Microelectronics Reliability 47 (2007) 335341 www.elsevier.

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Problems of PCB microvias lling by conductive paste

Ryszard Kisiel
b c

a,*

, Jan Felba b, Janusz Borecki c, Andrzej Moscicki

a Warsaw University of Technology, Institute of Microelectronics and Optoelectronics, Koszykowa 75, 00-662 Warsaw, Poland Wroclaw University of Technology, Faculty of Microsystems Electronics and Photonics, Grabiszynska 97, 53-439 Wroclaw, Poland Tele and Radio Research Institute, Center for Advanced Technology of Electronic Interconnections, Ratuszowa 11, 03-450 Warsaw, Poland d Amepox Microelectronics, Jaracza 6, 90-268 Lodz, Poland

Received 4 December 2005; received in revised form 5 February 2006 Available online 4 May 2006

Abstract The using of conductive paste for the through holes and the blind holes lling in PCBs were analyzed. Such processes seem to be easy and can be applied instead of common used electrochemical plating process. The performed investigations have shown that these processes are not so simple. To understand more problems connected with microvias lling, the inuence of adhesive rheology and printing parameters for the quality of small diameter through holes lling and small diameter blind vias were investigated. The performed analysis was supplemented by electrical measurements as well as observation of microvia cross sections. The FR-4 laminate test samples with through holes with 0.3, 0.5 and 0.8 mm diameters as well as blind holes diameters 0.15, 0.3 and 0.45 mm were used in experiments. The average single lls resistances in the range 50 mX for through hole llings diameter 0.5 mm and below 20 mX for blind holes diameter 0.3 mm was obtained. The adhesive ll resistance is stable after dump heat and thermal cycling tests. 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Creation of interconnections between layers in conventional technology of printed circuit board (PCB) requires holes drilled through the whole board. They are nally electroplated with copper and other metals. Plated through holes consume relatively high board surface and electroplating process is environmentally harmful. One of the solutions that can permit to save the PCB area is using smaller vias or applying blind and buried vias. Such process can be based on applying electrically conductive pastes [1,2]. Several new manufacturing schemes of high density PCBs have been introduced recently, among them are the ALIVH substrates [3,4]. The ALIVH is a multilayer organic substrate with interstitial via holes anywhere in any layers. The fabrication process starts from prepreg preparation. First, via holes are formed by laser beam. Next, conductive copper paste is lled
*

into via holes. Then, the copper foils are stacked on both sides of the prepreg and are laminated by the hot press. During this process, both resins in prepreg and conductive paste are cured. At the same time, top and bottom copper foils are electrically connected by conductive paste. The other application of conductive pastes is lling of plated through holes of multilayer PCBs in order to improve their thermal performance, particularly with BGA (ball grid array) packages [5]. Other applications can be hole-lling procedure instead of electroplating in inner layers and blind vias in outside layer of multilayer PCBs made by sequential build-up technology. The simplest way of joining both sides of double sided PCBs can be achieved by applying conductive adhesives in drilled through holes. The main requirements for via lling by electrically conductive pastes are as follows [5,6]: adhesive must have enough low viscosity to ll high aspect ratio vias (the aspect ratio is dened as a relation of hole depth to hole diameter),

Corresponding author. Tel.: +48 22 660 78 52 1; fax: +48 22 628 87 40. E-mail address: R.Kisiel@imio.pw.edu.pl (R. Kisiel).

0026-2714/$ - see front matter 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.microrel.2006.02.018

