below edge: z = z = q s D(1 2 ) E 2 q s D(1 2 ) E

Uniformly Loaded Rectangular Area Increases in stresses below the corner of a rectangular area of width B and length L
z = q s 1 LB LBz 1 1 2 + 2 + tan 2 zR 3 R 3 R 1 R 2

x = y = zx

q s 1 LB LBz 2 tan zR 3 R 1 R 3 2 q s 1 LB LBz 2 tan zR 3 R 2 R 3 2

qs B z2B = 2 2 R 2 R 1 R 3

where R 1 = L2 + z 2 z = q s I z x = q s I x
y = q s I y

, R 2 = B2 + z 2

and R 3 = (L2 + B 2 + z 2 ) 2
1

Simplified form of the increases in stresses

zx = q s I Influence factor for the vertical stress

Iz =

2mn m 2 + n 2 + 1 1 2mn m 2 + n 2 + 1 m 2 + n 2 + 2 2 + tan 1 2 2 m + n 2 m 2 n 2 + 1 4 m + n 2 + m 2 n 2 + 1 m + n 2 + 1

B L and n = z z

where m =

Vertical elastic settlement at the ground surface under a rectangular flexible surface load q s B(1 2 ) Is z = E Settlement influence factor with s = at the center of a rectangle: I s =
L B

2 1 + 1 + s 2 2 ln s + 1 + s + s ln s

2 1 + 1 + s 1 2 at the corner of a rectangle: I s = ln s + 1 + s + s ln s

Simplified form of the settlement influence factor with s 1 at the center of a rectangle: I s 0.62 ln( s ) + 1.12 at the corner of a rectangle: I s 0.31ln( s ) + 0.56 Approximate Method for Rectangular Loads Vertical stress increase under the center of the load
z = q s BL (B + z)(L + z)

STRESS AND STRAIN INVARIANTS

Mean stress p= 1 + 2 + 3 x + y + z = 3 3 1

Deviatoric or Shear Stress q=

[( 2

2 ) + ( 2 3 ) + ( 3 1 )
2 2

2 1/ 2

Volumetric Strain
p = 1 + 2 + 3 = x + y + z

Deviatoric or Distortional or Shear Strain

q = 2 (1 2 )2 + ( 2 3 )2 + ( 3 1 )2 3

1/ 2

Axisymmetric Condition, 2 = or 2 = 3 ; 2 = 3 3

p =

1 + 2 + 2 3 3 , and p = 1 3 3

p = p u

q = 1 3 ; q = 1 = (1 u ) ( 3 u ) = 1 3 3
p = 1 + 2 3

q =

2 (1 3 ) 3

Plane Strain, 2 = 0

p =

1 + 2 + + 2 + 3 3 , and p = 1 3 3

p = p u

q' = q = or 1

[( ) 2
1 2 2

+ (2 ) + ( 1 ) 3 3
2 2 2 1/ 2

2 1/ 2

[( 2
(

3 ) + ( 2 3 ) + ( 3 1 )

p = 1 + 3

q =

2 2 2 1 + 3 1 3 3

1/ 2

Hookes Law Using Stress and Strain Invariants Relationship between stress and strain invariants for an elastic material
e = p 1 p K

where K =
e = q 1 q 3G

p E = is the effective bulk modulus e p 3(1 2 )

where G = G =

E is the shear modulus 2(1 + v)

Hookes Law in terms of stress and strain invariants

e p K 0 p = e q 0 3G q

Generalized Poissons ratio

= 3K 2G 2G + 6 K

STRESS PATHS

Stress invariant for an isotropic, elastic material

e = p p =0 K'

Total stresses for undrained conditions

e = p p =0 K

where K =

Eu 3(1 2 u )

Undrained elastic modulus Eu = 1.5E (1 + )

CHAPTER 4 ONE-DIMENSIONAL CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT OF FINE-GRAINED SOILS BASIC CONCEPTS Drainage Path Length of drainage path

H dr =

H av H i + H f = 2 4

Primary Consolidation Under a Constant Load Volumetric strain

p = V e = V 1 + eo

Relationship between settlement and the change in void ratio for one-dimensional consolidation where z = p
z = z e = H 1 + eo
e 1 + eo e 1 + eo

Soil settlement
z = H

Primary consolidation settlement denoted as pc rather than z

pc = H

Void ratio at the end of consolidation under load

e = e o e = e o H (1 + e o ) H

Primary Consolidation Parameters Two slopes for the normal consolidation line (NCL) Coefficient of compression or compression index

Cc =

e e 2 e1 = (no units) (z ) 2 (z ) 2 log log (z )1 (z )1

Modulus of volume compressibility

mv =

z ( z )2 ( z )1 = ( z )2 ( z )1 ( z )2 ( z )1

m2 kN

Two slopes for the recompression line or the unloading-reloading line (URL) Recompression index

Cr =

e zr e 2 e1 = ( ) ( ) log z 2 log z 2 (z )1 (z )1

Modulus of volume re-compressibility

mvr =

( z )2 ( z )1 zr = ( z )2 ( z )1 z

m2 kN

Youngs modulus of elasticity from Hookes Law

E = c z z

Simplified form of Youngs modulus of elasticity

E = c 1 m vr

Over-consolidation Ratio

OCR =

zc zo

CALCULATION OF PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT Primary Consolidation Settlement of Normally Consolidated Fine-Grained Soils

pc = H

H e C c log fin ; OCR = 1 = 1 + eo 1 + eo zo fin zo

where e = Cc log

Primary Consolidation Settlement of Over-consolidated Fine-Grained Soils Case1: The increase in z is such that fin = zo + z is less than zc, thus consolidation occurs along the URL.

