Presentation of Data Raw datas are usually presented in either of the two forms i.e. graphical or tabular.

The representation of raw data in a table is known as tabular presentation. Tabular forms are used in collecting and organizing raw data during an experiment and also for representing the final data that can be used for further use. Tabular presentation of data allows researcher to organize the datas for further analysis, allows large amounts of raw data for sorting and reorganizing the datas in an appropriate format. Moreover, it also allows the researcher to identify only the most important or relevant data. The raw data may be presented in a more attractive way that can be very appealing to the eye with the help of some graphical aids, i.e. pictures and graphs. Such presentation of datas carries a lot of power to convey message.

RAW DATA

SORTING OF RAW DATA

TABULAR REPRESENTATION

GRAPHICAL REPRSENTATION

Tabular Representation The representation of raw data in a table is known as tabular presentation. A table is a symmetric arrangement of statistical datas in rows and columns. Rows are horizontal in nature whereas columns are vertical. The tabular representation can be simple, double or complex in nature which has been discussed below: Simple tabulation or one way tabulation: When data tabulation is on one characteristic then it is said to be simple tabulation or one way tabulation. For example: Tabulation of data on people of India classified by one characteristic like language.

Double tabulation: When data is tabulated according to two characteristics at a time it is called double tabulation or two-way tabulation. For example: Tabulation of data on people of India classified by two characteristics like language and religion. Complex tabulation: When data is tabulated according to multiple characteristic at a time it is said to be complex tabulation. For example: Tabulation of data on people in India classified by characteristics like religion, language, geographical origin, literacy, health etc.

Graphical Representation The raw data or statistical data may be presented in a more attractive way that can be very appealing to the eye with the help of some graphical aids, i.e. pictures and graphs. Such presentation of datas carries a lot of power to convey message. One can think that if the datas can be represented in a tabular form then what is the need of representing it in a pictorial form? The need for graphical presentation of data is due to the following reasons: It makes the comparisons between the datas easy. It presents the characteristics of the datas in a simplified way. This method enhances our understanding. This method also enables the researcher to understand the patterns of population growth, distribution and the density, sex ratio, agesex composition, occupational structure, etc. It creates a long lasting impression on mind of the researcher.

There are many ways of representing the datas graphically which has been discussed below: Bar graphs Histograms Frequency polygons Ogive Line graphs Pie charts Pictographs

Bar Graphs: A bar graph is a graphical representation of the frequency distributions of the ungrouped datas. In bar diagram, the bars can be plotted either vertically or horizontally. A bar chart is very useful to determine whether the datas are continuous or discontinuous.

Steps for Construction of Bar Graphs 1) First of all say two axes X and Y are drawn on the graph paper. 2) Along the horizontal axis i.e. X axis, the values of the variables are taken and along the vertical axis i.e. Y axis, the frequencies are taken. 3) Along the X axis, the equal width of bars is chosen and the uniform gap between the bars is taken. 4) A suitable scale to determine the heights of the bars is chosen. The scale is chosen according to the space available in the graph paper. 5) The heights of the bars are calculated according to the scale chosen and the bars are then drawn. 6) The axes are marked with proper labeling.

Advantages of Bar Graphs It can easily compare among various sets of data. It helps in easy understanding of the data. It is easy to prepare.

Disadvantages of Bar Graphs It can be used to classify only the discrete datas. This method can be used to emphasize certain effects only.

BAR GRAPH

Histograms: It is a graphical representation of the continuous frequency distribution i.e. grouped frequency distributions. It is a graph which includes vertical rectangles with no space between them. The class-intervals are taken along the horizontal axis (X) and the respective class frequencies are taken on the vertical axis (Y). For each class, a rectangle is drawn with base as width of the class and height as the class frequency. The area of the rectangles must always be proportional to the frequencies of the respective classes.

Steps for Construction of Histograms 1) First of all two axes say X and Y are drawn on the graph paper. 2) Along the horizontal axis i.e. X axis, classes of equal width are taken such as 0-5, 5-10, 10-15,.. 3) A suitable scale on the vertical axis is chosen to represent the frequencies. 4) Then the rectangle histograms are drawn.

Advantages This method is used for the estimation of the density of data. It helps in easy understanding of the data. This method can be compared with the normal distribution curve.

Disadvantages It can be used to classify only the continuous data. This method is difficult to compare two data sets. It cannot read exact values because data is grouped into categories.

HISTOGRAMS

Frequency Polygons: A frequency polygon is the jointed mid-points of the tops of the adjoining rectangles in a histogram. It gives the idea about the shape of the data distribution. The extreme points of a frequency polygon are always joined on the x-axis.