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140 120 100

the material must be stable enough to have a reasonable shelf life, electrical resistance per via must be no higher than tens of milliohms (for via depth 0.6 mm, aspect ratio 2:1), it must plate well holes walls, it must withstand soldering shock test, it must withstand thermal cycles of 40 to +125 C and dump heat tests 85 C/85% RH, it must have stable contact resistance in combination with non-noble metals including pure Sn. Presented above requirements are very critical for adhesives and hole lling process. To fulll these requirements a lot of research work must be done. Our research team studied the using of polymer materials for through hole lling and for blind vias lling in PCBs. The results of experiments were presented in papers [710]. It was found that it is possible to obtain for the through hole diameters 0.5 and 0.8 mm the ll resistance in the range of 100 mX and 200 mX, respectively. The ll resistance of holes 0.3 mm were in the range of Ohms and ll eciency was below 50%. The experiments with blind vias were performed too. The repeatable results were obtained for lling blind vias with 0.3 and 0.45 mm diameter. The ll resistance in blind vias with 0.3 and 0.45 mm diameter with Cu metallization in the range of 1015 X and 25 X was obtained, respectively. Such values are too high and further researches are necessary to solve this problem. The aim of the work presented in the paper was to decrease the ll resistance of through holes as well as blind via signicantly below 100 mX. To do this, the lling process must be improved and 100% eciency of small diameter through holes as well as blind via must be achieved. Such obtained lling must be stable during climatic tests too. 1.1. Test samples and measuring methodology Two types of test samples were used in the performed experiments. The samples for through hole lling were double sided FR-4 laminate (1 mm thick, Cu layer 18 lm thickness electroplated by Ni/Au) with mechanically drilled holes diameter 0.3 mm (40 holes), 0.5 mm (40 holes) and 0.8 mm (40 holes) (with aspect ratio 3.3:1, 2:1 and 1.25:1, respectively). A dierent procedure was applied during preparation of test samples with blind vias. The single sided FR-4 laminate 1.6 mm thickness was used as the core. The RCC material (resin coating copper foil) was pressed on the one side of core laminate. The UV Nd:YAG laser drill machine from Electro Scientic Industries Inc. model 5200 was used to form the blind vias in the RCC material 70 lm thick. The laser beam drilled blind vias have diameters 0.15, 0.30 and 0.45 mm. The Ni/Au electroplating process of Cu lands was done after laser drilling of the blind vias. Test sample with blind vias contains 40 holes with 0.15 mm diameter, 40 holes with 0.3 mm diameter and 40

Temperature [C]

80 60 40 20 0 -20 -40 -60 0 5000 10000 15000

Time [s]
Fig. 1. Thermal prole of cycling tests (example).

holes with 0.45 mm diameter. The layout of test sample was presented in paper [8]. The quality of conductive paste lling in through hole was estimated by the eciency of lling process (the ratio of lling with resistance below 10 X to total llings) and more precisely by measurements of the electrical resistance of hole lls. The resistance of through hole ll consists of the contact resistances between Ni/Au pads nishes on the top and bottom layer of laminate and the resistance of conductive paste ll in the hole. The ll resistance below 100 mX is satisfactory. Keithley 2001 multimeter with four wires option was used for resistance measurements. Automated data acquisitions were possible by using home-elaborated software. The climatic tests were performed during nal investigation. Two types of climatic tests were applied: the dump heat (85 C/85% RH) 504 h and thermal cycling test (40 C to +125 C, 500 cycles). The example of thermal prole of cycling tests is shown in Fig. 1. 1.2. Conductive pastes and lling procedure In our experiments the thermo-setting, one-component, silver lled epoxy conductive pastes were applied. Amepox Microelectronics Ltd manufactured conductive pastes used in all experiments. The formulations were especially designed and prepared to performed experiments. The conductive paste contains the silver llers in the form of akes with the average dimension few micrometers. For the preliminary experiments eight conductive paste compositions, signed as Elpox EXP IVIII, were tested. They were dierent in viscosity, additives that increase paste surface tension and wettability of Ag akes by resin. After analyses the results of preliminary investigations, the two paste compositions were selected for further investigation: Elpox EXP II with resistivity 34 104 Xcm (for through hole llings) and Elpox EXP VIII with lower viscosity and resistivity 67 104 Xcm (for through hole and blind vias llings). In the nal experiments nanoparticles

R. Kisiel et al. / Microelectronics Reliability 47 (2007) 335341 Table 1 The through hole vias resistance made by Ni/Au electroplating Hole diameter [mm] 0.30 0.50 0.80 N: number of holes. N 40 40 40 Resistance [mX] 0.583 0.285 0.097 r [mX] 0.011 0.005 0.008

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Table 2 The average ll resistance of through holes with dierent diameters and paste types Diameter [mm] g Rav [mX] 519 51 39 r [mX] 809 6 13

