Personal and Public Transport

Gill Sans bold
Engineering Studies
HSC Course Stage 6
Personal and public transport
ES/S6 - HSC 41092
P0022157
Gill Sans bold Acknowledgments

This publication is copyright Learning Materials Production, Open Training and Education Network Distance Education, NSW Department of Education and Training, however it may contain material from other sources which is not owned by Learning Materials Production. Learning Materials Production would like to acknowledge the following people and organisations whose material has been used. Board of Studies, NSW
All reasonable efforts have been made to obtain copyright permissions. All claims will be settled in good faith. Materials development: Coordination: Edit: Illustration: DTP: David Jackson, John Shirm, Ian Webster Jeff Appleby John Cook, Jeff Appleby, Josephine Wilms, Stephen Russell Tom Brown, David Evans Nick Loutkovsky, Carolina Barbieri
Learning Materials Production, Open Training and Education Network Distance Education, NSW Department of Education and Training, 2000. 51 Wentworth Rd. Strathfield NSW 2135. Revised 2002
Module contents
Subject overview ................................................................................ iii Module overview................................................................................vii
Module components ................................................................ viii Module outcomes ...................................................................... ix Indicative time ............................................................................x Resource requirements.............................................................. xi
Icons
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Glossary............................................................................................. xv Directive terms................................................................................xxiii Part 1: Transport systems development .................................................................. 149 Part 2: Transport systems mechanics/hydraulics .................................................. 145 Part 3: Transport systems materials ......................................................................... 181 Part 4: Transport systems electricity/electronics .................................................... 191 Part 5: Transport systems communication .............................................................. 155 Part 6: Transport systems engineering report......................................................... 139 Bibliography.......................................................................................41 Module evaluation ............................................................................45
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Subject overview
Engineering Studies Preliminary Course

Household appliances is the introductory module which introduces several basic engineering techniques. Common appliances found in the home are used to complete material investigation and mechanical analysis. Appliances are analysed to identify materials and their applications. Relationships between the materials used and the effect those materials have on design are investigated. Electrical principles, researching methods and techniques to communicate technical information are introduced. The first student engineering report is completed by investigating the materials used in a household appliance. Landscape products investigates engineering principles by focusing on common products such as lawnmowers and clothes hoists. The historical development of these types of product demonstrates the effect materials development and technological advancements have on the design of products. Engineering techniques of force analysis are described. Orthogonal drawing methods are explained. An engineering report is completed that analyses a landscape product. Braking systems uses braking components and systems to describe engineering principles. The historical changes in materials and design are investigated. The relationship between internal structure of iron and steel and the resulting engineering properties of those materials is detailed. Hydraulic principles are described and examples provided in braking systems. Orthogonal drawing techniques are further developed. An engineering report is completed that requires an analysis of a braking system component.
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Bio engineering is the first of the focus modules. This module looks at both engineering principles and also the scope of the bio engineering profession. Career descriptions are researched and current issues in this field are discussed. Engineers as managers and ethical issues confronted by the bio engineer are considered. An engineering report is completed that investigates a current bio engineered product and describes the related issues that the bio engineer would need to consider before, during and after this product development. Irrigation systems is the elective topic for the last of the preliminary modules. The historical development of irrigation systems is described and the impact of these systems on society discussed. Hydraulic analysis of irrigation systems is explained. The effect on irrigation product range that has occurred with the introduction of polymers is detailed. An engineering report on an irrigation system is completed.
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HSC Engineering Studies modules

