i

Modelling the Mass Transfer Removal Rates of Atmospheric

Pollutants: Application to a Lignite based Thermal Power
Plant



A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award
of
Bachelor of Technology in Chemical Engineering

By
JASON RYAN PICARDO (07BCH008)


CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DIVISION

SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL AND BUILDING SCIENCES





APRIL 2011
ii


School Of Mechanical and Building Sciences
Chemical Engineering Division
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the thesis entitled Modelling the Mass Transfer Removal Rates
of Atmospheric Pollutants: Application to a Lignite based Thermal Power Plant
being submitted by Mr. Jason Ryan Picardo, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for
the award of a Bachelor of Technology in Chemical Engineering, to the School of
Mechanical and Building Sciences, VIT University is a record of bonafide work done
under my guidance. The contents of this project work, in full or in part, have neither been
taken from any other source nor have been submitted to any other institute or university
for the award of a degree or diploma and the same is certified.


Dr. S. Ghosh Dr. Anand Gurumoorthy
Sr. Prof SMBS Asso. Prof. SMBS
Project Guide Internal Guide


Dr. L. N. Muruganandam
Division Leader Chemical Engineering




School Seal



Internal Examiner External Examiner
iii
















DEDICATED TO


Norma and Francisco Picardo

My parents, who lead me to the Lord
and taught me to Strive for Excellence





















iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Firstly, I would like to thank our honorable Chancellor Dr. G. Viswanathan and the
administration of VIT University for providing excellent academic facilities and for the
opportunity to carry out this work at VIT University.

I extend my deep gratitude to Neyveli Lignite Corporation for funding this work and
providing me with the opportunity to work on this project.

I owe not only the success of this project work but also a great deal of personal
advancement, academic and otherwise, to my project guide Dr. S Ghosh, Senior
Professor, SMBS. This work rode on his vision. His mentorship enriched and refined my
work. Scientific rigor is united with aesthetic beauty in his work and life. Knowing him
will remain a lifelong joy and privilege.

Dr. Anand Gurumoorthy, my internal department guide was supportive and encouraging.
The many discussions we had during the course of the semester have broadened my
vision with respect to research in general and complex nonlinear systems research in
particular.

I thank the Director of the School of Mechanical and Building Sciences, Sr. Prof., Dr. A.
Senthil Kumar for his constant support and encouragement throughout the duration of
this work. Studying and carrying out this work in the School of Mechanical and Building
Sciences was an enriching and enjoyable experience.

I thank the Division Leader of the Chemical Engineering Division, Dr. Muruganandam
for his enthusiastic support during the course of this work.

I am extremely grateful to Dr. Jayasankar Variyar, Prof. VIT University-Chennai who
ensured that I would be able to work on this interdisciplinary project with Prof. Ghosh.
His mentorship and friendship remain invaluable to me.

During the course of this work a large number of research papers were referenced.
Access to these papers was kindly provided by the Library. In particular I thank Dr.
Adhinarayanan, Deputy Librarian, for his efforts in this regard.

Ultimately I extend a prayer of thanksgiving to my Heavenly Father and Jesus Christ for
blessing me with this project and wonderful professors and for essentially every element
of my life.




v

ABSTRACT

This work quantifies the mass transfer removal rate of SO
2
, a major gaseous atmospheric
pollutant, whilst accounting for the meteorology and vegetation unique to tropical Asia.
The Neyveli Lignite Corporation (NLC) located in Tamil Nadu, India, is a large lignite
based thermal power plant which continuously emits SO
2
, among other pollutants. The
founding fathers of NLC took a visionary step by initiating a massive afforestation
program which has resulted in 17 million evergreen tropical trees. In this first study, the
dry deposition process of SO
2
onto these trees is modelled via the well established
deposition velocity parameterization. The deposition velocity of SO
2
is calculated for a
period from Nov 2008 to Oct 2009 using meteorological data provided by NLC.
Aerodynamic and quasi laminar resistances are accounted for in detail using well
established methods. The surface resistance is accounted for using a state of the art
method of Zhang et al. (2003b) as well as a simpler method of Wesely (1989). These
results are compared and it is found that Wesely (1989) is suitable for approximate
calculations. However, it cannot describe seasonal changes in the dry deposition process.
The Zhang et al. (2003b) method uses satellite derived leaf area index (LAI) data to
describe the seasonal changes in foliage. The LAI is an important parameter in the
parameterization and enables a region specific study of dry deposition and the temporal
variation in deposition velocity.

The results obtained from the method of Zhang et al. (2003b) are used to develop a
regression formula for deposition velocity. This is a non trivial non linear regression
model which accounts for the discontinuous enhancement of deposition when wet
surfaces are present. This regression formula gives a good fit for the numerical results
generated using the Zhang et al. (2003b) deposition parameterization. It can be used to
calculate the deposition velocity for the NLC region and may prove useful in other
tropical Asian countries as well. It will be a boon to environmental impact assessment
analysts who are not specialists in the area of dry deposition.

The results of deposition velocity are coupled with modelled concentration of SO
2
to
establish the scavenging efficacy of the evergreen trees. A tailor made gaussian
dispersion model is used which was developed as part of a consultancy with NLC. It is
found that a considerable amount of pollution is deposited on the trees. The canopy was
found to play an active role is reducing residual SO
2
levels. This is especially significant
to the township of NLC which is home to 128,133 people.

The quantification of removal mechanisms has a dual significance with respect to
environmental studies. It is essential for calculating the atmospheric budget of trace gases
as well as assessing the impact of emissions on local vegetation and structures due to acid
deposition. This first study provides a basis for region specific environmental
assessments. It will also serve as a roadmap for future studies in other Asian regions
which have hitherto largely resorted to borrowing results from the mid-latitudes.

vi

CONTENTS

Page No.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv
ABSTRACT v
NOMENCLATURE viii
LIST OF TABLES x
LIST OF FIGURES xi
Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 1
Chapter 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 4
Chapter 3 THEORY OF DEPOSITION VELOCITY 6
3.1 Parameterization of Dry Deposition to vegetation 6
3.2 Deposition velocity- Theory of resistances 6
3.3 Aerodynamic Resistance 7
3.4 Quasi Laminar Resistance 10
3.5 Surface Resistance 11
3.5.1 Method of Wesely (1989) 11
3.5.2 Method of Zhang et al. (2003b) 12
Chapter 4 METEOROLOGICAL DATA PROVIDED BY
NEYVEL LIGNITE CORPORATION
14
Chapter 5 DEPOSITION VELOCITY BY THE METHOD
OF WESELY (1989)
16
5.1 Deposition Velocity of SO
2
at NLC for three
seasons
16
5.2 Variation of V
d
with meteorological factors 17
5.3 Seasonal variation in V
d
18
vii

5.4 Comparison with results from other Asia based
studies
19
Chapter 6 DEPOSITION VELOCITY BY THE METHOD
OF ZHANG et al. (2003b)
20
6.1 Leaf Area Index for NLC 20
6.2 Deposition velocity of SO
2
at NLC 21
6.3 Comparison of the results obtained using Wesely
(1989) and Zhang et al. (2003b)
22
6.4 Effect of wet surfaces due to rain 23
Chapter 7 DEVELOPMENT OF A REGRESSION
FORMULA TO CALCULATE DEPOSITION
VELOCITY
24
7.1 Requirement of a simple regression formula 24
7.2 Formulation of suitable non linear regression model 24
7.3 Analysis of the regression parameters and the
regression fit
26
Chapter 8 SCAVENGING EFFICACY OF THE MAN-
MADE CANOPY
28
8.1 Dispersion Model for predicting SO
2
concentration 28
8.2 Deposition from a plume 29
8.3 Removal of residual pollution and improvement of
air quality
30
Chapter 9 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK 33
PUBLICATIONS/PRESENTATIONS 35
REFERENCES 36

viii

NOMENCLATURE

F Dry deposition flux of gas through the surface layer g m
-2
s
-1

V
d
Deposition velocity m s
-1

C Concentration of the gaseous species (SO
2
) g m
-3

R
a
Aerodynamic resistance s m
-1

R
b
Quasi laminar resistance s m
-1

R
c
Surface resistance s m
-1

C Quantity diffusing through surface layer of atmosphere -
Dimensionless height scale dimensionless
L Monin-Obhukov length m
K Eddy Diffusivity m
2
s
-1

z Vertical coordinate from the earths surface upwards m

T
() Empirical dimensionless temperature profile function -

M
() Empirical dimensionless momentum profile function -
k Von Karman Constant (Value is 0.4) dimensionless
*
u Friction Velocity m s
-1

z
0
Roughness length m
z
r
Reference height m

0
,
r
Expression in the calculation of aerodynamic resistance dimensionless
u, U Unidirectional wind velocity or wind speed m s
-1

d Displacement length m
B dimensionless transfer coefficient dimensionless
Sc Schmidt number dimensionless
r
i

i component of resistance in the surface resistance
network
m s
-1

G Solar radiation W m
-2

T Temperature C
W
st
Stomatal blockage factor due to surface water film dimensionless
LAI Leaf area index m
2
m
-2

ix

RH Relative humidity %
R Binary wet surface input (0,1) dimensionless
Q,a-e,p Parameters of the non linear regression model for V
d
dimensionless
V
d,dry
Dry surface deposition velocity m s
-1