Paste formulation Elpox EXP II 0.3 19/40 0.5 40/40 0.8 40/40 Paste formulation Elpox EXP VIII 0.3 39/40 0.5 40/40 0.8 80/80

with 500 nm sizes were added to the conductive paste Elpox EXP VIII and the paste was sign as Elpox EXP 8.1. The conductive paste was lled into the holes or blind vias by stencil printing method. The metal stencil, 100 lm thick, was in direct contact with test sample and the squeegee movement parallel to sample printed conductive paste. In case of samples with through holes, the paste was printed four or two times on the topside of FR-4 laminate, and after that the sample was turn out and contact conductive paste layer was printed on bottom side. For samples with blind vias, the paste was printed two times on topside of sample. The detailed description of printing technology (the squeegee speed and pressure) was described in paper [7]. The curing procedure of all described above conductive pastes were as follows: drying 100 C and 10 min and curing 165 C and 15 min. The electrical resistance of lls was measured after curing, during and after performed climatic tests. There was also used dose technique for some samples with blind holes. The paste was dosed by syringe (0.1 MPa and 0.1 s). 1.3. The goal of investigations The test samples with electroplated through holes diameters 0.3 mm, 0.5 mm and 0.8 mm were prepared to measure plated ll resistance. The results of measurements are presented in Table 1. As it can be seen, the average resistance of metallized (Ni/Au) holes is in the range 0.1 0.6 mX. On the base of described above measurements it is possible to predict that the conductive paste ll resistance can be two orders of magnitude higher than electroplated holes if the same cross section will be considered. It is obvious because the resistivity of metals used for electroplating shows big dierences (Au has resistivity 2.25 lX cm and conductive paste resistivity is in the range 300600 lX cm). 2. Experiments with through hole llings The test samples thickness 1.0 mm with through holes 0.3, 0.5 and 0.8 mm diameter and Ni/Au contact metallization were lled by conductive pastes: Elpox EXP II and Elpox EXP VIII. The samples were dried (100 C and 10 min) and cured (165 C and 15 min). The lls resistance was measured and results are shown in Table 2. As it can be seen from Table 2, applying lling procedure was proper and repeatable for holes with 0.5 and 0.8 mm diameter. For holes with 0.3 mm diameter the

101 56 41

59 6 7

g: number of good llings/total number of llings N. Rav: average ll resistance for good llings. r: standard deviation.

results are unrepeatable and ll resistances are above 100 mX with high standard deviation. The conductive paste Elpox EXP VIII (with lower viscosity) permits to obtain better eciency (39/40) than Elpox EXP II paste for hole 0.3 mm. The ll resistance for holes with 0.5 and 0.8 mm diameter made by Elpox EXP VIII is slightly higher than in case of paste Elpox EXP II. It is connected with higher resistivity of paste Elpox EXP VIII than Elpox EXP II. The procedure for repeatable llings the holes with 0.3 mm diameter needs further improvements. 2.1. Problems of shrinkage and minimize ll resistance As it was mentioned in the introduction, one of the problems with applying conductive paste in PCB manufacturing is to obtain the ll resistance in the range of tens milliohms for dierent holes diameter. It can be expected that the decreasing ll resistance can be achieved by applying pastes with lower resistivity (for example increasing Ag ller) or by applying thinner laminate (if it is possible). The results of such investigation are shown in Tables 3 and 4. As it can be seen from Table 3, it is possible to decrease the ll resistance for holes diameter 0.5 mm and 0.8 mm by increasing ller content in conductive paste. Nevertheless increasing the ller contents increase the paste viscosity and it is more dicult to ll holes with diameter 0.3 mm, its ll resistance signicantly increase. Obtaining good llings of holes 0.3 mm is very important because such holes are typical for high-density interconnect (HDI) multilayer PCBs.

Table 3 Inuence of ller content in conductive paste on ll resistance [mX], N = 40 lls Laminate thickness [mm] % of Ag ller Hole diameter [mm] 0.3 0.6 0.6 0.6 62 75 80 52 11 50200 35150 0.5 38 7 27 4 27 3 0.8 25 8 18 3 21 4

R r: average ll resistance standard deviation.

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R. Kisiel et al. / Microelectronics Reliability 47 (2007) 335341 Table 5 The inuence of hole edge shape and laminate thickness on ll resistance [mX] Paste Laminate Feather edge thickness g Rr [mm] 1.0 1.0 0.6 Conic edge g Rr

Table 4 Inuence of laminate thickness on ll resistance [mX], N = 40 lls Laminate thickness [mm] % of Ag ller Hole diameter [mm] 0.3 1.0 0.6 62 62 112809 52 11 0.5 51 6 38 7 0.8 39 13 25 8

R r: average ll resistance standard deviation.

Elpox EXP II Elpox EXP VIII Elpox EXP 8.1

19/40 519 809 21/40 540 575 39/40 101 59 80/80 112 29 120/120 52 11 120/120 59 10

g: number of good llings/total number of llings N. R r: average ll resistance standard deviation.

Fig. 2. Holes diameter 0.8 mm: laminate 1.0 mm paste 62% ller (left); laminate 0.6 mm paste 75% ller (right).