Civil structures is the first of the HSC course modules. Engineering principles as they relate to civil structures such as bridges and buildings are described. The historical influences of engineering, the impact of engineering innovation, and environmental implications are discussed with reference to bridges. Mechanical analysis of bridges is used to introduce concepts of truss analysis and stress/strain. Material properties and application are explained with reference to a variety of civil structures. Technical communication skills described in this module include assembly drawing. The engineering report asks the student to compare two engineering solutions to solve the same engineering situation. Personal and public transport uses bicycles, motor vehicles and trains as examples to explain engineering concepts. The historical development of cars is used to demonstrate the developing material list available for the engineer. The impact on society of these developments is discussed. The mechanical analysis of mechanisms involves the effect of friction. Energy and power relationships are explained. Methods of testing materials, and methods of modifying material properties are examined. A series of industrial manufacturing processes are described. Electrical concepts such as power distribution and AC motors are detailed in this module. Students are introduced to the use of freehand technical sketches. Lifting devices investigates the social impact that these devices from complex cranes to simple car jacks have had on our society. The mechanical concepts are explained, including the hydraulic concepts often used in lifting apparatus. The industrial processes used to form metals and the processes used to control physical properties are explained. Electrical requirements for many devices are detailed. The technical rules for sectioned orthogonal drawings are demonstrated. The engineering report is based on a comparison of two lifting devices.
Aeronautical engineering is the first focus engineering module in the HSC course. The scope of the aeronautical engineering profession is investigated. Career opportunities are considered, as well as ethical issues related to the profession. Technologies unique to this engineering field are described. The mechanical analysis topics include aeronautical flight principles and fluid mechanics. Materials, and material processes concentrate on those most associated with the aeronautical engineer. The corrosion process is explained and preventative techniques listed. Communicating technical information using both freehand and computer aided drawing are required. The engineering report is based on the aeronautical profession, current projects and issues. Telecommunications engineering is the final focus module in the HSC course. This field of engineering, its history and impact on society are discussed. Ethical issues and current technologies are described. The materials section concentrates on specialised testing, copper and its alloys, semiconductors and fibre optics. Electronic systems such as analogue and digital are explained and an overview of a variety of other technologies in this field are described. Analysis, related to telecommunication products, is used to reinforce mechanical concepts. Communicating technical information using both freehand and computer aided drawing is required. The engineering report is based on the telecommunication profession, current projects and issues.
Figure 0.1 Modules
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Module overview
Part 1 investigates the historical developments of some types of transport systems. You will learn about environmental issues and the effect that innovations in transport systems have had on society and an individuals. In part 2 considers mechanical concepts to build your knowledge and help your understanding of how transport vehicles are able to work, given that friction, and a source of energy or power are required. Part 3 examines the many types of materials that are used in transport systems. You will learn about testing procedures, material property modification and manufacturing techniques in relation to specific ferrous and non-ferrous materials. Part 4 explains generation and transmission systems, electric motors and electric systems in various types of transport. You will also learn some basic concepts relating to electric/electronic control technologies used in the transport industry. In Part 5 you will learn more about the use of AS1100 in developing your technical drawing skills so important in communicating technical information. In Part 6 you will further develop your research skills and report writing skills as well as learning about alternative technologies being developed for use in transport systems. You will prepare an engineering report an alternative energy source for powering a small transport system to eliminate or minimize the amount of pollution being generated by the current fuel-burning vehicles.
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Module components
Each module contains three components, the preliminary pages, the teaching/learning section and additional resources. The preliminary pages include: module contents subject overview module overview icons glossary directive terms.
Figure 0.2 Preliminary pages
The teaching/learning parts may include: part contents introduction teaching/learning text and tasks exercises check list.
Figure 0.3 Teaching/learning section
The additional information may include: module appendix bibliography module evaluation.
Additional resources
Figure 0.4 Additional materials
Support materials such as audiotapes, video cassettes and computer disks will sometimes accompany a module.
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Module outcomes
At the end of this module, you should be working towards being able to: differentiate between properties of materials and justify the selection of materials, components and processes in engineering (H1.2) determine suitable properties, uses and applications of materials in engineering (H2.1) demonstrate proficiency in the use of mathematical, scientific and graphical methods to analyse and solve problems of engineering practice (H3.1) use appropriate written, oral and presentation skills in the preparation of detailed engineering reports (H3.2) develop and use specialised techniques in the application of graphics as a communication tool (H3.3) apply knowledge of history and technological change to engineeringbased problems (H4.2) appreciate social, environmental and cultural implications of technological change in engineering and apply them to the analysis of specific problems (H4.3) work individually and in teams to solve specific engineering problems and in the preparation of engineering reports (H5.1) demonstrate skills in research, and problem solving related to engineering (H6.1) demonstrate skills in analysis, synthesis and experimentation related to engineering (H6.2)
Extract from Stage 6 Engineering Studies Syllabus, Board of Studies, NSW, 1999. Refer to <http://www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au> for original and current documents.
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Indicative time
The Preliminary course is 120 hours (indicative time) and the HSC course is 120 hours (indicative time). The following table shows the approximate amount of time you should spend on this module.
Preliminary modules Percentage of time Approximate number of hours 24 hr 24 hr 24 hr 24 hr 24 hr
Household appliances Landscape products Braking systems Bio-engineering Elective: Irrigation systems
20% 20% 20% 20% 20%
HSC modules
Percentage of time
Approximate number of hours 24 hr 24 hr 24 hr 24 hr 24 hr
Civil structures Personal and public transport Lifting devices Aeronautical engineering Telecommunications engineering
20% 20% 20% 20% 20%
There are six parts in Personal and public transport. Each part will require about four to five hours of work. You should aim to complete the module within 20 to 25 hours.
Resource requirements
During this module you will need to access a range of resources including: bicycle brakes paper clip car suspension spring (attached to a car) file old hacksaw blade old lawnmower blade 2 high density polyethylene bags, such as a freezer or shopping bag low density polyethylene little plastic food wrap rubber band technical drawing equipment drawing board, tee square, set squares (3060, 45), protractor, pencils (0.5 mm mechanical pencil with B lead), eraser, pair of compasses, pair of dividers
calculator rule.
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Icons
As you work through this module you will see symbols known as icons. The purpose of these icons is to gain your attention and to indicate particular types of tasks you need to complete in this module. The list below shows the icons and outlines the types of tasks for Stage 6 Engineering studies. Computer This icon indicates tasks such as researching using an electronic database or calculating using a spreadsheet. Danger This icon indicates tasks which may present a danger and to proceed with care. Discuss This icon indicates tasks such as discussing a point or debating an issue. Examine This icon indicates tasks such as reading an article or watching a video. Hands on This icon indicates tasks such as collecting data or conducting experiments. Respond This icon indicates the need to write a response or draw an object. Think This icon indicates tasks such as reflecting on your experience or picturing yourself in a situation.
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Research This icon indicates you will need to do some investigative work. Return This icon indicates exercises for you to return to your teacher when you have completed the part. (OTEN OLP students will need to refer to their Learner's Guide for instructions on which exercises to return).
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Glossary
As you work through the module you will encounter a range of terms that have specific meanings. The first time a term occurs in the text it will appear in bold. The list below explains the terms you will encounter in this module. ABS active safety features allotrophy angle of inclination angle of repose angle of static friction annealing a very tough polymer short for acrylonitrile butadiene styrene features in a vehicle that reduce the likelihood of an accident change in the physical properties without changing the composition of the substance angle of the slope of a plane equal to the angle of inclination when body is on the point of sliding angle between the resultant reaction and the normal reaction heating and soaking a material above its recrystallisation temperature followed by slow cooling to promote grain growth and reduce stresses an abbreviation of bicycle motocross One of a pair of units that supports the carriages of a train; the wheels and the driving mechanism are attached to the bogies flexible cables made from thin strands of steel wound together and housed inside a protective sheath power available to do useful work
BMX bogie
bowden cables
brake power
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cadence carbon fibre carburising casting catenary
the peddling rate of a rider usually measured in rotations per minute a composite material of fibres of carbon cast in a polymer matrix this is the creation of a carbon-rich 'skin' on the surface of a low carbon steel component the pouring of molten or fluid material into a mould where it is allowed to set When related to the electrical railway system; the wires that support conductors that carry current to supply power to the trains an interstitial compound of iron and 6.67% carbon a steel alloy processing high strength and corrosion resistance often shortened to cromoly ratio of the limiting friction to the normal reaction the plastic deformation of a metal below its recrystallisation temperature the widening of the top of a drilled hole to form a larger cylindrical shape to enable a screw, bolt or other components to fit into the counterbored hole the widening of the top of a drilled hole to form a conical or tapered surface to enable a screw to fit flush with or below the surface of a component alloys of iron, carbon, chromium and molybdenum that have excellent strength to weight ratios the covalent bonding between the long polymer chains at various 'sites' along the chains
cementite chrome molybdenum
coefficient of friction cold working counterbore
countersink
cro-moly alloys
cross-links
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derailleur gear system
a gearing system for bicycles consisting of a chain passing over front and rear sprockets of varying sizes. The chain is derailed from sprocket to sprocket to vary the overall gear ratio a casting process where the molten metal is forced into a permanent metal mould handle bars for bicycles that curl downwards forcing the rider into a crouch position most often seen on road racing bicycles ratio of output to input usually expressed as a percentage an amorphous polymer that stretches greatly under a tensile load but then returns to its original shape capacity of a body to do work the type of failure caused when a lower than maximum stress is repeated many times an interstitial solid solution body centred cubic iron with a very small amount of dissolved carbon an alloy that has iron as its principal element fairly inert materials added to a polymer to either fill in space or to provide special properties general; not specific carbon dioxide and other gases produced by pollution on the earths surface which act as glass does in a greenhouse to increase temperatures a component of the braking system that allows the handlebars of a bicycle to be rotated 3600 without the brake cables restricting the rotation
die casting drop down handle bars
efficiency elastomer
energy fatigue failure ferrite
ferrous metal fillers
generic greenhouse gas
gyro headset
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hot worked
the application of heat to metal above its recrystallisation temperature resulting in plastic deformation vehicles powered by both a conventional petrol engine and an electric motor power generated by motor not considering frictional losses unit of work equal to a newton metre (1J = 1 Nm) the trade name of a tough, high performance aramid fibre often used as part of a composite material similar to glass reinforced polymer or blended with other fibres in fabric moving capacity of a body to do work by virtue of its motion a raised area on the surface of a cylindrically shaped component that provides a gripping area to hold when turning the component. It may be a straight knurl or a diamond knurl frictional force when body is on the point of sliding a symbol or sign used to represent a word, group of words, idea, instruction or a company name. The third angle projection logogram is used as a symbol to replace the written words a metal 35% lighter than aluminium
hybrid-electric indicated power joule kevlar
kinetic kinetic energy knurl
limiting friction logogram
magnesium
malleable CI
a cast iron that has been heat-treated to allow much of the carbon to precipitate into free rosettes the creation of nitrides in the surface of special alloy steels to provide a hard surface
nitriding
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normalising
heating and soaking of a material above its recrystallisation temperature then cooling in still air. This produces a refined grain structure the type of bicycle popular in the 1870s, remarkable for having a very large front wheel and a small rear wheel (penny farthing) A roof-mounted mechanism that is designed to contact the current-carrying conductors above To define or specify the parameters or variables in a system features in a vehicle that protect the users during an accident a combination of ferrite and cementite where the phases appear as alternating layers in the structure any mode of transport that allows the user a high degree of say in how, where and when it will be used a rubber tyre that is filled with air a material composed of long molecular chains that have a basic repeating pattern or structure capacity of a body to do work by virtue of its position or composition time rate of doing work in some alloys, the precipitation of a phase at room temperature leads to the distortion of the metal's structure and therefore an increase in hardness tests in which a product is subjected to typical loads, for example seat belt in an auto accident any of the modes of transport that are shared between many users
ordinaries
pantograph
parameterise passive safety features
pearlite
personal transport
pneumatic tyre polymer potential energy power precipitation hardening
proving tests
public transport
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quench hardened
rapid cooling from an elevated temperature can be performed with some alloys resulting in the material becoming very hard and brittle, tool steel is an example of this bicycle paths and footpaths built alongside railway corridors the testing of the blood alcohol level of a random selection of drivers using a device that the drivers blow into or speak into usually abbreviated to RBT application of low heat to allow some stress relief in cold worked metals a braking system possible on electric powered vehicles where the electric motor switches to become an electric generator whenever the brakes are applied the first bicycle with a modern style frame and a rear wheel driven by a chain and sprocket bicycles designed to improve the safety for the rider compared to riding a penny farthing a casting process which uses a 'single use' sand mould a process used to harden the surface while retaining a tough core in a component having the shape of a sphere
rail trails random breath testing
recovery regenerative braking system
rover safety
safety bicycles sand casting selective hardening spherical
spotface
the formation of a flat surface on a curved or rough surface to enable a bolt or nut to fit flush with that surface an alloy of iron, carbon, chromium and nickel, notable for its resistance to corrosion stationary, not moving capacity of a body to do work by virtue of its stored energy in a spring
stainless steel static strain energy
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supercapacitors symbol
very high capacity capacitors capable of storing a large electric charge for a short time a mark, character, letter or a combination of each which is used to indicate an object, idea or process heating of quench hardened steels to relieve some of the stresses and reduce brittleness a polymer that, once set, can be reformed under heat a polymer that once set under heat and pressure will not soften under future heating articles welded by the Tungsten Inert Gas method twisting moment; a force that acts to create twisting or turning effect all of the elements associated with getting goods and people from one place to another a race consisting of a run, a swim and a bicycle leg a wheel with a set of blades that is driven or made to turn by water, air, steam or gas electromagnetic radiation invisible to the human eye. Extremely powerful, producing sunburn and allowing vitamin D production in the skin unit of power equal to a joule per second (1W = 1J/s) a cast iron in which all of the carbon is included in the cementite phase product of force and displacement, consumes energy cold working of materials leading to a stressed internal structure and an increase in the hardness of the material
tempering thermosoftening
thermosetting
TIG welded torque transport system
triathlon turbine ultraviolet radiation
watt white cast iron work work hardening
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Directive terms
The list below explains key words you will encounter in assessment tasks and examination questions. account account for: state reasons for, report on; give an account of: narrate a series of events or transactions identify components and the relationship between them, draw out and relate implications use, utilise, employ in a particular situation make a judgement about the value of make a judgement of value, quality, outcomes, results or size ascertain/determine from given facts, figures or information make clear or plain arrange or include in classes/categories show how things are similar or different make, build, put together items or arguments show how things are different or opposite add a degree or level of accuracy depth, knowledge and understanding, logic, questioning, reflection and quality to (analysis/evaluation) draw conclusions state meaning and identify essential qualities show by example
analyse apply appreciate assess calculate clarify classify compare construct contrast critically (analyse/evaluate) deduce define demonstrate
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describe discuss distinguish evaluate examine explain extract extrapolate identify interpret investigate justify outline predict propose recall recommend recount summarise synthesise
provide characteristics and features identify issues and provide points for and/or against recognise or note/indicate as being distinct or different from; to note differences between make a judgement based on criteria; determine the value of inquire into relate cause and effect; make the relationships between things evident; provide why and/or how choose relevant and/or appropriate details infer from what is known recognise and name draw meaning from plan, inquire into and draw conclusions about support an argument or conclusion sketch in general terms; indicate the main features of suggest what may happen based on available information put forward (for example a point of view, idea, argument, suggestion) for consideration or action present remembered ideas, facts or experiences provide reasons in favour retell a series of events express, concisely, the relevant details putting together various elements to make a whole
Extract from The New Higher School Certificate Assessment Support Document, Board of Studies, NSW, 1999. Refer to <http://www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au> for original and current documents.
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Part 1: Transport systems developments
Part 1 contents
Introduction..........................................................................................2
What will you learn?................................................................... 2
Transport systems..............................................................................3
Personal transport ..................................................................... 3 Public transport ......................................................................... 5 Bicycles .................................................................................... 6 Social and environmental implications........................................18
Exercises ...........................................................................................33 Exercise cover sheet........................................................................47 Progress check .................................................................................49
Introduction
In this part of the module you will look at the elements that make up a transport system and the positive and negative influence different forms of transport have had on our society. The historical development of bicycles, a common form of personal transport, will be investigated to see how changes in design reflected the materials development of the time. Other forms of transport you may have the opportunity to study include motor cars, trucks, boats, buses, trains, trams and motor cycles.
What will you learn?