 pc =

H C r log fin ; < zc fin 1 + eo zo

Case 2: The increase in z is such that fin = zo + z is greater than zc, thus there are two components of settlement one along the URL and the other along the NCL.

pc =
or

H (C r log zc + C c log fin ); > zc fin 1 + eo zo zc H fin C r log(OCR ) + C c log ; > zc fin 1 + eo zc

pc =

Primary Consolidation Settlement using mv

pc = Hm v z

Thick Soil Layers Increase in the harmonic mean stress

z = n ( z )1 + (n 1)( z )2 + (n 2 )( z )3 + .. + ( z )n n + (n 1) + (n 2 ) + .. + 1

ONE-DIMENSIONAL CONSOLIDATION THEORY Derivation of Governing Equation Rate of change in volume of water expelled in soil element
V q dz dA = t z

Change in volume
V = e dz dA = m v z dz dA = m v u dz dA 1 + e0

Substitution of above two equations

q u mv = z t

One-dimensional flow of water from Darcys Law

q = Ak z i = Ak z h z

Partial differentiation of one-dimensional flow of water with respect to z

q 2h = kz 2 z z Pore water pressure at any time u = hw Partial differentiation of pore water pressure with respect to z 1 2u 2h = 2 z w z 2 Substitution of partial differentiation equations q k z 2 u = z w z 2 One-dimensional consolidation k z 2u u = t m v w z 2 Coefficient of consolidation, Cv
Cv =

kz mv w

Simplified one-dimensional consolidation u 2u = Cv 2 t z Solution of Governing Consolidation Equation Using Fourier Series Governing consolidation equation using Fourier series

u (z, t ) =

2u 0 sin Mz exp(M 2 Tv ) H dr m =o M

Dimensionless time factor Tv = Cv t H 2 dr

u z 2 sin Mz exp M 2 Tv = 1 M H dr u o m =0

Degree of consolidation or consolidation ratio

Uz = 1

Average degree of consolidation

U = 1

2 exp( M 2 Tv ) 2 m =o M

Relationship between time factor and average degree of consolidation for a uniform and a triangular distribution of excess pore water pressure
U Tv = for U < 60% 4 100
2

and Tv = 1.781 0.933 log(100 U) for U 60% Finite Difference Solution of the Governing Consolidation Equation Expansion of the differential consolidation equation using Taylors theorem
u 1 = (u i , j+1 u i , j ) t t

and 1 2u (u 2u i, j + u i+1, j ) = 2 z (z )2 i1, j Governing consolidation equation valid for nodes that are not boundary nodes

u i , j+1 = u i , j +

(z )2

C v t

(u

i 1, j

2u i , j + u i +1, j )

Finite difference equation for an impermeable boundary where no flow across it can occur and
u =0 z

u 1 (u i1, j u i+1, j ) = 0 =0= z 2z

Simplified governing consolidation equation

u i , j+1 = u i , j +

(z )2

C v t

(2u

i 1, j

2u i , j )

SECONDARY COMPRESSION SETTLEMENT Secondary compression index

C =

(e

ep )

t log t p

e t log t p

Secondary consolidation settlement

sc = t H C log t (1 + e p ) p

ONE-DIMENSIONAL CONSOLIDATION LABORATORY TEST

Determination of the Coefficient of Consolidation, Cv Root Time Method Cv = 0.848H 2 dr t 90

Log Time Method 0.197H 2 dr Cv = t 50

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LABORATORY AND FIELD CONSOLIDATION

Time factor if two layers of the same clay have the same degree of consolidation Tv =

(C v t )lab (H dr )2 lab

(C v t )field (H dr )2 field

Simplified equation t field (H 2 dr )field = t lab (H 2 dr )lab

SAND DRAINS

Governing equation for axisymmetric radial drainage

2 u 1 u u = Ch 2 + t r r t
Time factor for consolidation in the radial direction

Tr =

Ch t 4R 2

Average degree of consolidation for vertical and radial dissipation of pore water pressure Uvr = 1 (1 U)(1 Ur)

CHAPTER 5 SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOILS

TWO SIMPLE MODELS FOR THE SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOILS Coulombs Model Horizontal force required to initiate movement of an object across a table H = W Coulombs frictional equation = ( )f tan n f Substitution of above two equations at impending motion

f H = = tan (n ) f W
Force equilibrium equations at impending motion

Fx = 0 : H N sin N cos = 0 Fz = 0 : N cos N sin W = 0

Solving for force, F, and weight, W variables
H = N (sin + cos ) W = N (cos sin )

Combining and simplifying above two equations H + tan tan + tan = = W 1 tan 1 tan tan Shear stress when slip is initiated f = (n )f tan + tan = (n ) f tan( + ) 1 tan tan

General form of shear stress equation when slip is initiated

f = (n ) f tan( )
Dilation angle in Mohrs circle of strain

+ 3 + 3 = sin 1 1 = sin 1 1 max 1 3

Dilation angle if a soil mass is constrained in the lateral directions

 = tan-1 (

z ) x

Coulombs frictional law for cemented soils

= c + ( )f tan( + ) n f o

Taylors Model
= tan cs + tan p z p

INTERPRETATION OF THE SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOILS Peak effective friction angle for a dilating soil p = cs + p Peak effective friction angle resulting from a plane strain test p = cs + 0.8p Coulombs equation for critical state shear strength for all soils cs = (n)f tan cs Dilating soils, peak shear strength: Coulombs Model: p = (n)f tan (cs + p) = (n)f tan p
Taylors Model: p = ( )f ( tancs +tan p ) n

Coulombs equation for soils that exhibit residual shear strength r = (n)f tan r Factor of safety for peak condition in dilating soils FS = p