As it can be seen from Table 4 it is possible to decrease the ll resistance by decreasing laminate thickness. It was observed that for laminate thickness 1.0 mm, holes diameter 0.8 mm and Ag ller contents 62%, the resistance standard deviation is higher than in laminate thickness 0.6 mm with holes 0.8 mm. The conductive paste matrix shrinkage in thicker laminate is responsible for cracking near the hole edge, Fig. 2(left). By decreasing the laminate thickness the cracking can be eliminated (Fig. 2(right)). 2.2. Problems of lling small diameter holes The next part of research works was concentrated on lling the holes with 0.3 mm diameter. It was expected that paste viscosity could be responsible for the bad eciency of lling the holes with 0.3 mm diameter. Three types of conductive pastes were applied: the Elpox EXP II (as base line for comparisons), paste Elpox EXP VIII (with lower viscosity) and paste Elpox EXP 8.1 (with Ag nanopowders). Additionally two types of test samples were prepared: the samples with standard mechanically drilled holes, and the samples with especially prepared holes. The preparation was made by pressing the cone 90 from the each side of a laminate, so the cone shape edges were formed in each side of a hole. This shape can facilitate the conductive paste ow into the hole. The results of ll resistance examination in holes with 0.3 mm diameter are presented in Table 5. The paste Elpox EXP II does not ow properly in holes with 0.3 mm diameter even if cone shape edge in the hole was prepared; the ll resistance is above 0.5 X and repeatability is bad. The repeatable and good llings were obtained for the same holes (0.3 mm with cone shape edges) but with using of conductive paste with lower viscos-

Fig. 3. The adhesive ll in hole diameter 0.3 mm, with conic edge Elpox EXP VIII.

ity, Elpox EXP VIII, see cross section in Fig. 3. The more promising results were obtained for samples 0.6 mm thick where the paste Elpox EXP 8.1 with nanopowders was applied. The repeatable results were obtained for both hole edge shapes: feather and conic. It will be interesting to examine how the edge shape inuences the ll resistance stability during climatic tests. The conductive paste layer on hole feather edge can be thin and can inuence the ll resistance stability in the climatic tests. 2.3. Climatic tests of through hole ll resistance stability Preliminary researches show that the changes of ll resistance in PCB with Cu metallization are unacceptable during climatic test. It was expected that by applying Ni/ Au metallization the ll resistance in through holes as well as blind vias could be improved after climatic test. Two types of test samples were prepared. First, the samples where a paste is present in whole hole, so called full ll. Second, the samples where the conductive paste is present on the cylindrical wall of hole, so called tube shape ll. Such ll shape minimizes the presence of cracking during paste curing caused by shrinkage. To check the paste ll resistance stability of obtained samples the new dump heat (85 C/85% RH) and thermal cycling tests (40 to +125 C) were performed. The results of dump heat tests for through holes with 0.5 and 0.8 mm diameter in 1.0 mm thick laminate with dierent ll shapes are presented in

R. Kisiel et al. / Microelectronics Reliability 47 (2007) 335341 Table 6 The average ll resistance [mX] and standard deviation after dump heat tests, Ni/Au contact metallization, paste Elpox EXP II N = 80 0.5 mm diameter Full ll Before After 504 h 45 5 47 6 Tube 55 12 57 13 0.8 mm diameter Full ll 40 7 54 18 Tube 34 5 36 6

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Table 7 The inuence of the way of applying paste on blind vias lls resistance [mX] Type of applying Blind vias diameter 0.15 mm g Stencil printing Volume feeder Rr 0.3 mm g Rr 0.45 mm g Rr

78/80 405 298 80/80 38 8 80/80 19 2 51/80 168 280 80/80 19 2 80/80 13 1

90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 200 400 Time [cycles]

g: number of good llings/total number of llings N. R r: average ll resistance standard deviation.

Average fill resistance [mOhm]

0.3 mm 0.5 mm 0.8 mm

600
Fig. 5. The cross section of connection: (a) dose by syringe, diameter of hole 0.15 mm and (b) made by stencil printing, diameter of hole 0.3 mm.

Fig. 4. The conic lls resistance stability during thermal cycling tests (40 to +125 C), conductive paste Elpox EXP II, Ni/Au metallization.