You will learn about: historical developments in transport systems effects of engineering innovation in transport on peoples lives construction and processing materials over time environmental effects of transport environmental implications from the use of materials in transport. investigate the history of technological change related to transport and its impact on society identify design features in the engineering of transport systems over time critically examine the impact of developments in transport systems on the environment and society.
You will learn to:
Extract from Stage 6 Engineering Studies Syllabus, Board of Studies, NSW, 1999. Refer to <http//ww.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au> for original and current documents.
Transport systems
A transport system includes all of the elements associated with getting people and goods from one place to another. Some transport systems are small in scale such as a system designed to move people around a zoo or an amusement park. Other transport systems enable you to travel all the way round the world. For a transport system to be effective, the designers of the system need to know how the different elements relate to each other. Developing a successful transport system is a very complex task because: many people are involved in the designing and controlling of small parts of the overall system making coordination difficult many of the users of the system have conflicting priorities. For some low cost is a priority, for others it is the convenience of being able to use their own personal transport while some may prefer the environmental benefits offered by the increased use of public transport transport systems require a lot of supporting infrastructure such as roads, bicycle paths, train stations and so on. The cities and towns with the best transport systems are usually those that have had a long term plan that made allowances for the construction of past, present and future infrastructure in a coordinated manner.
Mention has been made of personal transport and public transport systems so what are the differences?
Personal transport
Personal transport is any mode of transport that allows the user a high degree of say in how, where and when it will be used. Bicycles, motorbikes, motor cars and trucks are common examples of personal transport. The rich and famous may also include aeroplanes as personal transport.
Advantages of personal transport: available on demand greater convenience greater prestige greater levels of personal comfort and security may be used for sport, fitness, and pleasure.
Figure 1.1 Motor cars are a common form of personal transport
Disadvantages of personal transport: owner responsible for running costs some costs apply whether you use the vehicle or not for example registration, maintenance, insurance and the like may involve a high start up cost depending on the vehicle for most vehicles the driver requires special training and licensing strict laws apply to the use of most vehicles greater chance of accident causing death or injury greater impact on air pollution due to under-utilisation of private vehicles. The average occupancy rate for cars on Sydney roads is less than one and a half people per car.
Public transport
Public transport is transport that is shared between many users. Trains, buses, ferries, trams and planes are examples of public transport. The commuter pays a fare to use public transport with the route taken and the timetable pre-determined. Public transport is often subsidised by the government because many forms of public transport do not run at a profit. As a society we accept this because of all the other benefits that public transport systems provide. Advantages of public transport: you only pay when you use it cost of fares reduced due to government subsidies no special training or licence required can be used by those that may not be able to operate personal transport for example the young, the old, the disabled less chance of an accident the driver is responsible for adhering to speed limits less air pollution generated due to reduced traffic on roads parking and garaging not a problem.
Disadvantages of public transport: little control over the route taken or the timetable not available in all areas waiting time and time spent travelling to and from drop off points may be considerable taxpayers money used to subsidise running costs very high initial capital costs to be paid for by the community comfort and feeling of personal security may not be as high as when using personal transport.
If you were asked to develop a transport system for your area what sort of things would you consider? who would have priority on the road - cars, buses, bicycles, trucks? could you keep everyone happy? would your plan favour public transport? would it be a user pays system or would you expect others to subsidise the costs of the system?
Some other issues you may not have thought of include: who is going to use the system? where do they want to go and when? are there likely to be peak periods or can demand on the transport system be evened out? what are the public transport options? can you link the varying forms of transport that is can a traveller swap easily from their own car to public transport or from one form of public transport to another? what will be the transport needs in the near and long term future? will environmentally friendly options be more costly? what will be the long term cost if the environment is not looked after?
Bicycles
The bicycle is an inexpensive, highly efficient, environmentally friendly form of transport. They take up less than one-tenth of the space required by a car, cause very little damage to the road surface and in congested conditions they are quicker than other modes of transport. They are enjoyable to ride and may be used for sport and recreation. There are nearly 2 million bicycles in NSW with about 160 000 students riding to school, college or university each day. The following information investigates the historical development of the bicycle. A few questions to consider are: why arent you riding around on the same sort of bicycles that your older relatives used in the past? what is different about the bicycles you ride now compared to those ridden thirty, fifty, maybe even a hundred years ago? what brought about the changes? you need to ask yourself was the change due to the development of a new and improved material, a different manufacturing method or an innovative approach to an old problem?
Historical development of bicycles