Steps for Construction of Frequency Polygons 1) First of all two axes say X and Y are drawn on the graph paper. 2) Along the horizontal axis i.e. X axis, classes of equal width are taken such as 0-5, 5-10, 10-15,.. 3) A suitable scale on the vertical axis is chosen to represent the frequencies. 4) Then the rectangle histograms are drawn. 5) In the rectangular bars of the histograms, mid-points are taken. All the mid-points are then joined by a line. Now, the graph so obtained is called frequency polygon.

Advantages It is appealing to the eye.

Disadvantages It can be used to classify only the continuous data. As the extremes points of frequency polygon touches x-axis hence it implies that there is no data at all which can be impractical.

FREQUENCY POLYGONS

Ogives: When a researcher wants to express a set of data through a single line, ogive is used. It is basically a cumulative line graph. This method is used by the researcher to display the total frequencies at any given point of time. The word ogive is used in architecture to describe curves or curved shapes. Ogives are of two types: less than ogive and more than ogive.

Steps for Construction of Ogives 1) First of all two axes say X and Y are drawn on the graph paper. 2) Then the cumulative frequencies are calculated. Less than cumulative frequency will give less than ogive whereas more than cumulative frequency will give more than ogive. 3) Class limits are converted into class boundaries. 4) Cumulative frequencies are plotted against the class boundaries, and all the points so obtained are joined. The line so obtained is called ogive.

Advantages This method is used to determine the values of median, quartiles, deciles, percentiles and many more. It can be used to compare more than one distribution. It is useful to determine the number of items above or below a particular value. It can be easily understood due to its widespread use in business and the media. It provides a visual check of the accuracy of the calculations.

Disadvantages It is somewhat complicated to prepare. It can be easily manipulated to yield false results. It reveals little information about central tendency, dispersion, skewness, and kurtosis. This method often requires additional written or verbal explanation. It fails to reveal key assumptions, norms, causes and/or effects.

LESS THAN OGIVE

Line Graphs: A line graph is a type of graph which provides informations by connecting series of data points through a straight line segment. It is also known as line chart. It is a version of scatter diagram. It is one of the most common techniques and is used in many fields. It is often used to visualize a trend in data sets over a specific interval of time.

Steps for Construction of Line Graphs The equation of a straight line is in the form of Y = MX + C By manipulating the value of X, the value of Y can be obtained. The researcher can manipulate any value of his or her choice to obtain a straight line which will be feasible to solve any problem.

Advantages It can compare multiple continuous data sets easily. Interim data can be easily identified from the line graph.

Disadvantages It can be used to classify only the continuous data.

For Example: Y = 3X + 4 Y X 4 0 Y 7 1 10 2 13 3

Y = 3X + 4

Pie Charts: It is a spherical chart in which the sphere is divided into certain parts. Each part visually represents a particular item in a data set. The amount of each part in the pie chart is exactly equal to match the amount of the item as a percentage or fraction of the total data set.

Steps for Construction of Pie Charts 1) The angle of each part of the sphere is calculated using the formula: Angle of a certain portion/part = Corresponding frequency of the data set X 100 Total frequency 2) A circle is drawn using compass. 3) A protractor is used to measure the angle for each portion/part in the circle. 4) Finally the circle graph is labeled and all its parts are shaded differently.

Advantages It is visually appealing to the eye. It shows percent of total for each category.

Disadvantages From a pie chart no exact numerical data can be predicted.

If each part in the pie chart has not been specified then it is completely unknown to any individual that what actually it is representing. It can be used only for discrete datas. It can be best implemented for 3 to 7 categories.

PIE CHART

Pictographs: It is a process through which meaning is conveyed about the physical resemblance of an item. It uses pictures or symbols to represent a given amount of data. It is basically a way of showing data using images.

Steps to Create a Pictograph 1) The datas are entered into an excel sheet and then they are selected. The field headings and titles are also included. 2) On the insert tab in the charts group, a chart is selected. A chart with elements that can support a picture is chosen. 3) In the chart, the first element which the researcher wants to add a picture is selected, and then double-click is done on the element. The picture will be inserted in all the elements that are selected, so it is better to make sure that the selection border is around only the first element. 4) In chart tools, the format tab is clicked and then, in the current selection group, format selection is selected. 5) In the format data point dialog box, in the left navigation pane, fill is clicked. 6) In the right pane, picture or texture fill is clicked. 7) Under insert from, browse for a picture file or clip art image or the contents of the clipboard are inserted.

8) Now it is selected by the researcher to stretch or stack the image. 9) The above steps are repeated for each of the other elements.

Advantages It is very easy to use and read. They seemed to be very funny to use. As a result of this property pictographs can be used to teach children easily. They show trends in data clearly.

Disadvantages A pictograph can be difficult to make. Sometimes it might be difficult to find a symbol or picture to represent a data.

Moreover, pictographs can be used for the analytical explanation of certain geometry like hyperbola, parabola, ellipse and circle. The details of these geometries has been discussed in detail belowHyperbola: It is a smooth curve that lies in a plane. It has got a characteristic equation. The equation of the hyperbola is written as: