Mickael Kaculini Mrs. Nicholson AP Biology Period 2 23 October 2011 Body Book 1.

Cell How it Works Communicatio n Local Signaling The release of

chemical messengers to other cells in the close vicinity. The transmitting cell gives off local a regulator that affects other cells.

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Example

Growth factor in animal cells that influence other cells to grow and multiply.

Synaptic Signaling

Occurs in animal nervous systems. One nerve cell sends off neurotransmitter s to another cell across a synapse.

Sending an impulse from one side of your body to another without affecting other regions of the body. Ex: An impulse from your head to your finger. The hormone ethylene only occurs in plants and is used to keep control of growth and helps fruit to ripen. Insulin in animals is used to keep the sugar levels in blood from drastically changing.

Hormonal Signaling

Occurs in both animals and plants. Is used to send signals long distances. Specialized cells secrete hormones and they travel through other cells or through the air to influence other cells.

Mickael Kaculini Mrs. Nicholson AP Biology Period 2 23 October 2011 Direct Contact Cells that are dissolved in the Between Cells cytosol can move freely from one adjacent cell to another. Another method is by transferring signaling substances from the surfaces of the different cells. 2.

Pivotal in the communicatio n of the immune system as well as a developing embryo.

Reception G-Protein Linked Receptor

Function
It is a plasma membrane receptor that has seven alpha helices that span across the membrane. When GDP is bound to the membrane, the G protein is inactive; when GTP is bound it is active. They are important to the development of embryos. It is important for smell and sight for humans. If G Protein is interfered with, cholera, pertussis and botulism may occur. Small pores in the membrane that allow or reject specific materials from entering the cell through chemical recognition. Important in receiving as well as sending information from one cell to another. It is responsible for

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Ligand-Gated Ion Channels

Mickael Kaculini Mrs. Nicholson AP Biology Period 2 23 October 2011 changing the concentrations of certain ions inside the cell. Pivotal to the functioning of the nervous system. Important in controlling and regulating growth factor. Also occurs on the plasma membrane. Catalyzes the transfer of phosphates to tyrosine. Helps send many messages to many different pathways. If this malfunctions, it has been known to cause some forms of cancer.

Tyrosine Kinases

STP Protein Phosphorylation

Function
Important in reversing the effects of protein kinases. It removes phosphates from proteins. If this does not occur, there will be too many phosphatase molecules and signal pathway and response of the cell shuts down.

Illustration

Second Messengers cAMP and Ca2+

A nonprotein ion that assist in signaltransduction pathways. Travels through the cell by diffusion because it is soluble in water. cAMP carries an epinephrine signal from the plasma membrane to the inner cell and starts glycogen breakdown. Increasing

Mickael Kaculini Mrs. Nicholson AP Biology Period 2 23 October 2011 the concentration of Ca2+ can contract muscles in animals, or initiate cell division. Calcium can be considered a third messenger. They activate signaltransduction proteins directly but also function through calmodulin.

Cellular Response Cellular Activities Nuclear Activities An ion channel in the plasma Some responses to signal might affect the membrane might close or open in synthesis of enzymes or proteins within a cell. response to a signal. Cell metabolism Specific genes might be turned on or off in the might also be affected and might nucleus. The signal might act as a transcription increase or decrease depending on the factor and as a result change what is genes are signal. Liver cells respond to regulated. The malfunctioning of certain epinephrine and help to regulate cell hormones in affecting growth factors can result metabolism. The signal then activates in cancer. the enzyme and glycogen breaks down. Signal amplification in response to a The cell may create different proteins that react signal in a cell may occur. The signal differently to different signals. These proteins may last long enough to affect more are called scaffolding proteins. This explains activated products to make the signal the different reactions to epinephrine between more amplified. Occurs when a small the heart and liver cells. The liver will react by number of epinephrine molecules bind trying to break down glycogen, while the heart to the receptors and lead to the release will respond by contracting and having a more of millions more glucose molecules rapid heartbeat. from the glycogen.
3. a. How pheromones trigger reproduction Step 1: Bacteria produce and secrete some pheromones when laying down to reproduce in an area. Step 2: These pheromones activates transcription of inducer synthesis. Step 3: When there arent many bacteria around, the inducer diffuses in the air to almost nothing and the bacteria do not notice it. Step 4: If there are many bacteria, then more inducer starts to be created and the receptor becomes fully activated.

Mickael Kaculini Mrs. Nicholson AP Biology Period 2 23 October 2011 Step 5: As a result all the cells begin transcription at the same time and help to regulate the organisms reproduction rate and ensure that not too many are made and that the environment is not stressed too much.