With bicycles as with many other machines with a long history, the use of timber preceded the use of iron and steels. Light metals followed before the introduction of composite materials just as found materials preceded man made materials. You will notice that as you move from one era to another the strength of the material increases. This means designers could do things they couldnt do before or they could construct components with less material thus saving weight. In many cases what was lacking in early bicycle designs was not imagination and ingenuity but simply the right materials for the job.
1791 just the beginning

Bicycles had their origins just over 200 years ago starting in 1791 with the appearance of a wooden two-wheeled toy developed by the Count de Sivrac. It is difficult to say that this was the first bicycle but it did have two wheels and you could sit on it and push yourself along but it was never really a serious form of personal transport. For starters you couldnt steer it, there were no brakes and sitting on its wooden frame was very uncomfortable. After a brief burst of interest the novelty of the Counts toy quickly wore off.
Figure 1.2 The Count de Sivracs two wheeled toy
1817 steering is added

The Count de Sivracs idea was revived by a German baron, Karl von Drais when in 1817 he developed the draisienne walking machine. The main improvement was that the draisienne now had a steerable front wheel. The draisienne and variations to the basic design were also know as the Hobby Horse and the Dandy Horse, the latter in reference to the rich young men or dandies with whom the draisienne was most popular.
Figure 1.3 The Draisienne made by the Baron von Drais
The frame of the draisienne was still principally timber with wrought iron forks. The wheels were now rimmed with wrought iron to improve their strength and abrasion resistance. For added comfort the machine had a padded section on the frame to sit on and an armrest. The draisienne also proved to be a passing fad with the cobbled roads of the time proving too uncomfortable to ride on.
1840 pedal power

The first person to give the bicycle pedal power was a Scotsman named Kirkpatrick Macmillan. In 1840 he added treadles to the rear wheel of his hobbyhorse. They were operated by rods connected to foot stirrups. To propel the bicycle the foot stirrups where pushed backwards and forwards. Macmillans machine was no more comfortable than earlier draisiennes and the reciprocating pedalling motion was tiring, inefficient and hindered steering. Not surprisingly Macmillans ideas did not catch on.
Figure 1.4 The first pedal powered bicycle
1861 the first true bicycle?