Factor of safety for critical state condition in all soils

FS =

cs

MOHR-COULOMB FAILURE CRITERION Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion sin = (1 )f (3 )f (1 )f + (3 )f

Passive and active earth pressure coefficients from rearranging above geometry equation (1 )f (3 )f = 1 + sin = Kp 1 sin

(3 )f (1 )f

1 sin = Ka 1 + sin

Relationship between and in Mohrs circle

= 45 o + = + 2 4 2

UNDRAINED AND DRAINED SHEAR STRENGTH Undrained shear strength

su =

( 1 ) f ( 3 ) f ( 1 ) f ( ) f 3 = 2 2

LABORATORY TESTS TO DETERMINE SHEAR STRENGTH PARAMETERS Shear Box or Direct Shear Test Peak shear stress

d =

(Px )d
A

Critical shear stress

cs =

(Px )cs
A

Angle subtended by the best-fit straight line and the horizontal axis in a plot of vertical forces versus horizontal forces

= tan 1 cs

(Px )cs
Pz

Angle subtended by a line from the origin to peak horizontal force point and the horizontal axis

p = tan 1

(Px )d
Pz

Peak dilation angle from plot of horizontal displacement versus vertical displacement

 z = tan 1 x

Alternative approach in determining peak dilation angle

p = p cs

Conventional Triaxial Apparatus Axial total stress

1 =

Pz + 3 A Pz A

Deviatoric stress

1 3 =

Axial strain
1 = z zo

Radial strain
3 = r ro V = 1 + 2 3 Vo
2 ( 1 3 ) 3

Volumetric strain
p =

Deviatoric strain
q =

Area of sample at any given instance as it changes during loading

V ) A o (1 p ) Vo V Vo V A= = = = z z z o z 1 1 z o (1 ) zo Vo (1 Unconfined Compression (UC) Test Undrained shear strength

s u = f =

Pz 1 = 1 2A 2

Consolidated Drained (CD) Compression Test Volumetric strain

p =

V = 1 + 2 3 Vo
1 ( p 1 ) 2 1 (31 p ) 2

Radial strain
3 =

Maximum shear strain

( zx ) max =

Consolidated Undrained Compression (CU) Test Radial strain in CU test as the volume of soil is kept constant during shear phase

3 =

1 2

Maximum shear strain ( zx ) max = 1 3 = 1 1 = 1.51 2

PORE WATER PRESSURE UNDER AXISYMMETRIC UNDRAINED LOADING

Pore water pressure changes under axisymmetric conditions u = B[ 3 + A(1 3 )] Excess pore water pressure coefficient at failure u d A = Af = 3 f 1 Ratio of the change in pore water pressure to the increase in lateral principal stress
u = B1 + A 1 1 3 3

Coefficient indicating the level of saturation during isotropic consolidation

u =B 3

OTHER LABORATORY DEVICES TO MEASURE SHEAR STRENGTH

Simple Shear Apparatuses Principal strains

1 z + 2 + 2 z zx 2 1 3 = z 2 + 2 z zx 2 ( zx ) max = 1 3 = 2 + 2 z zx 1 =

( (

) )

Hollow Cylinder Apparatus Applied shearing stress

z = 3M 2( r23 r13 )

FIELD TESTS

Shear Vane Undrained shear strength

su =

2T h 1 d 3 ( + ) d 3

The Dutch Cone Penetrometer and Piezocone Correlation equation between cone resistance and undrained shear strength

su =

qc z Nk
I p 10 5

Cone factor that depends on the geometry of the cone and the rate of penetration N k = 19 ; I p > 10

Peak friction angle

q *** = 35 o + 11.5 log c d 30 zo

; 25 o 50 o d

CHAPTER 6 A CRITICAL STATE MODEL TO INTERPRET SOIL BEHAVIOR BASIC CONCEPTS Parameter Mapping Relationship for the slopes of the normal consolidation line (NCL) = Cc C = c = 0.434C c ln(10) 2.3

Relationship for the unloading/reloading line (URL) =

Cr C = r = 0.434C r ln(10) 2.3

Overconsolidation ratio using stress invariants Ro =

p c p o

ELEMENTS OF THE CRITICAL STATE MODEL Yield Surface Yield surface equation is an ellipse q2 =0 M2

(p)2 ppc +

Critical State Parameters Failure Line in (q, p) Space Deviatoric stress at failure when the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion for soils is written in terms of stress invariants

q f = M p f
Friction constant for axisymmetric compression

MC =

6 sin cs 3 sin cs 3M C 6 + MC

Relationship of the critical state friction angle for axisymmetric compression

sin = cs

Friction constant for axisymmetric extension

 1 2 + 1 6 sin qf 3 f cs ME = = = p 3 + sin 1 cs f 1 f 3

Relationship of the critical state friction angle for axisymmetric extension

sin = cs

3M E 6 ME

Failure Line in (e, p) Space Equation representing that the critical state line (CSL) is parallel to the NCL

e f = e ln p f
From the unloading/reloading line, the relationship of the mean effective stress at X, the intersection of the unloading/reloading line with the critical state line

e X = e o + ln

p o p / 2 c

From the critical state line, the relationship of the mean effective stress at X, the intersection of the unloading/reloading line with the critical state line

e X = e ln

p c 2

Void ratio on the critical state line when ln p ' = 1

e = e o + ( ) ln

p c + ln p o 2

FAILURE STRESSES FROM THE CRITICAL STATE MODEL Drained Triaxial Test Deviatoric stress at failure for the effective stress path (ESP) q f = 3(p p ) f o Deviatoric stress at failure for the critical state line (CSL)

q f = Mp f
Mean effective stress at failure obtained from equating the deviatoric stress at failure equations for the ESP and CSL

p = f

3p o 3M

Deviatoric stress at failure obtained from substituting the mean effective stress at failure equation

q f = Mp = f

3Mp o 3 M

Undrained Triaxial Test Failure void ratio e f = e o = e ln p f Mean effective stress at failure e eo p = exp f Deviatoric stress at failure e eo q f = M exp Undrained shear strength su = M e eo exp 2
G (w w A ) = exp s B