V
d,wet
Wet surface deposition velocity m s
-1

q Stack source strength of species g s
-1

y
Gaussian dispersion parameter in horizontal direction m

z
Gaussian dispersion parameter in vertical direction m
h
Effective stack height including physical height and
plume rise
m
H
mix
Height of the mixed layer of the atmosphere m
C
0
Initial residual pollutant concentration g m
-3

t Time s
x

LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Caption Page No.
Table 1.1 Details of stacks emitting SO
2
at NLC

2
Table 4.1 Meteorological data provided by NLC

14
Table 5.1 Deposition Velocity for various seasons at NLC

16
Table 6.1 Comparison of results obtained using the methods of Wesely
(1989) and Zhang et al. (2003b)

22
Table 7.1 Parameter values of the regression model of Eq. (7.2-7.3)
with the 95% confidence intervals

26


xi

LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. No. Caption Page No.
Fig. 1.1 Google Map showing the location of Neyveli Lignite
Corporation (red A marker) in Tamil Nadu, India

1
Fig. 1.2 Map of NLC and aerial view from Google Earth

of TPS1 and
TPS2 and the Township (demarcated by a rectangle)

2
Fig. 5.1 Resistances and deposition velocity calculated for December
2008 at 14:30 IST

16
Fig. 5.2 Diurnal variation in deposition velocity for December 2008

17
Fig. 5.3 Variation of aerodynamic resistance with wind speed (Dec
2008, 14:30 IST)

17
Fig. 5.3 Variation of canopy resistance with solar insolation (Dec 2008)

18
Fig. 5.5 Variation of deposition velocity with wind speed and solar
insolation (Dec 2008)

18
Fig. 6.1 LAI over the subcontinent for 10
th
Dec08, 17
th
May09 and
16
th
October09 respectively (MODIS MCD15A2)

20
Fig. 6.2 LAI for all months from Nov 08 to Oct 09. The markers
represent data obtained from MODIS while the red line is a
cubic spline interpolation used to obtain intermediate values of
LAI for calculation

21
Fig. 6.3 Monthly average deposition velocity (V
d
)

21
Fig. 6.4 Variation of canopy resistance with solar insolation (Dec 2008
14:30 IST)

22
Fig. 6.5 Variation of deposition velocity with wind speed and solar
insolation (Dec 2008 14:30 IST)

23
Fig. 7.1 The relationship between wet surface and dry surface
deposition velocity

25

xii


Fig. No. Caption Page No.
Fig. 7.2 Plot of deposition velocities obtained from the regression model
against the original data calculated using Zhang et al. (2003b)

26
Fig. 7.3 Residual plot of the regression model

27
Fig. 8.1 The modelled ground level concentration over the township on
21
st
May 2009, 14:30 IST (g m
-3
)

29
Fig. 8.2 Mass of SO
2
deposited per unit area per unit time on 21
st
May
2009, 14:30 IST (g m
-2
hr
-1
)

30
Fig. 8.3 Depletion of residual SO
2
concentration over the township on
21
st
May 2009.

32
Fig. 8.4 Depletion of residual SO
2
concentration over the township
considering the higher deposition velocity of October

32
1

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

Natures astonishing biological resilience is closely linked to its self cleansing mechanisms. In a
hugely populated developing world, economic growth comes with a heavy price. A multitude of
industrial and transportation processes produce noxious gases which are released into the
atmosphere. Fortunately many of these developing countries, like India, are blessed with a highly
convective tropical boundary layer which dilutes pollution. Another common feature of these
Asian nations is that their vegetative cover is dominated by evergreen plants, in contrast to many
mid-latitude nations in the developed world where the number of evergreens are far limited.
However, it is ironical that despite these natural propensities air pollution levels over Asian cities
are much higher than their mid latitude counter parts. The purpose of this work is to describe,
formulate and quantify the removal pathways of SO
2
, a major air pollutant, through dry
deposition whilst accounting for the endowments of nature enjoyed by tropical Asia. The
quantification of removal mechanisms has a dual significance with respect to environmental
studies. It is essential for calculating the atmospheric budget of trace gases as well as assessing
the impact of emissions on local vegetation and structures due to acid deposition. This is done
via a detailed study on Asias Largest Lignite based Power Plant- Neyveli Lignite Corporation
(NLC) located in the Cuddalore district of Tamil Nadu in South India (Fig. 1.1).


Fig.1.1. Google Map showing the location of Neyveli Lignite Corporation (red A marker) in
Tamil Nadu, India

Neyveli Lignite Corporation (NLC) is a company promoted by the government of India under
the Ministry of Coals. Neyveli Thermal Power Stations are South Asia's first and only lignite
fired Thermal Power Stations and also the first pit-head power stations in India. NLC covers an
area of about fifty-four square km, which includes the Neyveli Township, home to 128,133
people. It mines twenty-four million metric tonnes per annum (MTPA) of lignite, and produces
2,490 megawatts per annum (MW/year) of electricity from three open cast mines. SO
2
is
2

produced during the generation of power from lignite coal and released from elevated stacks
(Please see Table 1.1).

Stack
Height
(m)
SO
2
source

strength
(g s
-1
) Thermal Power station-I
1 60 227.82
2 60 271.35
3 60 153.23
4 120 305.99
Thermal Power station-I
Expansion
1 220 305.07
2 220 305.07
Thermal Power station-II
1 170 359.38
2 170 359.38
3 170 359.38
4 220 317.45
5 220 317.45
6 220 317.45
7 220 317.45
Table 1.1: Details of stacks emitting SO
2
at NLC

The founding fathers of NLC began a massive afforestation program which has resulted in the
presence of 17 million tropical trees. The role of these trees in mitigating air pollution seems
intuitive and a detailed quantitative investigation requires the application of dry deposition
modelling techniques. Fig. 1.2 shows a map of NLC and an aerial view from Google Earth

. The
region demarcated by a rectangle is the township of NLC which is home to 128,133 employees.
Its proximity to the Thermal Power Station One (TPS1) makes it a particularly sensitive area
which is likely to receive emissions from the stacks. Fortunately there is a considerable green
cover over the township (Fig. 1.2) which promotes the deposition of pollutants and results in a
cleaner atmosphere. The extent of this cleansing depends on the level of pollutant concentration
and the environmental factors which modulate dry deposition. The quantification of the rate of
dry deposition assumes greater significance in context of the health of the townships residents.

Firstly, an in depth modelling analysis of the SO
2
emissions is presented. It addresses the
dispersion of SO
2
in a tropical boundary layer using an atmospheric dispersion model developed
as part of a consultancy with NLC and VIT University. The dry deposition of the spatially
distributed pollutant is then analyzed via suitable well established parameterizations. While these
have seen extensive application in North America and Europe, studies in developing Asia and
particularly India are few and far apart. Regional climatology including year round high solar
3

radiation and mild, almost non-existent, winters (temperature around 25
0
C) make this a unique
study. It is further set apart from investigations conducted in the mid-latitudes by the tropical
vegetation. All these factors are accounted for in the modelling analysis which is to follow,
providing a basis for region specific environmental assessments. It will also serve as a roadmap
for future studies in other Asian regions which have hitherto largely resorted to borrowing results
from the mid-latitudes.


Fig.1.2 Map of NLC and aerial view from Google Earth

of TPS1 and TPS2 and the Township

(demarcated by a rectangle)
















4

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

Dry deposition is of considerable importance in calculating the overall budget of a species in the
atmosphere. Furthermore, the substance which gets deposited can affect the deposition surface in
many ways, often adversely. Hence the quantification of dry deposition is important from a dual
perspective and much work has been done on the subject. For a good review of the state of the
science the reader may refer to the references [1-3].
Experimental measurements of dry deposition fluxes via techniques such as eddy correlation and
accumulation, the gradient method as well as analysis of the depositing surface-natural or
surrogate, have been carried out in different parts of the world. These studies, apart from giving
local information, form a basis for the development of modelling techniques to predict the dry
deposition flux when measurements cannot be made or are inconvenient. For more information
on experimental techniques the interested reader may refer [1]. Some experimental results of
deposition velocities measured in different parts of the world are given in [4-9]
In this study we make use of deposition velocity parameterizations. The parameterization of
Wesely (1989) was the first widely adopted parameterization and is still in considerable use
today [10]. It is relatively simple and gives reasonable results. Some corrections to this model
and certain cautions regarding its application are given in [11]. Gao and Wesely (1995) identified
the problems associated with discrete seasonal categories and introduced the use of satellite
derived LAI to account for foliage characteristics and their seasonal variation [12]. The stomatal
resistance model has undergone many revisions since the work of Wesely (1989). The
parameterization of non stomatal resistance has also been improved. All these advancements are
embodied in the parameterization of Zhang et al. (2003b) [13]. Some preceding work by Zhang
and coworkers laid the foundation for this parameterization and should be read for a clear
understanding of their work [14-15].
Work has also been done to verify the various models available and generally it is found that one
or the other is better depending on the conditions (wet or dry) and climate (mid-latitude or
tropical) [7-9]. Tsai et al. (2010) and Matsuda et al. (2006) highlight the validity of Zhang et al.
(2003b), especially its treatment of the effect of wet surfaces on deposition velocity [8-9].
Feliciano et al. (2001) find that the parameterization of Wesely (1989) is suitable for dry
conditions in Portugal [7].
Dry deposition studies are far fewer in India. Xu and Carmichael (1998) and Kumar et al. (2008)
report values of SO
2
deposition velocity for the Indian region [16-17]. Deposition velocities have
been calculated using the method of Wesely (1989) for the NLC region by Patra and Ghosh,
2010 and Seth et al., 2010 respectively [18-19]. However, they do not account for the effect of
wet surfaces. Further, they do not calculate the aerodynamic resistance using the detailed flux
gradient relationships employed in this work. There are no reports of calculations for the entire
year. Most importantly, the LAI based methods have never been applied to this region. This is
5

significant since the local vegetative characteristics are so far removed from those studied by
Wesely (1989). Finally, there are no simple regression formulas for deposition velocity reported
for any region. This is understandable since the regional validity of these formulas would be
restricted to the region of study. Nevertheless, they would be a boon to non experts in the area
who require values of deposition velocities for environmental assessment calculations or for use
in larger atmospheric dispersion models. This work is a first attempt in this regard.