Table 6. The ll resistance in holes with 0.5 mm and 0.8 mm diameter with both ll shapes is stable in dump heat tests, see Table 6. The ll resistance of full shape in holes with 0.8 mm diameter is unstable and standard deviation is signicantly high. The paste shrinkage in holes with 0.8 mm diameter is responsible for such high resistance changes, see Fig. 2. The through hole llings were also tested in thermal cycling tests. The test samples with conic edge hole shapes were applied. The results are presented in Fig. 4. The acceptable ll resistance stability was observed for holes with 0.3, 0.5 and 0.8 mm diameter. So by applying conic edge shape in small diameter holes not only ll process was improved (see Table 5), but also the ll resistance stability was improved too. 3. Experiments with blind hole llings To examine the lling procedure of blind holes with 0.15, 0.3 and 0.45 mm diameter, two techniques were applied: paste stencil printing or dose by syringe lled with paste. In both cases the paste Elpox EXP VIII with low viscosity was applied. The results are presented in Table 7. On the base of performed experiments it can be concluded that for blind vias with 0.15 mm diameter the stencil printing process is more repeatable than dose by syringe. As it can be seen in Table 7 the eciency of lling g blind holes with 0.15 mm diameter is promising (78 good on 80 total lls) but the ll resistance is in the range 400 mX and resistance repeatability is unacceptable. To understand this results the cross sections of blind lls were done, see

Fig. 5. As it can be seen in Fig. 5(a) the presence of voids in lls can be responsible for lack of resistance repeatability for blind vias with 0.15 mm diameter. For connections made by stencil printing the quality of contact between top Au metallization and paste dene the ll resistance stability, see Fig. 5(b). Applying of paste by the syringe for blind holes with 0.3 mm diameter or bigger permits to receive llings with ll resistance below 20 mX what is the very promising result. 3.1. Problems with small diameter blind vias llings To improve the quality of conductive paste lls in blind vias with 0.15 mm diameter it is necessary to improve the quality of paste deposition. To do this, it was decided to apply the vias with oblong shape (slot type) instead of round, see Fig. 6. The oblong shape and correlated print direction can permit for easy paste ow into the vias. The experiment was done and results are presented in Table 8. By changing the vias shape from circle to oblong it is possible to decrease the ll resistance. The average ll resistance in blind vias with 0.3 mm diameter is 38 8 mX, and

Fig. 6. The slot type blind hole, single hole 0.1 mm diameter.

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Average fill resistance [mOhm]

Table 8 The inuence of blind vias shape on ll resistance, 100% ll eciency, paste Elpox EXP VIII Vias shape Diameter 0.45 mm Diameter 0.30 mm Diameter 0.15 mm 0.15 mm 0.487 mm 0.10 mm 0.325 mm 0.06 mm 0.195 mm
a

Vias surface [mm2] 0.159 0.071 0.018 0.075 0.032 0.011

15 10 5 0 0 200 400 600 Time [cycles]

R r [mX] 19 2 38 8 405 298a 23 4 86 49 314 222

0.3 mm 0.45 mm

Results for 78/80 eciency.

Table 9 The inuence of blind vias shape on ll resistance, 100% ll eciency, paste Elpox EXP 8.1 Vias shape 0.15 mm 0.375 mm 0.1 mm 0.25 mm Vias surface [mm2] 0.051 0.024 R r [mX] 17 2 41 12

Fig. 7. The blind vias ll resistance stability in thermal cycling (40 to +125 C), conductive paste Elpox EXP VIII, Ni/Au metallization.

it is slightly higher than for vias with oblong shape 0.15 mm 0.487 mm where the resistance 23 4 mX were measured (vias surfaces are almost similar). Further reduction of vias surface by changing vias shape to shape 60 lm 150 lm permits to obtain repeatable lls of blind vias but with ll resistance in hundreds of milliohms. In the next investigations it was checked how applying paste with nanopowder can inuence the ll resistance in oblong shape blind vias. The results of investigation are presented in Table 9. By comparison the results from Tables 8 and 9 it is possible to conclude that the both operations changing the vias shape, and changing of paste type permits to obtain good repeatable lls in holes slot type 0.1 mm 0.25 mm, surface 0.024 mm2. 3.2. Tests of blind vias ll resistance stability To check the blind vias ll resistance stability the dump heat (85 C/85% RH) and thermal cycling (40 to +125 C) tests were performed. The samples with blind vias with 0.15, 0.3 and 0.45 mm diameter and Ni/Au metallization were climatic tested. In these samples the conductive paste was dosed by syringe. The results of resistance stability of blind vias lls during dump heat tests are presented in Table 10. The lls of blind vias with 0.3 and 0.45 mm diameter are characterized by good resistance stability. The eciency of