About twenty years after Macmillan another attempt was made to give the bicycle pedal power. In 1861 cranks were fitted to the front wheel by Ernest and Pierre Michaux in much the same manner as is found on a modern tricycle used by a small child. The Michaux brothers called their machine a velocipede. The velocipede had a wrought iron frame with some cast iron fittings and timber wheels with metal rims. Despite a seat mounted on a metal frame designed to flex when going over bumps the nickname for this velocipede was the boneshaker.
Figure 1.5 The velocipede
With increased speed comes the need to slow down safely so a rope operated rear brake was fitted. The velocipede was an immediate success and heralded the start of the bicycle industry. The bicycle now had the potential to become a serious form of personal transport. By 1869 improvements to the original design included increasing the size of the front wheel a little and fitting solid rubber tyres to give a better ride than previous iron rimmed wheels. An important innovation of this time was the development of ball-bearing hubs to reduce rolling friction.
1870 now to go faster

It didnt take long for bicycle manufacturers to realise that the velocipede would go faster if it had an even larger front wheel. One rotation of the pedals would push the bicycle further. By 1870 the front wheel had grown to a maximum determined by the leg length of the riders. The rear wheel got smaller so that the overall length of the bicycle remained manageable. These bicycles were called ordinaries because compared to a number of other variations that were around during the same period they were the ordinary type of bicycle for the time. The nickname penny farthing was based on the wheel size of the ordinaries. A penny was about the size of a fifty-cent piece and a farthing was about the size of a five-cent piece.
Figure 1.6 The ordinary or penny-farthing bicycle
Riding an ordinary required skill and bravery. The rider sat nearly two metres above the ground and almost directly above the centre of gravity. The ordinary was very difficult to climb on board as the rider tried to get going and stopping meant a large drop to the ground. The ordinary had modern style scissor brakes but using them often sent the rider flying over the handlebars, as did hitting a rock or a pothole. However, the larger front wheel of the penny-farthing had another significant benefit. Combined with thin wrought iron spokes and a solid rubber tyre it absorbed a lot more shock than the old boneshaker. With ongoing development such as the introduction of hollow wrought iron forks in 1872 the ordinary remained top of the bicycle tree for just over a decade. Many designs tried to improve the rideability of the ordinary but in doing so the design often became too complex. This increased the price and reduced the reliability of the bicycle. The new designs were called safety bicycles. The American Star, looked like a penny-farthing being ridden backwards. With the small wheel at the front the rider was less likely to be thrown forwards. Most safety designs at this time simply couldnt match the ordinary for speed. For many young men of the late 1800s going fast was more important than being safe. Considering the modern fatality rates of young male road users it appears little has changed in the past one hundred and twenty years.
1884 the birth of the modern bicycle

The end for the high-wheel bicycles was in sight in 1884 when John Starley produced the Rover Safety. The rover safety is considered the first modern bicycle because it had many of the features still seen on bicycles today. Both wheels were the same size, it had a steerable front wheel, but most importantly the rear wheel was driven by pedals linked
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to the rear wheel by a chain and sprocket. By having a large front sprocket and a small rear sprocket a velocity ratio similar to that of the high-wheeled bicycles was achieved. In other words it could go as fast as a penny-farthing, was easier to start and dismount and was much safer to ride. The chain and sprocket system was made possible by the emerging steel technology that enabled small parts of high strength to be manufactured. The lower centre of gravity of the safety meant that the brakes could now be applied more effectively. In many races between penny-farthings and the rover safety it was the greater control and the ability to slow down when required, more than outright top speed, that won the day for the rover. Early riders of the rover safety complained about the harsh ride compared to the high-wheel bicycles remember that large front wheel was very good at absorbing shock. The solution for this came in 1888 when a Scottish doctor, John Dunlop re-invented the pneumatic tyre. A W Thompson had actually developed the idea in 1843 but his idea was never applied. The original rover safety bicycle had a curved frame that quickly evolved into the traditional double diamond shape that is still the standard frame shape today.
Figure 1.7 A Humber safety bicycle from 1890
With the bicycle becoming a serious form of transport with wide appeal across the community greater effort was made to make it even safer, more comfortable and more efficient. This lead to improvements such as the introduction of Bowden cables to operate the brakes, increased use of hollow steel tube throughout the frame and other improvements such as adjustable padded sprung seats, mud guards, lights for night time riding, rubber pedals and bicycles in a range of sizes. By 1895 a simple derailleur gear system was patented. This allowed the rider to peddle at the same cadence or peddling speed irrespective of the road or trail conditions or the speed of the bicycle.
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1900 to 1950 a period of decline

The increased development of the motor car and the aeroplane through the 1900s saw a steady decline in support for the bicycle. Many companies originally set up to design and manufacture bicycles went on to become major players in the development of other more profitable forms of transport. Henry Ford and the Wright Brothers are just three well-known identities that started their manufacturing careers building bicycles. With less money being spent on research and development the first half of the 1900s produced only a gradual refinement of the standard bicycle design. Sport was the one area that continued to provide an avenue for the modification and improvement of the bicycle design. Materials and special features that proved themselves in the sporting arena became standard features in the following years. Sport continues to be the proving ground for many new materials and designs. Even so the bicycles of 1950 looked very similar to those of fifty years earlier. New materials such as light aluminium alloys were available at this time but the cost restricted their use to only serious racing bikes. Drop down handle bars, another legacy from racing, was one development that did find its way into common bicycle design. The handle bars placed the rider into a crouch position reducing wind resistance and making more efficient use of both the arm and leg muscles. The modern bicycle in figure 1.8 still retains most of the features and appearance of a bicycle produced in the 1950s.
Figure 1.8 A modern road bicycle
1970 BMX bicycles

The 1970s saw the introduction of small, squat BMX bicycles with their beefed up frames and tyres. Originally designed to imitate moto-cross motor cycles they have evolved into a number of variations that are used
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for tricks riding and freestyle competitions. Due to the nature of the dirt tracks, ramps and bowls in which they are ridden BMX bikes have a very low gear ratio with many having no gear system at all.
Figure 1.9 A freestyle BMX bicycle
The bicycle in figure 1.9 features: a chrome molybdenum frame a gyro headset braking system that allows the handlebars to be rotated 360 without having to worry about the brake cables restricting the rotation front and rear foot pegs for trick riding ABS spokes and rims slick tyres to reduce rolling resistance.
Frames for BMX bicycles are most commonly either the traditional double diamond design but using very low angles as can be seen in Figure 1.9 or a solid box frame made from an aluminium alloy as seen in Figure 1.10.
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Figure 1.10 A BMX bicycle with a box aluminium frame
Their low gear ratio, small low frames and an off the seat riding style make them unsuitable for fast, long distance journeys. BMX bikes and their variations are usually considered kids bicycles restricting their popularity amongst older riders.
1980 mountain bikes