6

CHAPTER 3: THEORY OF DEPOSITION VELOCITY

3.1 Parameterization of Dry Deposition to vegetation

The vegetative canopy is considered to be an irreversible sink for SO
2
and the flux of gas (F) to
the ground is represented by a first order relationship. This flux is assumed to be uniform within
the surface layer of the atmosphere (10-100 m) [1].

C V F
d
= (3.1)

F has units of g m
-2
s
-1
. C is the concentration of the gaseous species measured at a reference
height within the surface layer (g m
-3
). V
d
is a parameter called the deposition velocity and it
has the units of m s
-1
(hence the term velocity). Thus the problem of determining the flux of a
species is transformed into the determination of its deposition velocity. The downward flux of
the species is negative by convention and hence the deposition velocity is positive. Its value will
depend on the reference height chosen and the assumption of uniform flux dictates that the
concentration would also vary with height so as to keep the flux constant. The reference height
in this study is taken to be 10 meters which is close to the vegetative surfaces (ensuring better
agreement with the constant flux assumption) and is the height at which instrumentation is
installed by NLC for meteorological and concentration measurements.

3.2 Deposition velocity- Theory of resistances

The process of dry deposition is usually divided into three stages:
1. Transportation from the free atmosphere to the receptor surface (turbulent layer transport)
2. Transport through the quasi-laminar, stagnant air layer near the receptor surface
(diffusive molecular transport)
3. Capture or absorption by the surface (in this case transport into the leaf stomata or cuticle
or deposition onto the ground).

According to the universally adopted inferential resistance modelling approach, the dry
deposition process is treated analogously to the flow of electrical current through a network of
resistances in series. In this analogy, the aerodynamic resistance (R
a
), the quasi-laminar
resistance (R
b
) and the surface resistance (R
c
) refer to the aforementioned three stages of dry
deposition respectively (all have units of s m
-1
). The inverse of the total resistance is the dry
deposition velocity (V
d
).

( )
1
+ + =
c b a d
R R R V (3.2)

7

An advantage of the resistance analogy is that processes are separated and related to
measurable quantities. They allow the lumping of complex micro-physical processes into a
single parameter. The disadvantage of this simplicity is that V
d
is difficult to specify and may
lead to significant deviation from measured values especially under conditions which are not
accounted for in the model. This could occur if that particular condition was a rare occurrence at
the location where the model was developed and hence it was not given much attention. For
example, the parameterization of Wesely (1989) shows errors of 60% under wet conditions
[9-10]. In the next sections we will describe the methods of calculating the resistances for gases.
Methods for calculation of resistances for particles can be found in [1].
The final step in the dry deposition process is actual uptake of the vapor molecules or
particles by the surface. Gaseous species may absorb irreversibly into the surface; particles
simply adhere. The amount of moisture on the surface and its stickiness are important
factors at this step. For moderately soluble gases, such as SO
2
and O
3
, the presence of
surface moisture can have a marked effect on whether or not the molecule is actually
removed. For highly soluble and chemically reactive gases, such as HNO
3
, deposition is
rapid and irreversible on almost any surface. Solid particles may bounce off a smooth
surface; liquid particles are more likely to adhere upon contact.
3.3 Aerodynamic Resistance

Turbulent transport is the mechanism that brings material from the bulk atmosphere down
to the surface and therefore determines the aerodynamic resistance. The turbulence intensity
is principally dependent on the lower atmospheric stability and the surface roughness and
can be determined from micrometeorological measurements and surface characteristics such
as wind speed, temperature, and radiation and the surface roughness length. During daytime
conditions, the turbulence intensity is typically large over a reasonably thick layer (i.e., the well-
mixed layer), thus exposing a correspondingly ample reservoir of material to potential surface
deposition. During the night, stable stratification of the atmosphere near the surface often
reduces the intensity and vertical extent of the turbulence, effectively diminishing the
overall dry deposition flux. The aerodynamic resistance is independent of species or
whether a gas or particle is involved except that gravitational settling must be taken into
account for large particles.
The aerodynamic component of the overall dry deposition resistance is typically based on
gradient-transport theory and mass-transfer/momentum-transfer similarity (or mass-
transfer/heat-transfer similarity) [1]. It is presumed that turbulent transport of species
through the surface layer (i.e., constant-flux layer) is expressible in terms of an eddy
diffusivity multiplied by a concentration gradient, that turbulent transport of material occurs
by mechanisms that are similar to those for turbulent heat and/or momentum transport,
that measurements obtained for one of these entities thus can be applied, using scaling
parameters, to calculate the corresponding behavior of another. Expressions for the
8

aerodynamic resistance are most easily obtained by integrating the micrometeorological
flux-gradient relationships. Applications of similarity theory to turbulent transfer through
the surface layer suggest that the eddy diffusivity should be proportional to the friction
velocity and the height above the ground. Under diabatic conditions the eddy diffusivity
is modified from its neutral form by a function dependent on the dimensionless height
scale, =z/L, where L is the Monin-Obukhov length.
The vertical turbulent flux of a species of concentration, C, through the (constant-flux) surface
layer is expressed as
z
C
K F
a
c
c
= (3.3)
where K is the appropriate eddy diffusivity and F
a
is, by definition, constant across the
layer. From dimensional analysis and micrometeorological measurements, the eddy
momentum (K
M
) and heat diffusivity (K
T
) can be expressed by
( ) , |
M
M
z ku
K
-
= (3.4)
( ) , |
T
T
z ku
K
-
= (3.5)
where k is the von Karman constant,
*
u is the friction velocity, and
T
and
M
are
empirically determined dimensionless momentum and temperature profile functions
respectively.
If Eq. (3.3) is integrated across the depth of the constant-flux (i.e., surface ) layer from z
3

down to z
2
, the flux F
a
may be written as
( )
( )
1
2 3
3
2

-
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
}
z
z
a
dz
z ku
C C F
, |
(3.6)
where, as above, C
3
and C
2
refer to concentrations at the top and bottom of the constant-
flux layer and () denotes either
T
() or

M
() whichever is deemed analogous to the
species profile function. The aerodynamic resistance is thus given by
( )
}
-
=
3
2
z
z
a
dz
z ku
R
, |
(3.7)
The integral in Eq.(3.6) is evaluated from the bottom of the constant-flux layer (at z
0
, the
roughness length) to the top ( z
r
, the reference height implicit in the definition of V
d
). If
9

suitable empirical forms of the stability dependent temperature profile are assumed then the
above equation (3.6) can be integrated to yield explicit expressions for R
a
. These expressions can
be found in [1] and are given below:
( )
) __( 0 1 _
) _____( 0 _
) ___( 1 0 _
15 1
1
7 . 4 1
) (
4 1
unstable for
neutral for
stable for
T
< <
=
< <

+
=

,
,
,
,
,
, |

(3.8)


( )
( )( )
( )( )
( )
) (
) (
) (
tan tan 2
1 1
1 1
ln ln
1
ln
1
7 . 4 ln
1
0
1 1
2 2
2
0
2
0
0
unstable
neutral
stable
z
z
u
z
z
u
z
z
u
R
r
r r o
o
o
a

(
(

+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
+ +
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
(

+
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

-
-
-
q q
q q
q q
k
k
, ,
k

(3.9)

Where
0
q =( )
4 1
0
15 1 , and
r
q =( ) L z
r 0 0
4 1
, 15 1 = , ,

The theory is applicable only in the surface layer where the flux in non divergent and can be
assumed constant, that is the Richardson No. should be between -3 and 2. An approximate
maximum extent is 100m. In order to use the above equations it is necessary to determine the
friction velocity and the Monin-Obhukov length. The friction velocity can be calculated by [16]

( ) | |
0
*
ln
) (
z d z
z ku
u

=

(3.10)

The Monin-Obhukov length (L), by definition, is the height at which turbulence produced by
mechanical and buoyancy forces match. It characterizes atmospheric stability in the surface layer
and is positive for a stable atmosphere and negative for an unstable atmosphere. It is determined
from the Pasquill Stability classes by the method of Golder (1972) as detailed in [1]. The
roughness length (z
0
) is taken as 1 m as recommended for urban locations by Voldner et al.
(1985) and reproduced in [1]. The displacement length (d) is 70 80% of the height of the large
roughness elements [16]. The reference height (z) is taken as 10 m and the Von Karman constant
() as 0.4.