lls in blind vias with 0.15 mm diameter is unsatisfactory and lls resistance is unstable and standard deviation is big. The blind vias resistance stability in thermal cycling tests was also investigated. The results are presented in Fig. 7. Similarly as in dump heat test the ll resistance in holes with 0.15 mm diameter is unrepeatable and unstable, so it is not included in Fig. 7. The ll resistance stability during thermal cycling tests in blind vias with 0.3 and 0.45 mm diameter is fully acceptable. It means that the applied conductive paste is good for these applications. 4. Conclusions The idea of metallization of mechanically drilled through holes and laser drilled blind holes in PCB manufacturing by electrically conductive pastes was investigated. The investigations show that the manufactured pastes series Elpox EXP can be used for such applications. They have acceptable low resistivity and good perform climatic tests. Stencil printing process is good for lling through holes with diameter range 0.50.8 mm by conductive pastes in FR-4 laminate. The obtained average ll resistance is below 50 mX and is stable after dump heat and thermal cycling tests. Filling process for through holes with 0.3 mm diameter is more complicated. In that case the paste with lower viscosity must be applied and hole edges must be especially prepared (conic shape). The average ll resistance is in the range 7080 mX and is stable during climatic tests. The blind vias with diameter range 0.30.45 mm can be successfully lled by conductive paste in thin laminate layer (thickness % 70 lm) on core thick laminate. The obtained interconnections have average resistance below 20 mX. The average ll resistance during dump heat and thermal shocks tests is stable. The lling process of blind vias with 0.15 mm diameter needs improvements. Special shape of vias was proposed (oblong shape slot type). The eciency of ll process is good and ll resistance is acceptable. The other methods of small diameter blind vias lling, like lling in low vacuum, will be analyzed in the further research.

Table 10 The resistance stability of blind vias lls [mX] in dump heat tests, paste Elpox EXP VIII dose by syringe Diameter of via [mm] 0.15 0.30 0.45 g 51/80 40/40 40/40 Before test 166 244 18 2 13 1 After 504 h 218 422 19 2 13 1

g: number of good llings/total number of llings N. R r: average ll resistance [mX] standard deviation.

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Acknowledgement Polish State Committee for Scientic Research, Grant No. 4 T11B 024 25, supported these works. References
[1] Motoaki Itou. High-density PCBs provided for more portable design. Nikkei Electron Asia 1999;8(11). Available from: www.nikkeibp.com/nea/nov99. [2] Savolanien PJ. Advanced substrates for wireless terminals. In: Proceedings of 4th international conference on adhesive joining and coating technology in electronics manufacturing. Adhesives in Electronics 2000, 1821 June, Espoo, Finland. p. 2648. [3] Lau JH, Lee SWR. Microvias, for low cost, high density interconnects. McGraw-Hill; 2001. p. 20746 [chapter 7: Conductive paste/ ink-lled microvias]. [4] Andoh D, Tomita Y, Nakamura T, Echigo F. The progress of the ALIVH substrate. In: 52nd Electronic components and technology conference. IEEE; 2831 2002, ISBN 0-7803-7430-4. p. 141924.

[5] Felten JJ, Padlewski SA. Electrically conductive via plug material for PWB applications. In: IPC Printed Circuits Expo 1997, 913 March, San Jose, California, 1997, p. S6-6-1-4. [6] Dreezen G, Deckx E, Luyckx. Solder alternative: electrically conductive adhesives with stable contact resistance in combination with non-noble metallizations In: Proceedings of European microelectronics and packaging symposium, 1618 June 2004, Prague. p. 28492. [7] Kisiel R, Borecki J, Felba J, Moscicki A. Technological aspects of applying conductive adhesives for inner connections in PCB. In: Proceedings of POLYTRONIC 2004, AP, 2004. p. 32. [8] Kisiel R, Borecki J, Kozio G, Felba J. Conductive adhesives for through holes and blind vias metallization. Microelectron Reliab 2005;45:193540. [9] Kisiel R, Borecki J, Felba J, Moscicki A. Electrically conductive adhesives as vias ll in PCBs: the inuence of ll shape and contact metallization on vias resistance stability. In: Proceedings of 28th Int spring seminar on electronics technology. ISSE; 2005. p. 1938. [10] Kisiel R, Moscicki A, Felba J, Borecki J. Technological aspects of applying adhesives in small diameter vias. In: Proceedings of XXIX international conference IMAPS Poland chapter, September 2005, p. 99102.