Ratio of the undrained shear strength of two samples, A and B, of the same saturated soil

(s u )A (s u )B

Peak shear stress for highly overconsolidated clays or dense sands

q p = Mp o

p c 1 = Mp R o 1; R o > 2 o p o

Undrained shear strength for highly overconsolidated clays or dense sands

su = M p R o 1; R o > 2 o 2

Excess pore water pressure at failure e eo M u f = p + 1 exp o 3

SOIL STIFFNESS Void ratio during unloading/reloading

e = e ln p'
Differentiation of void ratio during unloading/reloading equation de = dp p
dp de = 1 + e o 1 + e o p

Elastic volumetric strain increment

d e = p

Bulk modulus K = p (1 + eo )

Elastic modulus E =

3p (1 + e o )(1 2 )
3p (1 + e o )(1 2 ) 1.5p (1 + e o )(1 2 ) = (1 + ) 2 (1 + )

Shear modulus
G=

alternatively,
max = 1 + ec

pc

G=0.5 max

Shear modulus at small strains

Vs2 G= g
Initial shear modulus (Jamiolkowski et. al (1991) for clays) 198 a G = 1.3 (R o ) p MPa e Initial shear modulus (Seed and Idriss (1970) for sands) G = k1 p (MPa )

STRAINS FROM THE CRITICAL STATE MODEL Volumetric Strains Total change in volumetric strain

p = e + p p p
Total change in volumetric strain corresponding to the change in void ratio for a stress increment

p =

e 1 p p G = + ln E ( ) ln 1 + eo 1 + eo p p c D

Elastic change in volumetric strain from E to D, the volumetric elastic strain components

e = p

(e e E ) p e = D = ln E 1 + eo 1 + eo 1 + e o pD
p K

Volumetric elastic strain

e = p

Change in volumetric plastic strain

p G p = p e = ln p p c 1 + e0 p
Relationship between the change in volumetric elastic strain and plastic strain for undrained conditions

e = p p p
Shear Strains Yield surface F = (p) pp + c
2

q2 =0 M2
dq =0 M2

Tangent or slope of the yield surface

dF = 2p dp p dp + 2q c

Another form of the equation for the slope of the yield surface

 p c p dq 2 = dp q M2

The normal to the yield surface in terms of plastic strains

q 2 dp = = M p dq d p c p p 2
p d q

Plastic strain
p d q = d p p

q M 2 (p p c ) 2

Elastic shear strain

e = q 1 q 3G

CALCULATED STRESS-STRAIN RESPONSE

Drained Compression Tests Mean effective stress and deviatoric stress at initial yield
p y = (M 2 p + 18p ) + (M 2 p + 18p ) 2 36(M 2 + 9)(p ) 2 c o c o o 2( M 2 + 9)

q y = 3(p y p ) o

Preconsolidation stress for each mean effective stress increment up to failure p = p + c q2 M 2 p p 3

Strain in terms of total volumetric strain and deviatoric shear strain increments 1 = 3 q + p 3 = q +

Undrained Compression Tests Deviatoric stress at initial yield for an isotropically consolidated soil

q y = Mp o

p c 1 p o

Ko CONSOLIDATED SOIL RESPONSE

Gross stresses on the soil

1 = ( 1 )o + 1 1 = ( 1 )o + 1 - u 3 = Ko ( 1 )o + 3 = Ko ( 1 )o + 3 - u 3
Pore water pressure under axisymmetric conditions for a saturated soil u = 3 + A(1 - 3) Difference in the total stresses applied to bring a saturated soil to failure

1 3 =

K o (1 )o 3 A

Undrained shear strength at failure 1 1 3 su = 1 = [{(1 )o + 1 } {K o (1 )o + 3 }] = [(1 3 ) + (1 K o )(1 )o ] 2 2 f 2 Simplified equation of the undrained shear strength at failure su = 1 K o (1 )o 3 + (1 K o )(1 )o 2 A

Ratio of the undrained shear strength at failure and the effective stresses

s u s u sin [K o + A(1 K o )] cs = = 1 + (2A 1) sin 1 z cs

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SIMPLE SOIL TESTS, CRITICAL STATE PARAMETERS, AND SOIL STRENGTHS

Undrained Shear Strength of Clays at the Liquid and Plastic Limits

(s u )PL (s u )LL

=R

Vertical Effective Stresses at the Liquid and Plastic Limits

(z )LL = 8kPa (z )PL

= R (z )LL 800kPa Undrained Shear Strength Vertical Effective Stress Relationship

su 2 200 = or = 0.25 z 8 800

Compressibility Indices ( and Cc) and Plasticity Index

0.6I P
C c = 2.3 1.38I p

Undrained Shear Strength, Liquidity Index, and Sensitivity Ratio of the undrained shear strength of a soil at a water content, w, and its undrained shear strength at the plastic limit

(s u )w (s u )PL

( w PL w ) = exp G s

Undrained shear strength of a soil at a water content, w (s u ) w = (s u ) PL exp(4.6I L ) 200 exp(4.6I L ) Sensitivity describing the ratio of the intact undrained shear strength to the remolded undrained shear strength

St =

(s u ) i (s u ) r

Remolded undrained shear strength (s u ) r 200 exp(4.6I L ) Liquidity index in terms of sensitivity
I L = 1.2 log 10 S t

CHAPTER 7 BEARING CAPACITY OF SOILS AND SETTLEMENT OF SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS COLLAPSE LOAD FROM LIMIT EQUILIBRIUM Moment equilibrium equation for a circular failure mechanism
Pu B s u B B = 0 2

Collapse load Pu = 6.28Bs u Moment equilibrium equation about point O

P u (R cos B ) su [( - 2)R]R = 0 2

Collapse load found from the moment about point O

Pu = su [( - 2)R ]R su ( - 2)R = B B ) (cos (R cos - ) 2R 2

Partial derivatives of collapse load equation with respect to R and

Pu 4su R ( - 2) . (R cos - B) = =0 2 R (2R cos - B )

Pu 4su R 2 (B - 2R cos + R sin - 2R sin ) =0 = (2R cos - B )2 Collapse load with R and values obtained from partial derivative equations Pu = 5.52Bs u More exact collapse load solution using complex analysis Pu = 5.14Bs u

BEARING CAPACITY EQUATIONS Terzaghis Bearing Capacity Equations Ultimate net bearing capacity equations TSA (Total Stress Analysis): q ult = 5.14s u s c + D f ESA (Effective Stress Analysis): q ult = D f N q s q + 0.5BN s

Bearing Capacity Factors

N q = e tan tan 2 (45 o +
N = 2( N q + 1) tan

) 2

Shape Factors
s c = 1 + 0 .2 B B B s q = 1 + tan s = 1 0.4 L L L

Skemptons Bearing Capacity Equation Bearing capacity equation based on a TSA for rectangular and square footings on clay

q ult = 5s u (1 + 0.2

Df D B )(1 + 0.2 ) + D f ; f 2.5 B L B

Meyerhofs Bearing Capacity Equation Bearing capacity equation for vertical loads TSA: q ult = 5.14s u s c d c + D f ESA: q ult = D f N q s q d q + 0.5BN s d Bearing capacity equation for inclined loads TSA: q ult = 5.14s u d c i c + D f ESA: q ult = D f N q d q i q + 0.5BN d i Meyerhofs bearing capacity factors
N q = e tan tan 2 (45 o + ) ; Nq is the same as Terzaghi. 2

N = ( N q 1) tan(1.4)

Shape and depth factors

s c = 1 + 0 .2 B B s q = s = 1 + 0.1K p L L

d c = 1 + 0.2

Df B

d q = d = 1 + 0.1 K p
1 + sin )= 2 1 sin

Df B

where K p = tan 2 (45 o +

Load inclination factor for loads inclined at an angle to the vertical in the direction of footing width

 o i c = i q = 1 90

o i = 1

Load inclination factor for loads inclined at an angle to the vertical in the direction of the footing length for a surface footing (Df = 0)

sin i c = cos 1 1 a sin i q = i = cos 1 sin +2

ALLOWABLE BEARING CAPACITY AND FACTOR OF SAFETY Allowable bearing capacity

qa =

q ult FS

Factor of safety

FS =

q ult d

ECCENTRIC LOADS Modified width and length for a rectangular footing

B = B 2e B

and L = L 2e L

Eccentricities in the directions of width and length eB = My P ;eL = Mx P

Stresses due to a vertical load at an eccentricity

= P My P Pey P Pe = = A I A I A Z

Maximum and minimum vertical stresses along the X-axis max = P Pe P 6e B P Pe P 6e B + = = 1 + ; min = 1 A Z BL B A Z BL B

Maximum and minimum vertical stresses along the Y-axis max = P Pe P 6e L P Pe P 6e L + = = 1 + ; min = 1 A Z BL L A Z BL L

Ultimate load

Pu = q ult BL

SETTLEMENT Maximum tolerable settlement

max = R l max
SETTLEMENT CALCULATIONS Immediate Settlement Elastic settlement
e = P 1 2 s emb wall u EuL
0.38

Shape, embedment (trench), and side wall factors

A s = 0.45 b2 4L emb = 1 0.04

D f 4 A b 1 + B 3 4L2

0.54

wall

A = 1 0.16 w A b

Elastic settlement modified to account for embedment e = q s B(1 2 ) u I s emb Eu

where = 1 0.08 emb

Df 4 B ) (1 + 3 L B

Primary Consolidation Settlement Method to modify the one-dimensional consolidation equation to account for lateral stresses but not lateral strains

( )

pc SB

= m v u o dz
O

Excess pore water pressure

 3 (1 A ) u = 1 A + 1
One-dimensional primary consolidation settlement

( )

pc SB

H 3 (1 A )dz = (m v z H) SB = pc SB = m v 1 A + O 1

DETERMINATION OF BEARING CAPACITY AND SETTLEMENT OF COARSE-GRAINED SOILS FROM FIELD TESTS Bearing Capacity and Settlement from the Standard Penetration Test (SPT) Correction factor for overburden pressures 95.8 2 cN = ; c N 2 (Liao and Whitman, 1985) z
1

1916 c N = 0.77 log10 ; c N 2 , z > 24kPa (Peck et. al., 1974) z

Groundwater correction factor
cW = 1 1 z + 2 2 (D f + B)

Corrected N value Ncor = CN CW N Allowable bearing capacity for a shallow footing q a = 0.41N cor a (kPa) Settlement of a footing in a normally consolidated sand at the end of construction

= f s f1q ap B0.7 I c
Compressibility index Ic = compressibility index =
1.71 N 1 .4

Settlement if the sand is overconsolidated

2 = f 1f s q ap B 0.7 I c , if q ap > zc c 3

 = qB0.7

Ic , if q ap < zc 3

Settlement from Cone Penetration Test Settlement proposed by Schhmertmann et al. 1978 =
n (I ) cDct q net co i z i i =1 (q c )i

where cD = depth factor = 1 0.5

z t 0.5 and ct = creep factor = 1.0 + A log 10 q net 0 .1

Influence factor for axisymmetric conditions: L=B

I co = 0.1 + 2 ( I cp 0.1) z z 1 for B B 2

2 z 1 z 1 I co = 1 for 2 > 3 B 2 B 2

Influence factor for plane strain conditions: L > 10B

I co = 0.2 + ( I cp 0.2 )
z z for 1 B B

1 z z I co = I cp 1 1 for 4 > 1 B 3 B Settlement from Plate Load Tests Plate settlement when sand behaves like an elastic material 1 ( ) 2 p = q ap B p Ip E Relationship between settlement and plate settlement 2 = p Bp 1+ B
2

CHAPTER 8 PILE FOUNDATIONS LOAD CAPACITY OF SINGLE PILES Ultimate load capacity Qu = Qf + Qb Conventional allowable load capacity
Qa = Qu FS

METHODS USING STATICS - Method (based on TSA) Skin Friction

Q f = ( u ) i (s u ) i (perimeter) i (length) i
i =1

Skin friction for a cylindrical pile of uniform cross section Q f = u s u DL End bearing capacity Q b = f b A b = N c (s u ) b A b -Method (based on ESA) Skin friction

Q f = (x )i tan (perimeter)i (length )i i

i =1

Simplified skin friction equation due to the lateral effective stress being proportional to the vertical stress by a coefficient K

Q f = K i ( z )i tan (perimeter)i (length )i i

i =1

Skin friction equation with the two coefficients K and tan replaced by a single factor i Q f = i (z )i (perimeter )i (length )
i =1 i j

General expression for

 = K tan = K oc tan = (1 sin )(OCR ) tan i o i cs i

0.5

End bearing capacity

Q b = f b A b = N q (z )b A b

Janbus proposed equation for the bearing capacity coefficient (1976)

N q = tan + 1 + 1 tan 2 exp (2 tan )
2

Vesics proposed equation for the bearing capacity coefficient (1975)

4 sin 2 3 3 Nq = exp tan tan + I rr 3 3 sin 2 4 2 1 + sin

Rigidity index

I rr =

Ir 1 + pI r
G (z )b tan

where I r =

PILE LOAD CAPACITY BASED ON SPT AND CONE PENETROMETER TEST RESULTS The ultimate skin friction is: Qf = ( A + BN ) perimeter length The ultimate end bearing resistance is: Qb = CNAb The end bearing capacity of a single pile is estimated from: Qb = qc Ab The average value cone resistance is calculated from: q c = The geometric mean cone resistance is:
q c1 + q c2 + 2q c3 4
..q c n } n
1

( q c )ag = {q c1q c2q c3

PILE GROUPS Efficiency factor

e =

(Q u )g
nQ u

Group load capacity for block failure mode

ESA: (Q u )gb = i (z ) i (perimeter)ig L i + N q (z )b (A b )g

i =1 j

TSA: (Q u )gb = ( u ) i (s u ) i (perimeter)ig L i + N c (s u )b (A b )g

i =1

Group load capacity

(Q u )g

= nQ u

Group efficiency in fine-grained soils

e = (Q u )gb (Q u )gb + (nQ u )

2

1 2 2

Ratio of spacing to diameter

s = 1 + 2 sin (tan + 1 + tan 2 ) exp( tan ) D

ELASTIC SETTLEMENT OF PILES Shear strain

zx =

fs = G G

Elastic settlement resulting from skin friction es = 1 L (z ) dz G (z ) o

Assumption of shear stress in the z-direction for a cylindrical pile

(z ) = D F(z, i )(i )di

Elastic settlement of a single pile

es =

Qd I EsL

Approximate equation for the influence factor

L I = 0.5 + log D

Elastic moduli that varies linearly with depth, generally for soft soils E s = mz Elastic settlement for soft soils

( es )so

Qd I so mL2

Influence factor for soft soils

L I so = 2.0 log D

Elastic settlement for a floating pile

es =

Qd I EsD

Elastic shortening of the pile p = C Qd L EpAp

Critical depth normalized to the diameter or width Lc = D E p A p Es D

2

K ps A p D2

Group settlement factor

Rs = settlement of group settlementof single pile at the same average load

Empirical relationship between the group settlement factor and the number of piles
Rs = n

The settlement (Timoshenko and Goodier, 1970) Q 1 b = b rb Gb 4 The settlement for group piles in coarse-grained soils from SPT and cone penetration tests can be estimated from:

360 z I Bmin (mm) N cor z IBmin Cone es = 2qc

SPT: es =

where:

I = 1 0.08

L 2L or 0.5 , z is the stress increase at a depth of Bmin 3

Qa z 2 2 B + L L + L 3 3

CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT UNDER A PILE GROUP Increase in vertical stress at a depth z in the soft clay layer
z =

(B

+ z )(L g + z )

Q dg

PILES SUBJECTED TO NEGATIVE SKIN FRICTION Allowable load capacity

Qa = Qb + Qf Q nf FS

PILE-DRIVING FORMULAS AND WAVE EQUATION Engineering News Record (ENR) equation for the ultimate load capacity
Qu = WR h s + C1

ENR equation modified using an efficiency factor

Qu =

1 WR h s + C1

Change in force on the pile over an infinitesimal length z, assuming the pile to be a rod F 2u = E p A p ( z ) = E p A p 2 z z z Newtons second law