10

3.4 Quasi Laminar Resistance

The resistance model for dry deposition postulates that adjacent to the surface exists a
quasi-laminar layer, across which the resistance to transfer depends on molecular properties
of the substance and surface characteristics. This layer does not usually correspond to a
laminar boundary layer in the classical sense; rather it is the consequence of many
viscous layers adjacent to the obstacles comprising the overall, effective surface seen by
the atmosphere. The depth of this layer constantly changes in response to turbulent shear
stresses adjacent to the surface or surface elements. In fact, the layer may only exist
intermittently on such surfaces as plant leaves, which are often in continuous motion.
Whether a quasi-laminar layer actually exists, physically depends on the smoothness and
the shape of the surface elements, and to some extent, the variability of the near-surface
turbulence, but, in terms of the theory, it is considered to exist.
A viscous boundary layer adjacent to the surface of some obstacle on which deposition
is occurring is an impediment to all depositing species, regardless of the orientation of
the target surface. Molecular and Brownian diffusion occur independently of direction;
molecular diffusion can occur to the underside of a leaf just as easily as it can to the
top surface. The flux across the quasi-laminar sublayer adjacent to the surface is
expressed in terms of a dimensionless transfer coefficient, B, multiplying the concentration
difference across the layer, C
2
-C
1
. Since, under steady-state conditions, this flux is equal to
that across the surface layer, we write
( )
1 2
C C Bu F
a
=
-
(3.11)
Where C
1
is the concentration at the surface, and, by convention, the transfer coefficient is
dimensionalized by
-
u . The quasi-laminar layer resistance is then given by
*
1
Bu
R
b
= (3.12)
The quasi-laminar resistance R
b
depends on the molecular (for gases) or Brownian (for
particles) diffusivity of the material being considered. This dependence can be accounted for
through the dimensionless Schmidt number, Sc = v/D, where v is the kinematic viscosity of
air and D is the molecular diffusivity of the species. Measurements over canopies have
shown R
b
to be relatively insensitive to the canopy roughness length z
0
. A useful expression for
R
b
for gases in terms of the Schmidt number is [1]
*
3 2
5
u
Sc
R
b
= (3.13)

11

3.5 Surface Resistance

The surface or canopy resistance is the most difficult to parameterize due to the complex nature
of the processes involved in the absorption and retention of gases by vegetative surfaces. At the
same time it is often the dominating resistance especially in the tropics where the atmosphere is
highly convective. In recent studies conducted for this region, the parameterization of Wesely
(1989) [10] was used to calculate the surface resistance [18-19]. It has been used in other studies
for Asia as well [16-17]. However, the several advancements made in the science of dry
deposition and in the understanding of the dependence of surface resistance on environmental
factors have rendered the parameterization of Wesely (1989) somewhat outdated. Many of these
advancements are embodied in the work of Zhang et al. (2003b) [13]. Among these is the
inclusion of satellite derived Leaf Area Index (LAI) which allows an accurate representation of
foliage characteristics and its temporal variation. This has a marked effect on R
c
and V
d.
Nevertheless, the method of Wesely (1989) remains the simplest method of calculating
deposition velocity with reasonable accuracy and therefore is still widely employed. In this work
both methods are used. While the parameterization of Wesely (1989) provides an estimate of the
magnitude of V
d
and the intensity of dry deposition, the method of Zhang et al. (2003b) is used to
carry out an in depth analysis of the process and its region specific dependence on environmental
factors and meteorology.
3.5.1 Method of Wesely (1989)
The parameterization of Wesely (1989) calculates the canopy resistances by account ing for
several sub-resistances in series and parallel. This method is also detailed in Sienfeld and Pandis
(2006) [1].
1
1 1 1 1

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
+
+
+ +
+
=
gs ac cl dc lu m st
c
r r r r r r r
R
(3.14)
The first term includes the leaf stomatal (r
st
) and mesophyll (r
m
) resistances, the second term
is outer surface resistance in the upper canopy (r
lu
), which includes the leaf cuticular resistance
in healthy vegetation and the other outer surface resistances; the third term is the resistance in the
lower canopy, which includes the resistance to transfer by buoyant convection (r
dc
) and the
resistance to uptake by leaves, twigs, and other exposed surfaces (r
cl
) and the fourth term is
resistance at the ground, which includes a transfer resistance (r
ac
) for processes that depend only
on canopy height and a resistance for uptake by the soil, leaf litter, and so on at the ground
surface (r
gs
).
Of these the stomatal ( rst ) resistance is of particular interest since it accounts for the effects of
solar radiation and temperature on the opening of the stomata. This has a major effect on the
overall resistance and is responsible for day to day variations in the value of the canopy
12

resistance. The bulk canopy stomatal resistance is calculated from tabulated values of r
j
(where r
j

is the minimum bulk canopy stomatal resistance for water vapor) , the solar radiation (G in
W m
-2
), and surface air temperature ( T in

C between 0 and 40

C ) using
( )
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|
+
+ =
T T G
r r
j st
40
400
1 . 0
200
1
2
(3.15)
In a similar manner, base resistance values are provided for different land use categories (LUC)
and seasonal categories. These are then modified to account for changes in specific
environmental factors via empirical formulations. In this study, the seasonal category was kept
fixed as mid-summer for all computations due to the evergreen nature of the canopy at NLC. The
winter season represents subzero temperatures and snow covered surfaces. Clearly, these
seasonal categories were developed by Wesely (1989) for regions quite unlike Neyveli. This is
one of the reasons for adopting LAI as a direct measure of seasonal changes in foliage which
affect R
c
. During rains the leaf surfaces become wet, enhancing deposition of SO
2
due to
dissolution into the aqueous phase. This effect is incorporated into the model by a suitable
reduction in the outer surface resistance in the upper canopy ( r
lu
). For the complete formula the
reader is referred to the original paper of Wesely (1989) [10] or the comprehensive book by
Seinfeld and Pandis (2006) [1].
3.5.2 Method of Zhang et al. (2003b)
As mentioned above, many of the latest advancements in dry deposition theory are embodied in
the work of Zhang et al. (2003b). These include a sunlit/shaded big leaf model for the calculation
of the bulk canopy stomatal resistance from the individual leaf resistance via LAI. LAI is the
ratio of leaf surface to ground surface and is around 1 for urban canopies and close to 6 for
forests. Sunlit and shaded leaves are treated differently in this canopy -stomatal -resistance
model. In Weselys parameterization (1989), a base bulk stomatal resistance is provided and then
modulated with radiation and temperature. This base bulk stomatal resistance value was
specified for discrete seasonal categories and over various land types. The problem with this
approach is that the seasonal categories considered by Wesely and the corresponding change in
the canopy structure do not match the climate and vegetation characteristics in tropical Asia.
Specifically, during the winter season at NLC, the temperature is around 25 C and the
vegetation is healthy. In contrast the winter seasonal category in Wesely (1989) describes
conditions of subzero temperatures and snow covered ground! Moreover, the same land use type
(e.g. agricultural) can also have widely different vegetative characterist ics depending on the
geographical location. These short comings were realized by Gao and Wesely (1995) who
introduced LAI into the stomatal resistance model of Wesely (1989) [12]. In Zhang et al. (2003b)
all the resistances which are dependent on the canopy structure are related to LAI. This allows an
accurate representation of the local vegetative characteristics and the seasonal dependence of
green cover. The other improvements in Zhang et al. (2003b) include revised methods of
13

accounting for wet surfaces and their effect on stomatal and non-stomatal resistances and a new
parameterization of non-stomatal resistance which considers the effect of meteorological
variations [15].

For the above mentioned reasons, it was deemed necessary to adopt the parameterization of
Zhang et al (2003b) for an accurate and region specific study of dry deposition. The surface
resistance is represented as a combination of stomatal and non-stomatal resistances in parallel
since stomatal uptake as well as cuticular absorption and deposition onto twigs and the ground
occur simultaneously.

ns m st
st
c
r r r
W
R
1 1 1
+
+

= (3.16)

r
st
is the canopy stomatal resistance. Stomatal uptake of gaseous species is controlled by the
degree of stomatal opening. The major environmental factors which modulate stomatal opening
are solar radiation, ambient air temperature and water vapor pressure deficit and leaf water stress.
These are accounted for in the canopy resistance model. r
m
is the mesophyll resistance which is
treated as gas species dependent and specified as 0 for SO2 since it is highly soluble in water
[14]. Together they signify the total resistance to stomatal uptake. W
st
accounts for the blocking
of stomata during rains by the film of water which develops on the leaves. However, the net
result of rain is a decrease in overall surface resistance since it greatly reduces the non-stomatal
resistance (r
ns
) of the surface in the case of a soluble gas like SO
2
. The non-stomatal resistance is
a combination of the in-canopy aerodynamic resistance (r
ac
) and resistance to deposition to the
ground (r
g
), in series, along with canopy cuticular resistance in parallel (r
cut
).

cut g ac ns
r r r r
1 1 1
+
+
= (3.17)

The presence of wet surfaces due to rain or dew considerably decreases the cuticular and ground
resistances. The friction velocity is included in the parameterization of in-canopy aerodynamic
resistance, which is one of the advancements of this method. Apart from the canopy stomatal
resistance, the LAI also has an effect on the in-canopy aerodynamic resistance and the canopy
cuticular resistance. Hence, the LAI is quite an important parameter. The formulae for each of
these terms and the parameters based on land use category are given in [13-14]. A large number
of land use types are considered and the effect of environmental factors on stomatal conductance
is accounted for via formulations which vary with the type of vegetation. Thus it is possible to
include region specific information in the model and generate results which are far more
compatible to the study area using the method of Zhang et al (2003b). In the present study, NLC
is represented by an urban canopy land use type with tropical broadleaf vegetation.