The BMX boom in the late 1970s also produced an important offshoot the mountain bike. The mountain bike was developed in California as a bicycle that could be ridden by adults along dirt trails. To eliminate the shortcomings of the BMX, fat tyres and straight handlebars were originally fitted to traditional road bicycles. In many cases even today that is still the only difference between some so-called mountain bikes and their road-touring relatives.
Figure 1.11 A mountain bike suitable for a young teenager
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As components failed under the increased stress the early mountain bikes were modified by making the components thicker and heavier. The early mountain bikes weighed in at about 20 kilograms. The weight of a modern mountain bike has been trimmed to about 12 kilograms by finding lighter and stronger materials. As with the earlier BMX bikes some versions of mountain bikes have borrowed their look and components from motorbikes. The small mountain bike in figure 1.11 has: dual front shock absorbers a rear centre sprung frame knobbly tyres for better grip on dirt tracks a TIG welded, high tensile steel frame.
Top line mountain bikes may use a frame made from a carbon fibre tube with aluminium alloy stays. The tubes are joined using cast aluminium lugs and an aircraft adhesive. The wheels incorporate aluminium alloy rims, stainless steel spokes and kevlar reinforced tyres. Hydraulic shock absorbers and disc brakes are also available.
Figure 1.12 Hydraulic filled front shock absorbers
Along with designing their bicycles to absorb shock, mountain bike manufacturers have spent a lot of attention on the gearing system of their bicycles. Derailleur gears are standard now with the number of gear ratios available ranging from between five and thirty. This has given riders the ability to negotiate extremely varied terrain such as steep hills using very low gears through to high-speed travel using the high gear ratios when conditions are more favourable. With shock absorbing suspension, fat tyres, well padded seats and an upright riding position the standard mountain bike has proved a popular, comfortable and versatile touring bicycle with riders of all ages. It is estimated that 80 % of all bicycles now sold in Australia are mountain bikes.
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A measure of the spectacular rise in popularity of mountain bikes is that mountain bike races were introduced into the 1996 Atlanta Olympics only fifteen years after the first mass produced mountain bikes were offered for sale. Turn to the exercise section and complete exercise 1.1.
2000 the latest designs

A feature of the bicycle industry at the moment is the wide range of designs and the variety of materials used. A quick glance at a bicycle shop will illustrate the way bicycles are being used for more specific purposes nowadays. The bicycle an athlete would use in a triathlon on the road is different from the touring bicycle a road racer will use and very different to the bicycles the everyday rider will purchase. One team in the 1999 Tour de France used a specially prepared road bicycle for the hill climbing stages that weighed just 6.5 kilograms. This was almost a disposable bicycle, being unsuitable for the other stages of the race. A standard road bicycle would weigh about 9 to 10 kilograms.
Figure 1.13 The front wheel and forks of a modern road bicycle
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Bicycles may range in price from a couple of hundred dollars to many thousands. Aluminium alloys, chrome-molybdenum alloys, lightweight magnesium and composite materials such as carbon fibre are all frame materials once considered too exotic and certainly too expensive for the average bicycle. The bicycle in figure 1.13 features tear drop forks and front tube for improved strength and reduced wind-resistance. The increased strength of the materials used has also allowed traditional ladies framed bicycles to be more functional than they have been in the past. This frame style is popular amongst older riders of both genders because it is easier to mount and dismount.
Figure 1.14 Ladies framed mountain bike
The range of accessories and the variations available in all components allows the modern bicycle owner to adapt their bicycle to suit their cycling needs and preferences as well as their budget.
Figure 1.15 Disc brakes for a bicycle
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The future for bicycles

The future for the bicycle lies in how well it can continue to contribute to the areas of sport, recreation and transport. New forms of sport will provide the incentive to experiment with new materials and new designs just as triathlons and mountain bike races have over the past twenty years. Do you think lightweight one-piece carbon fibre frames, as used in track time trials now, will become the common frame design for all bicycles? Will we see bicycles with automatic gearing systems? Will new uses be found for the bicycles currently available? It is difficult to image in that riding a bicycle will cease to be a pleasurable past time for people of all ages. With renewed community emphasis on the environment and a healthier lifestyle the influence of the bicycle in an integrated transport system may well increase.
Social and environmental implications

Mobility of the population
Young people tend to have this idea that everyone in the olden days rode around like cowboys on horses. In fact in urban areas of Britain, Europe, America and Australia until the latter parts of the 19th and the early parts of the 20th century the main mode of everyday transport was to walk. Longer journeys were possible in developed countries by catching a train or sailing ship but this was not an everyday event and was out of the price range for many people. This obviously limited the mobility of the population and their opportunity to meet others and share ideas. Most people lived, were educated, worked and socialised in a fairly local area. With the introduction of an efficient affordable bicycle at the start of the 20th century the world of many people was suddenly expanded and a period of unprecedented social change took place especially amongst the under-privileged. Even though the automobile has become increasingly more affordable over the past one hundred years the bicycle has remained a significant means of transport for many people in many countries and communities. Find out which countries have the highest rate of bicycle usage.
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Outline why some countries encourage the use of the bicycle over other forms of transport. __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________
Did you answer? General population cant afford cars. Government lacks funds to construct modern highway and road network. Population densities very high. Roads already gridlocked. Terrain flat and distances to be covered fairly short. Environment impact low
The past century has seen a number of other changes to the modes of transport use. The declining use of ships in moving people long distances such as from country to country and the subsequent rise in the popularity of air travel is an example of one mode of transport superseding another. The obvious reasons for this shift from sea to air travel were the reduction in the price of air travel in real terms and the greatly reduced travelling times. People today still use sailing ships of all types but mainly in a recreational sense. That is for some it is a pleasurable way to travel. It is interesting to note that modern cargo ships are our largest transport vehicles and they still play a major role in moving a whole range of goods over long distances since the time of the journey is less of a factor in these situations.
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Figure 1.16 Sailing for pleasure T. Brown
The chance for inter-state and even international travel is now a real possibility for a wider cross-section of the community. Ask an older relative or friend about their holidays when they were a child. Where did they go and how did they get there? How often did they leave their local area? Did they regularly travel interstate or overseas? You may not have travelled far afield just yet but if you wanted to it would be easier for you to travel than it was for your parents. The ease with which people can travel internationally raises serious quarantine issues. Being an island nation with a large coastline can be a hindrance in Australias efforts to keep out undesirable animals, plants, diseases, drugs and criminals.
Safety issues
In travelling from one spot to another there is always some danger involved. The level of danger varies with the mode of transport used. In general terms public transport is statistically a safer option than most modes of personal transport yet most people feel safer in their own vehicle. You will now examine some of the safety issues associated with some common modes of transport.
Bicycles
Being a popular form of transport and recreation for young children, bicycles pose a special safety problem. Young riders have limited experience in handling their machine and lack awareness of the dangers involved especially those posed by other road users. A recent initiative
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has seen the law changed to allow riders younger than twelve years of age the right to ride on the footpath away from the traffic. Riding in the city involves competing for space with a lot of cars. Riding on country roads may mean less traffic but the speed of passing cars and trucks will be higher. Country roads are also more likely to have gravel shoulders forcing the rider to choose between a bumpy ride away from the traffic or a smoother ride on the bitumen closer to the centre of the road. Some people are fortunate to live in an area with a well-developed bicycle path network allowing them to ride in safety. The safety features of a bicycle are limited but the compulsory wearing of crash helmets provides some protection for the cyclist.
Figure 1.17 Bicycle helmets come a range of styles and colours
In Sydney there has been a move to develop a network of bicycle paths along the current railway corridors. These rail trails will provide good separation of cyclists from other traffic along paths with few steep hills to negotiate.
Motor cars
In the middle to late 1800s when steam powered vehicles were first appearing on European and American roads there was significant objection to this new machine. Many thought the increased speeds would be dangerous to the health of the drivers and the noise produced was likely to scare horses and pedestrians. In England the Red Flag Act restricted the speed of a motorised vehicle to 6 kilometres per hour. This law remained in force for thirty-one years even after petrol superseded steam power. Has the motor car become too dangerous to use?
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Look at the following graph of the national road toll. You will notice there was a steady increase in the road toll up until 1970. That year 3 798 people were killed on Australian roads. At this time there were approximately 8 fatalities per 10 000 vehicles on the road.
3800 3500 3200 2900 2600 2300 2000 1700
64 68 66 76 86 70 80 90 84 94 96 74 78 88 72 82 92 98
Fatalities
Figure 1.18 Australian road fatalities 1964 to 1999 Source: Australian Transport Society Bureau <www.atsb.gov.au>
You will notice there was an even larger reduction in the road toll following the introduction of random breath testing (RBT), firstly in Victoria in 1978 and then in NSW in 1982. By 1999 the national road toll had reduced to 1 759 fatalities at a rate of 1.5 fatalities per 10 000 motor vehicles. All manufacturers will highlight the active safety features and passive safety features of their products. Active safety features are those that help prevent an accident in the first place. Constant four-wheel drive, ABS braking systems, the general car dynamics of handling and braking are all examples of active safety features. Passive safety features are those that help protect the occupants of a vehicle in the event of a crash. Seat belts, air bags, shock absorbing panels, collapsible steering columns and pedals designed to break away, side impact intrusion bars are examples of passive safety features. Turn to the exercise section and complete exercise 1.2.
Motor cycles
Motor cycles have the potential to be one of the great forms of personal transport. They are inexpensive, they take up little space on the road and have very good fuel economy. Why dont more people ride motor cycles?
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In some countries they do, however there are many factors to consider. You are not protected from the weather. It requires more physical effort to ride a motor cycle than to drive a car. Carrying a passenger greatly changes the dynamics of the motor cycle. It is difficult to communicate with your passenger or to carry large sized objects. Of greatest concern are the safety issues as motor cycles do not possess many passive safety features to protect the rider in the event of a crash. Some motor cycle manufacturers and potential customers appear to be obsessed with high performance. The current record for the top speed of a road registered production bike is 311 kilometres per hour, about three times the legal limit on most Australian highways. There have been some concessions granted recently with all manufacturers agreeing to limit the top speed of their bikes to a mere 250 kilometres per hour starting from 2001.
Figure 1.19 A road ready 250cc motor cycle
Motor cycles are popular with young adults but because of their high performance, licensing laws restrict inexperienced riders to motor cycles with an engine size of 250 cc or less.
Trains
Trains play a particular role in reducing the national road toll. If you have ever had the opportunity to watch a long freight train hauling wheat, coal or maybe just containers you will appreciate how many large trucks would be required to haul the same amount of cargo. Trains get a large number of trucks off the road. Of course the disadvantage of trains is that they can only go where the tracks have been laid and in most cases trucks will still be necessary at either end of the train journey.
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Aeroplanes
When you take into account the number of people travelling and the distances involved, flying is one of the safest ways to travel. Why is flying rated a more stressful mode of travelling than the statistically more dangerous option of travelling by car? It is not an everyday experience for most people. There is still the feeling that it is unnatural for us to fly. When a passenger flight crashes it often leads to large numbers of deaths, which receives wide media coverage across the world. It concerns us that if we crash it wouldnt be a sudden thing we would possibly have a couple of minutes to pass before the inevitable crash.
Figure 1.20 Aeroplanes are a fast and safe way to travel long distances Tom Brown
Our major airline, QANTAS, prides itself on its safety record. To maintain its excellent safety record a significant proportion of its budget goes towards preventative maintenance.
Air pollution
All forms of transport create some air pollution if you take into account the total life cycle of the vehicle. Some like the bicycle produce little to no pollution in use but some is created during the manufacturing stage. Other forms of transport create air pollution due to factors such as, the inefficiencies in the motor, the way they are used and the types of fuels involved.
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Motor cars
Carbon dioxide produced by a cars engine is a major contributor to smog levels and global warming. Each litre of petrol a car uses releases about 2.5 kilograms of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. The weight and size of vehicle, a large engine, automatic transmission and air conditioning are all features that incur a fuel consumption penalty. Adding to the problem is the dramatic increase in pollutants produced in the stop start traffic experienced during peak times on our city roads. New freeways are promoted for their environmental benefits by reducing stop-start travelling along with a saving in travelling times. A common problem however is that new freeways encourage more people onto the roads which increases the amount of pollution produced. The amount of traffic on the Sydney Harbour Bridge is now at the same level it was before the Harbour Tunnel was opened in 1992. Instead of building more roads it may be argued that greater emphasis should be placed on public transport options to get more cars off the roads. The catch is that if more people used public transport there would be less traffic on the roads, which would encourage more people to use their cars to take advantage of the reduced traffic levels. This is known as the public transport conundrum. Some ways to encourage the increased use of public transport that have been suggested include: make petrol very expensive through increased government taxation and use the money raised to subsidise public transport link the registration fee of vehicles to the amount of pollutants they produce increase the number of bus only lanes or transit lanes on all roads. reduce the amount of parking available in city areas charge a toll to use all major roads in the city restrict the days owners can use their cars.
You will notice that most of the alternatives involve the government taking unpopular action with the aim of improving the environment. Will governments risk not being re-elected in the name of improving the quality of the air and how much are we as a society willing to contribute financially and in the form of inconvenience?
Electric trains and light rail

Electric vehicles of all sorts are seen by some as a solution to many of our air pollution worries. It is not true to say that electric vehicles such
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as trains and light rail trams dont create any air pollution, the pollution has already been created back at the power stations. Solar powered vehicles are an exception. However, solar power is still not yet considered a serious form of power for transport applications.
Figure 1.21 A modern suburban electric train
Trains are very good at moving large numbers of people quickly. Sydney Olympic station has been designed to move 50 000 people per hour with trains leaving the station every three minutes. Approximately 12 500 cars each hour would be needed to move the same number of people. A major factor in the high energy efficiency of electric trains and light rail systems is the smooth, predominantly straight and level nature of the tracks they operate on. This reduces the energy required to overcome friction and means large volumes of freight can be moved using small amounts of energy. An important advantage of electric trains and in fact all electric vehicles is the possibility to include a regenerative braking system in the vehicle. All vehicles lose energy when the brakes are applied as kinetic energy is converted to other forms of energy, usually heat. When the brakes are applied on a train fitted with a regenerative braking system the electric motor switches to become an electric generator. The electricity produced can be used to power other systems on the train such as the lighting or air-conditioning, it may be stored in batteries or capacitors for later use or it may be fed back into the overhead wires to be used by other trains on the same line.
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A variation to the full-scale train system is the use of light rail trams. Trams have had a long history of usage in cities such as Melbourne. Light rail systems are best suited to city areas of high population density where it would be impractical or too costly to build the infrastructure needed for a full-scale rail line. The tracks required can be set into the roadway allowing light rail trams to use the existing road network. Likewise cars, bicycles and pedestrians can use the tramways when not in use by the trams. Features of the current breed of light rail include: they can carry about 200 passengers approximately two and a half times the capacity of a typical bus they have a very low floor height making them accessible for parents with prams and small children, shoppers with trolleys, the elderly and less mobile they can negotiated the tight turns and steep gradients often found on existing roadways.
A new light rail network was opened in 1997 in the inner-city suburbs of Sydney as part of an urban renewal plan for the area. With segregated tracks and priority at traffic signals there are no hold-ups in traffic jams making the light rail trams fast and reliable. In the less-populated areas of western Sydney buses running on dedicated bus-only lanes are seen as a cheaper, more flexible public transport option.
Figure 1.22 Bus only transitway, incorporating a cycleway, linking the Sydney suburbs of Parramatta and Liverpool Road and Traffic Authority, 1999, p6
Turn to the exercise section and complete exercise 1.3.
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Hybrid-electric motor cars