4. a. Epinephrine stimulation of glycogen breakdown Step 1: The epinephrine binds to the receptors on the membrane of the liver cells. Step 2: The GTP activates adenylyl cyclase, which is a catalyst to the creation of ATP to cAMP. Step 3: The hormone causes the membrane enzyme to make more cAMP and another enzyme transforms it into AMP. Step 4: Protein kinase A is activated and Phosphorylase kinase is phosphorylated and as
a result glycogen phosphorylase is activated. Step 5: The hormone signal is amplified and as a result the glycogen is broken down. Adaptive immunity is triggered in vertebrates when a pathogen evades the innate immune system and generates a threshold level of antigen.
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The major functions of the adaptive immune system include: the recognition of specific non-self antigens in the presence of self, during the process of antigen presentation. the generation of responses that are tailored to maximally eliminate specific pathogens or pathogen infected cells. the development of immunological memory, in which each pathogen is remembered by a signature antibody. These memory cells can be called upon to quickly eliminate a pathogen should subsequent infections occur.

5. Step 1: First it is activated by a pathogen escaping the innate immunity system. Step 2: During antigen presentation, the body realizes that the pathogen is not a part of itself and moves to get rid of it. Step 3: The response is initiated in which T cells activate the other cells such as the B cells which move to rid the body of the pathogen. Step 4: The body encodes the memory B and memory T cells with the genetic code of the receptor of the pathogen in order to quickly eradicate any further attack from that same pathogen in the future.

Cells involved Cell Function

Mickael Kaculini Mrs. Nicholson AP Biology Period 2 23 October 2011

B cells

T cells

Helper T cells

Memory T cells

Lymphocytes that play a major role in the humoral response system. Their main purpose is to make antibodies to destroy any pathogens or outside invaders inside the body. Lymphocytes that play a major role in cell-mediated immunity. The only difference between the B cells is that they have special receptors called T cell receptors on their surface. Helps to maximize the effectiveness of other parts of the natural immune system. Once activated they release cytokines which influences the activity of several different types of cells. Allows the body a more quick and effective response to a pathogen that it has already seen before. The first time it encounters a pathogen, it will remember it until the next attack and it will help mount a more solid defense for the body. Also known to help fight cancer cells.

6. RNA has been known to travel through the plasmodemata from cell to cell. Although the reason for this is relatively unknown, many suggest that the RNA is moving from cell to cell in order to help with RNA silencing. This is said to help aid in the regulation of gene expression and also to coordinate growth and development in the cells, and stress responses. Without this process, the plants would not be able to coordinate their growth as well and they would not be nearly as organized with each cell. The cells would act independently of one another and the whole organism would fail due to a lack of organization and communication. 7.

Hormone
Estrogen

Where released Released by the ovaries and can move into every cell in the

Target cell Does not have any one target cell. It moves into every cell

Reaction It has many functions such as a healthy

Type of receptor G-Protein Coupled Receptor is activated by

Type of STP There are two types of pathways for estrogen to go.

Mickael Kaculini Mrs. Nicholson AP Biology Period 2 23 October 2011

body. The function is dependent of the presence of the ER in the cell.

in the body and its function depends on the presence of the ER in the cell.

libido, but also the development of the secoindary sexual characteristics such as the breasts.

Estrogen. This controls many different psychological aspects such as mood and behavior, as well as sight and smell. Also binds to the estrogen receptor. Androgen receptor is activated by testosterone. It is responsible for the proper development of the male sexual phenotype.

Testosterone

Released by the male testes as well as the female ovaries. Can also be released in small amounts by the adrenal gland.

Testosterone is used to increase the growth of muscles and other areas of the body including the bones. This hormone helps also to increase hair growth and in some cases has psychological affects such as an increased tendency towards violence.

Is important in the development of the testes and also plays a role in the size of muscle and bone growth as well as amount of hair growth.

One is through the ER which is a type of intacellular receptor. The other way is through the estrogen receptor which is a G proteincoupled receptor. The testosterone binds with the enzyme receptor for androgen which is used for several different other enzymes as well. It is most closely related to the progesterone receptor.

8. Multiple sclerosis Occurs when the myelin sheaths around the axons of the brain and spinal cord are damaged and signals cannot properly be sent between the brain and the rest of the body. The bodys own immune system attacks the myelin in the body and destroys it until it no longer can send signals effectively. If not treated, those who are diagnosed with this disease will most likely lose function in several parts of the body including the ability to walk. The life expectancy of those with MS is decreased by 10 years and it is usually 30 years after the first diagnoses of the disease that they will die.

Mickael Kaculini Mrs. Nicholson AP Biology Period 2 23 October 2011 9. Antihistamines have many different uses which include decreasing the swelling and flare of an injury caused my inflammation of the body. This is done by the histamine binding onto the receptors on the nerves, vascular smooth muscle, and mast cells. Itching and sneezing are also repressed because the histamine blocks the nasal sensory nerves. Some also help with allergies by repressing the immune system. There are no real negative side affects for taking antihistamines as long as they are taken in moderation and they arent used irresponsibly.