14

CHAPTER 4: METEOROLOGICAL DATA PROVIDED BY NEYVEL
LIGNITE CORPORATION

NLC provided all the necessary meteorological data for the period from November 2008 to
October 2009. This year long data set was used both in dispersion modelling as well as
calculating the dry deposition velocity. Data reading were taken three times a day at 02:30, 08:30
and 14:30. We used the data at 02:30 and 14:30 to calculate deposition velocities during the
night and day respectively. Table 4.1 gives the monthly statistical mean and standard deviations
of the important meteorological quantities namely wind speed, solar radiation and relative
humidity as well as the number of rainy days.
Month Wind (m s
-1
)
Solar radiation
(W m
-2
)
Temperature
(C )
Relative
humidity (%)
Rainy
Days
MEAN STD MEAN STD MEAN STD MEAN STD
Nov'08 Day 1.18 0.24 385.22 131.34 29.57 1.71 64.17 1.24 11
Night 0.30 0.21 NA NA 22.73 1.65 59.28 0.30
Dec'08 Day 1.37 0.46 346.12 146.41 28.00 2.00 63.16 2.57 4
Night 0.55 0.39 NA NA 22.00 0.96 58.77 2.26
Jan'09 Day 1.37 0.25 400.65 110.95 29.06 1.40 64.39 0.77 1
Night 0.39 0.22 NA NA 21.71 1.25 59.45 0.21
Feb'09 Day 1.71 0.46 457.14 141.62 30.34 1.03 64.15 0.86 0
Night 0.11 0.16 NA NA 23.28 1.70 59.35 0.31
Mar'09 Day 1.60 0.69 424.84 157.93 30.52 2.22 63.59 1.17 2
Night 0.13 0.16 NA NA 24.16 1.80 59.39 0.34
Apr'09 Day 1.52 0.47 456.33 137.25 34.44 1.80 63.83 0.48 2
Night 0.29 0.39 NA NA 26.29 1.00 59.10 0.34
May'09 Day 1.84 1.81 475.45 92.38 36.65 2.36 55.57 5.43 0
Night 1.19 0.65 NA NA 27.79 1.62 52.91 4.95
Jun'09 Day 2.20 0.43 508.00 89.53 35.51 0.88 51.66 0.25 3
Night 1.07 0.51 NA NA 27.43 1.01 48.93 0.30
Jul'09 Day 2.24 0.64 422.38 138.29 34.02 1.86 51.04 2.49 4
Night 0.96 0.56 NA NA 26.63 0.98 48.43 4.76
Aug'09 Day 1.75 1.53 477.31 103.46 32.90 2.21 52.16 0.59 6
Night 0.74 0.62 NA NA 25.79 1.29 49.61 0.40
Sep'09
Day
1.82 0.84 399.29 112.63 33.65 2.04 52.11 0.66 4
Night 0.68 0.48 NA NA 25.76 1.10 50.92 2.09
Oct'09 Day 1.64 0.88 416.00 111.69 32.93 1.92 52.57 0.95 13
Night 0.51 0.70 NA NA 25.20 1.05 50.88 0.35

Table 4.1: Meteorological data provided by NLC
15

It is observed that the temperatures are generally above 25 C even during December and that
NLC receives considerable solar radiation throughout the year, including the month of October
which experiences the maximum rainfall. The wind speeds are lower than 2 m s-1 except for
June and July. The wind speed is grater during the day. The diurnal variation in relative humidity
is not much and is contained within 5 %. Importantly, the NE Monsoon season from October to
November is reflected in the number of rainy days which is much higher during these months.
16

CHAPTER 5: DEPOSITION VELOCITY BY THE METHOD OF WESELY
(1989)

5.1 Deposition Velocity of SO
2
at NLC for three seasons

Fortran codes were written for calculating the deposition velocity. The average deposition
velocity of SO
2
is computed for the months of December, May and October which represent the
three seasons experienced at NLC- mild winter, hot dry summer and wet North East Monsoon
respectively (see Table 5.1). Recent work by Seth et al. (2010) and Patra and Ghosh (2010)
present computations of deposition velocities for the NLC region [18-19]. However these studies
do not calculate the aerodynamic resistance via the detailed flux gradient relationships employed
in this study nor do they account for the effect of wet leaf surfaces.

Season V
d
(cm s
-1
)
Day Night
DEC 08- Mild winter 0.487 0.131
MAY 09- Hot Summer 0.443 0.122
OCT 09- NE Monsoon 0.507 0.115

Table 5.1 Deposition Velocity for various seasons at NLC


Fig. 5.1 Resistances and deposition velocity calculated for December 2008 at 14:30 IST


17

5.2 Variation of V
d
with meteorological factors

It is beneficial to understand the factors which influence the deposition velocity by taking a close
look at the calculations for the month of December 2008 at 14:30 IST (daytime). The values of
the resistances and V
d
computed for each day is shown in Fig. 5.1. The canopy resistance (R
c
)
proves to be the controlling resistance in the dry deposition process, accounting for 80% of the
total resistance. Hence one would expect the factors which modulate R
c
(solar insolation and
temperature) to have a marked affect on V
d
as well. This is indeed the case. In fact the values of
V
d
are substantially lower at night since there is no solar radiation and the stomata are practically
closed (see Table 5.1 and Fig. 5.2).


Fig. 5.2. Diurnal variation in deposition velocity for December 2008


Fig. 5.3. Variation of aerodynamic resistance with wind speed (Dec 2008, 14:30 IST)

In order to observe the effect of solar radiation and wind speed on the dry deposition process, the
normalized values of R
a
and R
c
are plotted with the normalized values of wind speed and solar
18

radiation respectively (Fig. 5.3 and Fig. 5.4). The clear anti correlation between these factors and
the resistances is observable. The variation of R
b
with wind speed is much the same as R
a
.
Fig. 5.6 shows the variation of V
d
with both environmental factors. A close look at day 13 in
Fig. 5.6 makes it clear that the solar radiation has a stronger role to play than the wind speed.
This is because the surface resistance accounts for a major portion of the total resistance. Further,
the wind speed has no effect on surface resistance according to the parameterization of Wesely
(1989).


Fig. 5.4. Variation of canopy resistance with solar insolation (Dec 2008)


Fig. 5.5. Variation of deposition velocity with wind speed and solar insolation (Dec 2008)

5.3 Seasonal variation in V
d


It must be remembered that seasonal variation in foliage characteristics is ignored in these results
since the seasonal category was kept constant. This was done since the difference between
19

seasons represented in Wesely (1989) was too great for them to be used in our study for tropical
Neyveli. Hence the seasonal variation in V
d
is solely attributable to meteorological variations.
While high solar radiation stimulates stomatal opening and increases dry deposition, high
temperatures (close to 40C) cause the stomata to close. Thus in the month of May, although
strong solar radiation is incident, high temperatures above 35C reduce the value of deposition
velocity. During the month of December, the temperature is around 20C and solar radiation is
sufficient for the deposition velocity to be higher than it is in peak summer (May). In October,
although the onset of the North East Monsoon would lead to reduced solar insolation, the
presence of moisture on the leaf surfaces increases dry deposition due to dissolution of SO
2
. We
obtain the highest values for V
d
during the North East (NE) Monsoon season.

5.4 Comparison with results from other Asia based studies

It is interesting to compare our results of deposition velocity with those obtained by other
modelling and experimental studies. Xu and Carmichael (1998) have employed the methods
described in this paper to calculate deposition velocities of SO
2
for the entire Asia region,
including South India [16]. However, the spatial resolution of these results is limited. Moreover
our calculations consider the meteorological and climatic conditions unique to NLC as well as
the effect of wet leaf surfaces. Nevertheless some results are comparable. Their values of V
d

(daytime) for May and August are 0.3 and 0.45 respectively. Their value for December is much
lower at 0.2 as compared to our result of 0.487. This is due to the mild winter experienced at
NLC with optimum temperatures of around 20C for stomatal opening.

Matsuda et al. (2006) performed field experiments to determine the dry deposition velocity of
SO
2
over a tropical forest in Northern Thailand [9]. They report values of deposition velocity up
to 0.31 cm s
-1
(daytime) and 0.11 cm s
-1
(nighttime) for the dry season. The night time value is
nearly the same as our results. Generally the values of V
d
(daytime) at NLC predicted by Wesely
(1989) are higher, possibly due to year round higher solar insolation and the fixed seasonal
category.











20

CHAPTER 6: DEPOSITION VELOCITY BY THE METHOD OF ZHANG
et al. (2003b)

6.1 Leaf Area Index for NLC

As described in section 3.5.2, LAI is a key parameter which captures the local vegetative
characteristics and its seasonal dependence. In this work, the LAI over NLC was obtained from
MODIS satellite data (product MCD15A2) [20]. The data is available in 1 km resolution and is
free to download. From the LAI data, which agrees with personal sampling of the vegetation, it
was observed that the trees are at their lush best during October, the month of the onset of the NE
monsoon and are at their leanest in May which is the peak of the dry summer season. Images
provided by the MODIS product (MCD15A2) of LAI over the peninsular part of the Indian
subcontinent are displayed below (Fig. 6.1).