2u F = Ap g t 2 z
Above two equations set equal to one another

EpAp

2u 2u = Ap 2 z 2 g t

Simplified equation 2u 2u = Vc2 2 z t 2 Vertical wave propagation velocity in the pile Vc = Epg

CHAPTER 9 TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW OF WATER THROUGH SOILS TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW OF WATER THROUGH POROUS MEDIA Popular form of Laplaces equation for two-dimensional flow of water through soils kx

2H 2H + kz =0 x2 z2

Laplaces equation if the soil were an isotropic material 2H 2H =0 + x 2 z 2 Velocity potential which describes the variation of total head in a soil mass
= kH

Velocities of flow in the x and z direction

vx = k x
vz = kz

H = x x
H = z z

Components of velocity in the x and z direction in terms of the stream function

vx = z x

vz =

INTERPRETATION OF FLOW NET Flow Rate Head loss between each consecutive pair of equipotential lines
h = H Nd
h H b b = kh = k L L Nd L

Flow through each flow channel for an isotropic soil from Darcys Law
q = Aki = (b 1) k

Total flow

q = k (
i =1

Nf

N H ) i = kH f Nd Nd

Quantity of flow in the case of anisotropic soils

q = H

Nf Nd

kxkz

Hydraulic Gradient Hydraulic gradient over each square

i= h L h L min

Maximum hydraulic gradient

i max =

Static Liquefaction, Heaving, Boiling, and Piping Vertical effective stress

z = z i w z
Critical Hydraulic Gradient Critical hydraulic gradient that brings a soil mass to static liquefaction

i = i cr =

G 1 G 1 =( s ) w = s 1+ e 1+ e w w

Pore Water Pressure Distribution Pressure head

(h )

p j

= H ( N d ) j h h z

Pore water pressure u j = (h p ) j w

Uplift Forces Uplift force per unit length

Pw = u j x j
j=1

Calculating the uplift force per unit length using Simpsons rule

 n n x Pw = u 1 + u n + 2 u i + 4 u i 3 i =3 i=2 odd even

FINITE DIFFERENCE SOLUTION FOR TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW Using Taylors theorem to describe a flow domain kx k k 2H 2H = x2 (h i +1, j + h i 1, j 2h i , j ) + z2 (h i , j+1 + h i , j1 2h i , j ) = 0 + kz 2 2 z x z x 1 (h i+1, j + h i1, j + h i, j+1 + h i, j1 ) 2(1 + )
1 (h i+1, j + h i1, j + h i, j+1 + h i, j1 ) 4

Head at nodal point (i, j) after subdividing the flow domain into a square grid h i, j =

Head at nodal point (i, j) for isotropic conditions

h i, j =

Condition for a horizontal impermeable surface

h =0 x

Finite difference form of above equation

h 1 h i , j+ 1 h i , j 1 = 0 = x 2x

Head at nodal point (i, j) obtained from substitution

h i, j = 1 (h i+1, j + h i1, j + 2h i, j1 ) 4 1 (h i+1, j + h i, j1 ) 2 1 1 1 h i , j1 + h i +1, j + h i , j+1 + h i1, j + h i , j+1 2 2 3

Finite difference equation for first two types of boundary encountered in practice
h i, j =

Finite difference equation for last type of boundary encountered in practice

h i, j =

Pore water pressure at any node (ui, j)

u i , j = w (h i , j z i , j )

Horizontal velocity of flow at any node (i, j) from Darcys Law

v i, j = k x i i, j

Hydraulic gradient
1 (h i+1, j h i1, j ) 2 = x
kx (h i+1, j h i1, j ) 2 x

i i, j

Horizontal velocity of flow at any node (i, j) with hydraulic gradient substitution
v i, j =

Flow rate
K 1 kx q= h i +1,L h i 1,L + 2 (h i +1, j h i 1, j ) + h i +1,K h i 1,K 4 j= L +1

FLOW THROUGH EARTH DAMS Equation from the basic property of a parabola 2p = b 2 + H 2 b Equation obtained from solving for z z 2 = 4p( p + x ) or z = 2 p( p + x ) Flow rate across two vertical sections of an earth dam, KM and GN
q KM = Aki = ( z 1) k dz dx dz = (a sin )k tan dx

q GN = Aki = (a sin 1) k

Equation obtained from the continuity condition at sections KM and GN, qKM = qGN
zk dz = (a sin )k tan dx

Simplification of the continuity equation

z dz = a sin tan dx

Length of the discharge face for a homogeneous earth dam

a=

b b2 H2 b 2 = cos b 2 H 2 cot 2 2 cos cos sin cos

Flow through the earth dam b b 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 q = k sin tan cos cos b H cot = k sin cos 2 b H cot Flow through a dam with a horizontal drainage blanket
q = Aki = Ak dz dx

CHAPTER 10 STABILITY OF EARTH RETAINING STRUCTURES BASIC CONCEPTS ON LATERAL EARTH PRESSURES Active and passive lateral earth pressure coefficients
(x ) f ( ) f 1 sin = 3 = = tan 2 45 o = K a (Z ) f (1 ) f 1 + sin 2 1 + sin (x ) f ( ) = 1 f = = tan 2 45 o + = K p (Z ) f ( ) f 1 sin 2 3

Orientation of slip planes to the horizontal for Rankine active and passive states
a = 45 o + 2

p =

4 2

Active and passive lateral earth pressures due to the soil, groundwater and uniform surface stresses

( x )a

= K a z + K a q s + (p w )a

( x )p

= K p z + K p q s + (p w )p

COULOMBS EARTH PRESSURE THEORY Active lateral earth force

Pa = 1 1 H 2 tan 2 (45 o ) = K a H 2 2 2 2

Coulombs active and passive lateral earth pressure coefficient K aC = cos 2 ( ) 1 sin ( + ) sin ( ) 2 2 [1 + { } ] cos ( + ) cos ( ) cos 2 ( + ) 1 sin ( + ) sin ( + ) 2 2 [1 { } ] cos ( ) cos ( )

cos 2 cos ( + )

K pC =

cos 2 cos ( )

Inclinations of the slip plane to the horizontal (active state: + sign, passive state: - sign)

1 co s) 2 (si n tan = tan 1 cos {sin ( + )} 2

RANKINES LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE Rankines lateral earth pressure coefficients

K aR =

cos( ) 1 + sin 2 2sin cos a cos 2 cos + sin 2 sin 2

K pR =

cos( ) 1 + sin 2 + 2sin cos p cos 2 cos sin 2 sin 2

Inclinations of the slip planes to the horizontal a = p = 1 1 sin + sin sin 4 2 2 2 1 1 sin + + sin sin 4 2 2 2

Inclinations for the active and passive lateral earth forces to the normal of the wall face

a = tan 1

sin sin a 1 sin cos a

sin sin p p = tan 1 1 + sin cos p

LATERAL EARTH PRESSURES FOR A TOTAL STRESS ANALYSIS

Theoretical depth at which tension cracks extend into the soil z = z cr = 2su

Critical depth if the tension crack is filled with water

z = cr 2s u

Theoretical maximum depth of an unsupported vertical cut in fine-grained soils

H = H cr =

4su

Maximum depth used in design practice for unsupported excavation in fine-grained soils H cr = 3.8su

Critical depth if the excavation is filled with water H'cr = 3.8su

Active and passive lateral stresses for the undrained condition ( x )a = z K au su

( x ) p = z + K pu su

Undrained active and passive lateral earth pressure coefficients

K au = K pu = 2 1 +

sw su

APPLICATION OF LATERAL EARTH PRESSURES TO RETAINING WALLS

Maximum values of wall adhesion should be the lesser value Active state: sw = 0.5su or sw 50kPa Passive state: sw = 0.5su or sw 25kPa

STABILITY OF RIGID RETAINING WALLS

Translation Factor of safety against translation for an ESA (effective stress analysis)
(F S ) T =

{(W w

+ W s + Pa z ) c o s b Pa x s in b } ta n b Pa x c o s b + (W w + W s + Pa z ) sin b

Factor of safety against translation for an ESA if base is horizontal (FS)T =

(Ww + Ws + Paz ) tan b

Pax

Factor of safety against translation for a TSA (total stress analysis)

(FS)T

s w B / cos b Pax cos b + ( Ww + Ws + Paz ) sin b

Factor of safety against translation for a TSA if base is horizontal

(FS)T

swB Pax

Rotation Location of resultant vertical force at the base of a rigid retaining wall
x = W w x w + Ws x s + Paz x a Pax z a ( W w + W s + Paz ) cos b Pax sin b

Location of resultant vertical force at the horizontal base of a rigid retaining wall

x=

Ww x w + Ws x s + Paz x a Pax z a Ww + Ws + Paz

STABILITY OF FLEXIBLE RETAINING WALLS

Analysis of sheet pile walls in uniform soils CASE 1: Water level in the backfill and in front of wall different Maximum pore water pressure
uB = 2ad w a + 2d ad (a + d ) w a + 2d a + 2d 3

Maximum pore water force

Pw =

Location of maximum pore water forces

zw =

Seepage force per unit volume

js = a w a + 2d

CASE 2: Wall supports water in front of it and water level in backfill is greater than water level in front of wall Maximum pore water pressure
uB = uC = a (b + 2d ) w a + b + 2d

Maximum pore water force

Pw =

1 a ( b + 2d )(a + 2b + d ) w 2 a + b + 2d

Location of maximum pore water forces

zw =

a 2 + 3a (b + d) + 3b(b + 2d) + 2d 2 3(a + 2b + d)

Seepage force per unit volume

js = a w a + b + 2d

Anchored sheet pile walls Depth of the bottom of the anchor plate from the ground surface dz = 2Ta ( FS) (K p K a ) ) ) + dz tan (45o + 2 2

Minimum anchor length of the anchor rod La = (H + d) tan (45o -

Longitudinal spacing of the anchors s= d 2 L a z (K p K a ) 2Ta (FS)

BRACED EXCAVATION

Factor of safety against bottom heave

(FS) heave = N c

su H + q s

Bearing capacity coefficient given by Skempton

N c = 6(1 + 0.2 H H H ) for 2.5 and Nc = 9 for > 2 .5 B B B

MECHANICAL STABILIZED EARTH WALLS

Effective length in which the frictional resistance develops over Le = K aR (z + q s )S z S y (FS) 2 w (z + q s ) tan i = K aR S z S y (FS) t 2w tan i

Required length of reinforcement at the base preventing translation under long-term loading q (K aC ) x 0.5H+ s (K ) H(0.5H + q s ) P (FS)T L b = ax = ac x = tan b H tan b H tan b (FS) T

Allowable tensile strength per unit width of the reinforcing polymeric material ** Ta = Tult
1 FS ID FS cs FS CD FS BD

Length of reinforcement within the active failure zone

L R = (H - z) tan 2 (45 o

cs ) 2

Variation of lateral stress coefficient

K = K aR
z z + K o (1 ) for z 6m 6 6

K = KaR for z > 6m Length of reinforcement within the failure zone LR = 0.2H + (0.1H + LR =
z ) for z 0.6H 6

1 z H (1 ) for z > 0.6H 2 H K aR ( H + q s )S z S y ( FS) tr wf y

Required maximum thickness of the reinforcement

tr =