Fig. 6.1 LAI over the subcontinent for 10
th
Dec08, 17
th
May09 and 16
th
October09
respectively (MODIS MCD15A2)

Although there is a seasonal variation, there are no bare periods without any green cover-this is
in sharp contrast to trees in the mid-latitudes. Moreover, it is comforting to note that the month
of the least vegetative cover (i.e. May) is the hottest month when the boundary layer is at its most
convective, leading to dilution of pollutants. Values of LAI are available with a spacing of 8
days. The data obtained for the period from November 08 to October09 are presented in Fig
6.2. Cubic spline interpolation was used to obtain intermediate values of LAI for deposition
velocity calculation.
21


Fig 6.2 LAI for all months from Nov 08 to Oct 09. The markers represent data obtained from
MODIS while the red line is a cubic spline interpolation used to obtain intermediate values of
LAI for calculation
6.2 Deposition velocity of SO
2
at NLC
The deposition velocity was calculated for each day from Nov 08 to Oct 09 using the method
of Zhang et al. (2003b) as detailed in section 3.5.2. The monthly average value of V
d
is displayed
in Fig 6.3.

Fig 6.3 Monthly average deposition velocity (V
d
)
The average daytime value for the entire period is around 3.5 cm s
-1
. The night time value is
lower due to the closed stomata in the absence of solar radiation. A comparison of Fir 6.3 with
Fig 6.2 shows that LAI has an effect on V
d
. There is a decrease in daytime Vd from Nov 08 to
May 09 which corresponds to the decrease with LAI during this period. However, the variation
22

in V
d
is not very large which justifies the use of the simpler method of Wesely (1989) for
approximate calculations.
6.3 Comparison of the results obtained using Wesely (1989) and Zhang et al. (2003b)
Table 6.1 shows a comparison of the V
d
values computed using the methods of Wesely (1989)
and Zhang et al. (2003b).
Season LAI
Zhang et al.
(2003b)
Wesely (1989)
V
d
(cm s
-1
) V
d
(cm s
-1
)
Day Night Day Night
DEC 08- Mild winter 0.91 0.334 0.105 0.487 0.131
MAY 09- Hot
Summer
0.54 0.215 0.145 0.443 0.122
OCT 09- NE
Monsoon
1.06 0.478 0.214 0.507 0.115
Table 6.1 Comparison of results obtained using the methods of Wesely (1989) and Zhang et al.
(2003b)
The V
d
values obtained using the method of Wesely (1989) are generally higher than that of
Zhang et al. (2003b). This is to be expected since the Wesely (1989) method treats the region as
a forest while the LAI used in Zhang et al. (2003b) more accurately represents the urban canopy.
the LAI of a forest is around 6 while that of NLC is about 1 (typical of urban canopies). Apart
from this the general variation seems similar since the effect of LAI is not large in terms of the
magnitude of change in V
d
. The variation with meteorology remains similar especially since the
computation of R
a
and R
b
for both cases is the same.

Fig. 6.4. Variation of canopy resistance with solar insolation (Dec 2008 14:30 IST)
23

However, one important difference is that Zhang et al. (2003b) considers the affect of wind
speed in the non stomatal resistance calculation. This increases the overall effect of wind speed
on the dry deposition process. Fig 6.4 demonstrates this fact as R
c
is no longer solely controlled
by solar radiation as was the case for Wesely (1989) (please see Fig 5.4). Fig 5.5 showed that Rc
was the dominating factor on days 10 to 15 of Dec 08. But in this case wind speed plays the
major role (Fig 6.5).

Fig. 6.5 Variation of deposition velocity with wind speed and solar insolation (Dec 2008 14:30
IST)

6.4 Effect of wet surfaces due to rain

Another important factor is the effect of wet surfaces. The large peaks present in Fig 6.5 are due
to the presence of wet surfaces on those days when it rained. These wet surfaces are accounted
for to different extents in both methods which is why these peaks are not present in Fig 5.5. The
method of Zhang et al. (2003b) receives support from the work of Matsuda et al. (2006) who
performed field experiments to determine the dry deposition velocity of SO
2
over a tropical
forest in Northern Thailand [9]. Although they studied a full fledged forest as opposed to an
urban canopy, the vegetative characteristics of the region are similar to our study area. They
observed much higher values of SO
2
deposition velocity during the rainy season as compared to
the dry season with maximum values of 1.39 cm s-1 and 0.31 cm s-1 in the wet season and dry
season respectively (daytime). They emphasize the importance of accounting for the effect of
wet surfaces on non-stomatal resistance in order to accurately model the higher observed values
of V
d
during the rains. Moreover, they found that the value of deposition velocity predicted for
tropical broadleaf trees by Zhang et al., (2003b) during the wet season was consistent with their
experimental observations. This effect will be considered in greater detail in Chapter 7.
24

CHAPTER 7: DEVELOPMENT OF A REGRESSION FORMULA TO
CALCULATE DEPOSITION VELOCITY

7.1 Requirement of a simple regression formula

There are no simple regression formulae for deposition velocity reported for any region. This is
understandable since the spatial validity of these formulas would be restricted to the region of
study. It would be applicable to regions with similar foliage characteristics and temporal
variation in foliage structure. This is reflected by the LAI and its variation through the year.
Moreover, the climatology would have to be similar to the original study region and the values of
the meteorological variables should fall in the same ranges. Nevertheless, a simple formula
would be a boon to workers who are not familiar with the science of dry deposition. It will
provide easy calculation of deposition velocity for application in environmental assessment
calculations or for use in atmospheric dispersion models.
In this work the deposition velocity has been calculated for a period which spans an entire year
(Nov 08 to Oct 09). Thus all possible variation in deposition velocity should be included in
these results. The method of Zhang et al. (2003b) is quite complex. In addition, one is required to
compute friction velocity and Monin-Obhukov length in order to determine the aerodynamic
resistance. Hence a computer code would be required even for a few computations of deposition
velocity. Thus a simple formula would be valuable to the environmental department at NLC and
possibly to workers in other parts of tropical Asia.
Moreover, due to the complex nature of the empirical formulae used in the surface resistance
parameterization of Zhang et al. (2003b) or Wesely (1989) for that matter, it is difficult to
identify the impact of an individual input on the deposition velocity. For example, wind speed
affects V
d
through the aerodynamic resistance as well as the non stomatal resistance. A
regression formula with explicit dependencies on each input will help in identifying the
individual effects of each input on V
d
and their relative magnitudes. A sensitivity study will be
much easier to implement. One will then be able to identify the most significant inputs. These
would have to be carefully measured to reduce error in V
d
. On the other hand it may be possible
to neglect an input without greatly reducing accuracy. With the above considerations in mind, a
regression formula for deposition velocity of SO
2
over NLC will be developed in this section.
7.2 Formulation of suitable non linear regression model
The important meteorological inputs are wind speed (U, m s
-1
), LAI (m
2
m
-2
), solar radiation
(G, W m
-2
), temperature (T, C) and relative humidity (RH, %). An obvious regression model
would be of the following form:
( )
e d c b a
d
RH T G LAI U Q V = (7.1)
25

However, this form would be valid for dry surfaces only. The presence of wet surfaces during a
rainy day greatly increases the deposition velocity (see section 6.3). This presence of wet
surfaces can be indicated by a binary variable R. R is 0 for dry surfaces and 1 for wet surfaces.
When R=1 there will be a discontinuous increase in deposition velocity. R acts as an on-off
switch in the Zhang et al. (2003b) parameterization. In order to capture this effect in a regression
formulae one must suitably modify Eq (7.1). Any such modification would depend on the degree
of enhancement of dry deposition due to wet surfaces. Specifically, the dependence of this
increase on the absolute magnitude of dry surface V
d
is important. To identify this dependence,
the deposition velocity calculations were repeated for the entire period from Nov 08 to Oct 09
considering only dry surfaces and only wet surfaces. The resultant deposition velocities can be
termed as the dry surface deposition velocity V
d
,
dry
and the wet surface deposition velocity V
d,wet
.
The results are depicted in Fig. 7.1.

Fig. 7.1 The relationship between wet surface and dry surface deposition velocity
The exponential relationship between V
d,wet
and V
d
,
dry
is clear. Based on these results the
following non linear regression model is proposed.
( )
e d c b a
dry d
RH T G LAI U C V =
,
(7.2)
( )( ) ( ) R V R pV Q V
dry d dry d d
+ = 1 exp
, ,
(7.3)
Where R=0 for dry surfaces and R=1 for wet surfaces
Eq. (7.2) is adequate for the dry surface deposition velocity. Eq. (7.3) accounts for the effect of
wet surfaces as well. When the surface is wet R has a value of one and the deposition velocity is
given a value which is exponentially related to the magnitude of the dry surface deposition
velocity. If the surface is indeed dry, then the expression reduces to Eq. (7.1).

26

7.3 Analysis of the regression parameters and the regression fit
The above regression model was adopted and the results obtained using the Zhang et al. (2003b)
method were fitted to the same. A nonlinear least squares regression function, available in
Matlab, called nlinfit was used [21]. The parameter values and the 95% confidence intervals
are presented in Table 7.1.
Parameter Value
95%
confidence
interval
C 0.3285 0.2065
a 0.5508 0.0286
b 0.0765 0.0220
c 0.0336 0.0256
d -0.3537 0.1227
e 0.1379 0.0835
Q 0.1204 0.0144
p 6.6270 0.4293
Table 7.1 Parameter values of the regression model of Eq. (7.2-7.3) with the 95% confidence
intervals
The fit of the regression model is depicted in Fig 7.2 and Fig. 7.3. The small magnitude of the
residuals and their random nature indicate that the model describes the data well. Since all the
confidence intervals (Table 7.1) are smaller in magnitude than their respective parameter values,
all the inputs considered are significant. In other words none of the parameter values can be zero
which would indicate that V
d
is independent of that particular input variable. This is not
unexpected since the data used for the regression was obtained from a model which used exactly
these inputs. In order to comment on the relative importance of the inputs it is necessary to
compute the normalized sensitivity of V
d
to each of the inputs. This study will be taken up in the
near future as many useful conclusions can be drawn from it.
Only the exponent of temperature is negative in the regression model. This indicates an inverse
relationship between temperature and deposition velocity. The stomata of a plant close at
extremes of temperature (0 C and 40 C) with optimum temperatures around 25 C. Since
temperatures at NLC are above 25 C throughout the year, any increase in temperature would
result in closure of the stomata. This in turn increases the surface resistance which results in a
decrease in deposition velocity. All the other inputs have a positive effect on deposition velocity.
Any further comment regarding the relationship between inputs and deposition velocity would
have to await a further sensitivity analysis.

27


Fig. 7.2 Plot of deposition velocities obtained from the regression model against the original data
calculated using Zhang et al. (2003b)

Fig 7.3 Residual plot of the regression model
The regression formula developed here can be applied to NLC to calculate deposition velocity of
SO
2
for NLC. The extensive calculations are simplified and only a hand calculator is required to
implement the formula. However, the above formula must be verified with new data from NLC
to establish its validity. This will be done shortly as soon as data is made available. In addition
the possibility of applying this formula to other tropical regions in Asia must be investigated.
Data from regions like Thailand can be used to calculate deposition velocity using the
Zhang et al. (2003) surface parameterization and compared with the results of the regression
model. If they prove to be satisfactory then this would be a significant result. It would encourage
the development of similar regression models for various regions which would greatly simplify
all calculations involving dry deposition.
28

CHAPTER 8: SCAVENGING EFFICACY OF THE MAN-MADE CANOPY

In this chapter we investigate the role of the urban canopy in improving air quality, especially in
the township. The flux of SO
2
to the ground at any location in NLC can be computed from Eq.
(3.1) using the calculated deposition velocity (section 6.2) if the concentration at the reference
height is known. In the absence of concentration measurements, modelled values can be used to
study the removal of SO
2
by the canopy. On the 21st of May 2009, a southwest wind transported
pollution directly over the township. The wind speed was 2.3 m s
-1
and the solar radiation was
359 W m
-2
.This situation provides an ideal setting for our study. However, before analyzing the
deposition of SO
2,
it is necessary to predict the concentration of SO
2
over the township.

8.1 Dispersion Model for predicting SO
2
concentration

In this study, a tailor made steady state atmospheric gaussian-dispersion model is used which
was developed as part of a consultancy with NLC [22]. This model is based on the gaussian
plume formula which is applicable to the steady state emission of a gas from an elevated stack
with a totally reflecting ground. Although this model does not account for deposition, the error in
predicted SO
2
concentrations is relatively small especially since the township is close to the
stacks and the source strengths are high. The accuracy is sufficient for the purposes of this study.
The gaussian plume equation which predicts the concentration (g m
-3
) at any point around the
stack is given by:

( ) ( )
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
+

|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|

=
2
2
2
2
2
2 6
2
exp
2
exp
2
exp
2
10
) , , (
z z y
z y
h z h z y
u
q
z y x C
o o o
o o t
(8.1)

The stack is taken to be at the origin with the x axis along the centerline of the plume which is in
the mean direction of the wind. The y axis is along the horizontal and the z axis along the
vertical. According to this model, as the plume travels with a mean speed u m s
-1
along the wind
direction, it disperses horizontally and vertically so that the average steady state concentration at
any cross section of the plume follows the normal Gaussian probability distribution.
y
and
z
(in
meters) are the standard deviations of the concentration in the y and z directions. q is the source
strength (g s
-1
) and h is the effective stack height (the vertical rise of the plume, before it bends
over, added to the physical stack height- m). The dispersion parameters (
y
and
z
) depend on
atmospheric stability and distance from the stack and are computed using the formulae
recommended by Briggs (1973) based on the Pasquill atmospheric stability classes (Turner,
1969) as detailed in Seinfeld and Pandis (2006). A detailed exposition of gaussian plume
dispersion models can be found in [1,23].



29

8.2 Deposition from a plume

The ground level concentration computed from the dispersion model is shown in Fig. 8.1. The
township is demarcated by a rectangle and the white markers represent the two power stations
(TPS1 and TPS2) with TPS1 on the edge of the township. The text markers indicate the locations
of air quality monitoring stations. From Fig. 8.1 it is clear that much of the township experiences
concentrations above 10 g m
-3
. Areas closer to TPS1 receive higher amounts of the polluting
gas and the concentration in the narrow region surrounding the plume centerline exceeds
100 g m
-3
.


Fig.8.1 The modelled ground level concentration over the township on 21
st
May 2009, 14:30 IST
(g m
-3
)

Due to the presence of the evergreen canopy, there is a continuous deposition of material from
the plume onto the trees. This flux is greater in regions of higher concentration and can be
evaluated using Eq. (3.1). Material will be deposited as long as the plume remains aloft over the
canopy and the wind direction does not change. Considerable amount of pollution is deposited
and contours of the mass flux are shown in Fig. 8.2. Approximately 1.91 kg of SO
2
is deposited
onto the canopy within the township, in an hour. However, this amount is insignificant when
compared to the source strength of the emissions from the stacks which continuously pump
pollution into the atmosphere (see Table 1.1). Since the township is very close to TPS 1 there is
no perceivable change in the ambient air concentration while the plume remains aloft. However,
areas surrounding NLC would benefit as the plume would have travelled a greater distance and
much more SO
2
would have been deposited over the canopy which extends beyond the township.
30

This study can be generalized for a wind driven plume, over any part of NLC with a canopy
cover.


Fig.8.2. Mass of SO
2
deposited per unit area per unit time on 21
st
May 2009, 14:30 IST (g m
-2

hr
-1
)

8.3 Removal of residual pollution and improvement of air quality

In the previous section the deposition of SO
2
from a plume was analyzed. However, at any time
only a small region of NLC can be directly affected by the plume. The other regions will
experience residual pollution, left over from a previous visit of the plume or transported from
other affected parts of NLC. The trees can reduce the residual SO
2
levels in these regions which
do not receive a constant supply of SO
2
for a considerable period of time. These conditions are
analogous to those prevalent in cities at night. There is a buildup of pollutants during the day
when sources of gaseous pollutants are numerous. At night the emissions subside due to low
levels of traffic and urban activity. Since there is no replenishment of pollution, dry deposition
onto urban trees can result in improved air quality by the morning. In NLC, this situation is
realized when a change in wind direction causes the plume to move away from the township or if
a period of calm follows the plumes visit over the township. In either case, SO
2
will be left over
the township and diluted by the convective motion of the atmosphere. The mixed layer of the
atmosphere, within which this dilution is restricted, is the well mixed region of the atmosphere
adjacent to the earths surface. The height of the mixed layer varies with the time of day, the
location of the site (latitude) and the atmospheric stability. The residual SO
2
confined within the
mixed layer over the township will be gradually depleted due to dry deposition onto the trees. A
first order removal of species from the bottom of a closed stirred tank is a simple way to model
this process. A mass balance on SO
2
for a mixed layer of height H
mix
yields:

31

mix
d
H
C V
dt
dC
=

(8.2)

This equation when integrated yields the following expression for the time dependent
concentration in the mixed layer of the atmosphere, where C
0
is the initial residual concentration.

( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
mix
d
H
t V
C t C exp
0
(8.3)

The initial residual pollutant concentration (C
0
) can be obtained by first estimating the total
amount of pollution left over a given area and then distributing it uniformly throughout the
mixed layer. This is done by integrating the plume concentration predicted by the dispersion
model throughout the atmosphere for all points within a designated zone (in this case, the
township) up to the mixing height and then dividing by the total volume of the region of
integration. The present calculation requires an estimation of the height of the mixed layer. This
height varies in the summer from 500 m in the morning up to 2-3 km in the late afternoon with
an average of 1000 m [1]. At night the inversion layer is much lower, sometimes only 100 m
which can result in high pollution levels. At NLC, this is not much of a concern since the stacks
are elevated and most of the pollution is transported above this height. A detailed method for
estimating the mixed layer height and its day time variation is given by [24]. For the purpose of
this work, representative values of 1000 m and 500 m are used. The cleansing of the atmosphere
over the township due to the removal of SO
2
by the canopy is depicted in Fig. 8.3. At lower
mixing heights, the concentration is much higher, but so is the intensity of the cleansing action.
The deposition velocity is low in May and so is the removal of SO
2.
However, it is natures boon
that the lowest values of deposition velocity coincide with the hottest month (May) when the day
time mixing height is high and pollution episodes are unlikely. This is in contrast to mid-latitudes
where the lowest deposition velocity values occur during winter when the mixing height is low.
The above calculation is repeated using the deposition velocity of October (Table 3) and the
results are depicted in Fig 8.4. A comparison with Fig. 8.4 clearly demonstrates the accelerated
pace of atmospheric cleansing due to the higher deposition velocity of October.

As mentioned previously, the height of the mixed layer can be very low at night. This can be a
problem in polluted cities of developing countries where the majority of emissions have ground
sources such as moving vehicles and burning garbage. In such cases the pollutants can become
highly concentrated and have a harmful impact on the health of the local population. The
presence of pollutant tolerant vegetation can be a mitigating factor as the removal by deposition
increases with increase in concentration of the deposition species.
32


Fig.8.3. Depletion of residual SO
2
concentration over the township on 21
st
May 2009.


Fig.8.4. Depletion of residual SO
2
concentration over the township considering the higher
deposition velocity of October








33

CHAPTER 9: CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK

At the end of the first decade of the twenty first century, the developing nations of the world are
in a quandary. Constant industrialization and rising per capita energy consumption implies
increasing fossil fuel derived energy usage. In most countries, renewable energy sources alone
will not be able to meet the exorbitant energy demands in the foreseeable future. At the same
time, the pollution caused by toxic emissions from thermal power plants and industries can no
longer be ignored. Sustainable development implies the maintenance of a delicate balance
between human progress and conservation/promotion of Nature. Environmental impact
assessment studies of new and existing projects form an important component of the roadmap to
sustainability. Such studies often turn to mathematical modelling methods for analyzing the
impacts of polluting releases, especially gaseous emissions in the context of thermal power
plants. Thus far, most studies in Asia have resorted to borrowing results from mid latitude
analyses or adopting hasty adaptations of models which were developed for regions quite unlike
their own. The widely different climatology, ecology and general environment of the Asian
region demands region specific studies and analyses.

In this work a detailed modelling study of the removal mechanisms of gaseous pollutants is
presented for the Neyveli Lignite Corporation (NLC), located in Tamil Nadu, India. Removal of
SO
2
via dry deposition is addressed with a particular emphasis on using local meteorological data
and determining region specific model parameters. The deposition velocity is computed for each
day of a year long period from Nov 08 to Oct 09. Using this data it was possible to develop a
regression formula for calculating the deposition velocity at NLC at any time of the year. This
greatly reduces computation and will be especially useful to non technical workers. However,
this formula is valid only for NLC. Although it is possible that it may represent other tropical
Asian regions, this remains to be verified. The sensitivity of deposition velocity to each of the
inputs must also be studied. Thus one can determine the input variables which must be most
carefully measured and if any of them can be left out without greatly compromising accuracy.

The visionary founders of NLC started an afforestation program several decades ago and now the
thriving township is receiving the full benefits of this action. The presence of the green canopy
provides a round-the-year removal mechanism for pollutants and thus contributes to better living
conditions in terms of real air quality improvement apart from aesthetic benefits. However, the
ability of the vegetation to survive under daily pollutant stress is a matter which begs further
investigation, especially in context of the continued urbanization in India and other developing
countries of Asia. The response of the vegetation may be quite different from that of European
and North American plants and calls for another region specific study. The trees at NLC have
been able to survive the continuous exposure to the emissions of the power plants but this is, in
part, due to the convective atmosphere and the elevated emission sources.

34

At various points in the analysis, it was observed that nature has provided the region with several
advantages as far as mitigation of pollution was concerned. These include the fact that the leanest
state of the vegetative canopy coincides with the hot summer when the convective boundary
layer will ensure dilution of polluting emissions. This study is an example of the important
inferences that can result from region specific studies that may be missed if unsuitably adapted,
borrowed models are used. Most importantly, it is hoped that more such studies are carried out in
developing countries where sustainable development is as yet only an ideal and Natures
resilience is constantly put to the test.


35

PUBLICATIONS/PRESENTATIONS

1. Picardo, J. R. and Ghosh, S. Establishing the Efficacy of the Cleansing Action of
Tropical Evergreens: A Modeling Analysis of Asias Largest Lignite based Power Plant.
Proc. 1
st
EnvironmentAsia International Conference, Bangkok, Thailand, 2011
2. Picardo, J. R. and Ghosh, S. Establishing the Efficacy of the Cleansing Action of
Tropical Evergreens: A Modeling Analysis of Asias Largest Lignite based Power Plant.
EnvironmentAsia. Accepted
3. Picardo, J. R. and Ghosh, S. Removal Mechanisms in a Tropical Boundary Layer:
Quantification of Air Pollutant Removal Rates around a Heavily Afforested Power Plant.
Air Pollution/ Book 4, Moldoveanu, A. (Ed.), ISBN 978-953-307-527-3, Intech. Accepted

36

REFERENCES

[1] Seinfeld, J. H. and Pandis, S. N. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 2nd ed. John
Wiley, New Jersey, USA. 2006; 828-979
[2] Erisman, J. W. and Draaijers, G. Deposition to Forests in Europe: Most Important Factors
Influencing Dry Deposition and Models used for Generalization. Environmental
Pollution. 2003; 124: 379-388
[3] Wesely, M. L. and Hicks, B. B. A Review of the Current Status of Knowledge on Dry
Deposition. Atmospheric Environment. 2000; 34: 2261-2282
[4] Watanabe, M.; Takamatsu, T.; Koshikawa, M. K.; Yamamura, S. and Inubushi, K. Dry
Deposition of Acidic Air Pollutants to Tree Leaves, Determined by a Modified Leaf-
Washing Technique. Atmospheric Environment. 2008; 42: 7339-7347
[5] Granat, L. and Richter, A. Dry deposition to pine of Sulphur dioxide and Ozone at Low
Concentrations. Atmospheric Environment. 1995; 29: 1677-1683
[6] Singh, R. K. and Agrawal, M. Atmospheric depositions around a Heavily Industrialized
Area in a Seasonally Dry Tropical Environment of India. Environmental Pollution. 2005;
138: 142-152
[7] Feliciano, M. S.; Pio, C.A. and Vermeulen, A.T. Evaluation of SO
2
Dry Deposition over
Short Vegetation in Portugal. Atmospheric Environment. 2001; 35: 3633-3643
[8] Tsai, J. L. et al. Observation of SO
2
Dry Deposition Velocity at a High Elevation Flux
Tower over an Evergreen Broadleaf Forest in Central Taiwan. Atmospheric Environment.
2010; 44: 1011-1019
[9] Matsuda, K.; Watanabe, I.; Wingpud, V.; Theramongkol, P. and Ohizumi, T. Deposition
Velocity of O3 and SO2 in the Dry and Wet season above a Tropical Forest in Northern
Thailand. Atmospheric Environment. 2006; 40: 7557-7564
[10] Wesely, M. L. Parameterization of Surface Resistance to Gaseous Dry Deposition in
Regional Scale Numerical Models. Atmospheric Environment. 1989; 23: 1293-1304
[11] Kumar, R.; Srivastava, S. S. and Kumari, K. M. Modeling Dry Deposition of S and N
Compounds to Vegetation. Indian J. Radio Space. 2008; 37: 272-278
[12] Walmsley, J. L. and Wesely M. L. Modification of Coded Parameterizations of Surface
Resistances to Gaseous Dry Deposition. Atmospheric Environment. 1996; 30(7): 1181-
1188
[13] Gao, W. and Wesely, M. L. Modeling Gaseous Dry Deposition over Regional Scales with
Satellite Observations-I. Model Development, Atmospheric Environment. 1995; 29(6):
727-737
[14] Zhang, L.; Brook, J. R. & Vet, R. A Revised Parameterization for Gaseous Dry
Deposition in Air Quality Models. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 2003b; 3: 2067-2082
[15] Zhang, L.; Moran, M. D.; Markar, P. A.; Brook, J. R. and Gong, S. Modelling Gaseous
Dry Deposition in AURAMS: a Unified Regional Air Quality Modelling System.
Atmospheric Environment. 2002; 36: 537-560
37

[16] Zhang, L.; Brook, J. R. and Vet, R. Evaluation of a Non-Stomatal Resistance
Parameterization for SO2 Dry Deposition. Atmospheric Environment. 2003a; 37: 2941-
2947
[17] Xu, Y. & Carmichael G. Modeling the Dry Deposition Velocity of Sulphur Dioxide and
Sulphate in Asia. Journal of Applied Meteorology. 1998; 37: 1084-99
[18] Patra, S. and Ghosh, S. Quantifying Trace Gas Uptake Rates by Passion Flower Draped
Facades and Roofs. Proc. World Green Roof Congress, London, 2010
[19] Seth, U. K.; Sarkar, S.; Bardhan, R. and Ghosh, S. Asias Largest Lignite based Power
Plants success story: Efficient Removal of SO2 through a Manmade Forest Canopy.
Proc. World Congress of Engineering, Imperial College, London. 2010; No. 2
[20] NASA, MODIS LAI/FPAR product, Available from: http://modis.gsfc.nasa.gov/
[21] MATLAB Documentation, The MathWorksTM, Inc. Available online:
http://www.mathworks.com/help/
[22] Picardo, J. R. Analytical Modelling of the Advection, Dispersion, Deposition and Rain
Scavenging of Chemical Constituents emitted from the Stacks of NLC Thermal Power
Plant. Mini Project Thesis, VIT University, 2010.
[23] Hanna, S. R.; Briggs, G. A. and Hosker, Jr. R. P. Handbook on Atmospheric Diffusion.
DOE TIC-11223, Technical Information Center, U.S., Dept. of Energy, USA. 1982; 25-
35
[24] Luhar, A. K. An Analytical Slab Model for the Growth of the Coastal Thermal Internal
Boundary Layer under Near-Neutral Onshore Flow Conditions. Boundary-Layer
Meteorology. 1998; 88: 103-120