Purely electric motor cars have not been the commercial success many had predicated, or at least hoped, they would be. The designs till now have suffered from a range of weaknesses such as: lack of performance small range between charging batteries taking up too much space and weighing too much extremely high cost compared to conventional petrol vehicles.
A recent break-through has been the development of new low cost, high capacity lead-acid batteries. Currently, vehicles using the nickel-hydride batteries weigh about 500 kilograms and could cost as much as $30 000. The latest generation of lead acid batteries weigh 100 kilograms and can be installed for about $3 000. Even so the time of the purely electric vehicle still appears to be some way in the distance. Many motor car manufacturers are currently developing hybrid-electric cars. Hybrid-electric cars make use of both an electric motor and a small conventional engine. The conventional engine is employed only in times of high-energy drain on the electric motor such as during fast acceleration. At other times it either switches off completely or is used to charge the batteries of the car. Supercapacitors are used to temporarily store unused electricity and electricity created through regenerative braking. The supercapacitors can deliver the stored charge back to the electric engine when needed. A family sized car using current hybrid-electric technology will use 50% less fuel and so produce 50% less pollutants than its conventional counterpart with the same level of performance. Turn to the exercise section and complete exercise 1.4.
Noise pollution
Like air pollution all forms of transport produce some level of noise ranging from the very minor levels associated with a bicycle to the potentially health damaging levels produced by a large jet aeroplane. What measures have been taken to reduce the effects of noise pollution?
Alternatives that can reduce the impact of noise pollution include: choosing quieter alternatives where possible such as using electric vehicles instead of petrol driven ones
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reducing the noise at the source through the use of mufflers and sound absorbing materials close to the engine or building sound barriers along major roads isolating the transport system such as restricting the building of houses close to airports restrict the hours of use to a time that is less intrusive for those affected.
In 1995 the federal government took the dramatic step of paying to sound insulate the homes and schools closest to Sydney airport after a third runway was built in preference to building a second Sydney airport. This fixed some of the problems but for the sound insulation to be effective all doors and windows in the buildings have to be kept closed a situation that is less than ideal for the people inside. This remedy also does nothing for the residents and students once they are outside in the open. Turn to the exercise section and complete exercise 1.5.
Should rural commuters be forced to use less polluting forms of transport if cleaner alternatives are more expensive? Should parking meters, like those in cities, be introduced across the state to raise revenue for transport alternatives? Questions relating to equity of access to varing modes of transport are difficult to answer.
Equity issues
In 1989 the Sydney to Broken Hill and Sydney to Griffith train services were scrapped and replaced by a bus service. The service was re-instated in 1996 amongst much fanfare but unfortunately in April 2000 the services were again halted; this time because the engines and carriages used were considered to be in need of urgent repair and funds were not available to replace them. This situation has been repeated a number of times across NSW. Reduction of services in the country is in response to economic rationalisation or the user pays system. That is, it is too costly to maintain the services and too few people use the system. Despite its many advantages, rail transport is considered to be too inflexible and costly whereas buses and trucks are more versatile and cheaper. To the people in the country the reduction in rail services is very symbolic. The cancelling of services is often seen as a case of the city based governments turning their backs on rural Australia. This leaves the people in the country with a feeling that they have been isolated and
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abandoned. To the people in the city there is a feeling that they are being used as a cash cow to prop up the transport systems in the country.
Other issues
Issues additional to the social and environment issues include: the resumption of homes and land for the construction of supporting transport infra-structure the building of new freeways, bridges, tunnels and so on through sensitive bushland the environmentally responsible disposal of motor car bodies and components such as tyres and batteries.
Given the size of Australia and the distribution of the population it is difficult, in the short term at least, to imagine Australians abandoning their cars to take up other forms of personal and public transport. Any shift in transportation behaviour will be a gradual process requiring government support or incentives. The long-term future is less certain. Many people a century ago would have laughed at the prospect of air travel let alone think that it would one day be a common mode of transport for those travelling long distances. Remember it was less than 70 years after the Wright Brothers that Neil Armstrong walked on the moon. Who is to say that space travel wont be a common journey sometime during this century? Turn to the exercise section and complete exercise 1.6.
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Time line of personal and public transport

1791 1817 1840 Count de Sivrac manufactured a two-wheeled toy. Karl von Drais developed the steerable Draisienne. Kirkpatrick Macmillan developed a two wheel pedal powered vehicle. Ernest and Pierre Michaux developed the velocipede. The Red Flag Act restricted the use and speed of steam powered vehicles to 6 km/h. Roller bearing used on the velocipede. High wheel bicycles became the ordinary style for the period. First hollow tube frame was used on a bicycle. Joseph Lucas started manufacturing cycle lamps. John Starley produced the Rover Safety the first modern bicycle. Karl Benz lodged the patent for his petrol powered Motorwagen. Bowden cables were used to operate the brakes on both cars and bicycles. J B Dunlop introduced the pneumatic tyre for bicycles. Derailleur gear system for bicycles was patented. The British Red Flag Act is repealed and the speed limit raised to 20 km/h. The first car to exceed 100 km/h was an electric car driven by Camille Jenatzy. Sturmey and Archer gears developed. Britain introduces a licensing system for motor car drivers. Wilbur and Orville Wright make first successful powered flight at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, USA. Louis Rigolly exceeds 160 km/h in a motor car. H. Piper filed for a patent on a hybrid electric, petrol engine. Charles Rolls and Frederick Royce started Rolls-Royce Ltd. Henry Ford sold his first Model T Ford for $850. The first car offering a four wheel braking system was constructed. 1982 1973 1935 1919 1922 1925 1934 1934 1914 Production line introduced cutting construction time for the Model T Ford from several days to twelve hours. The first set of traffic lights were installed in Detroit, USA. QANTAS maked first commercial flight. A Model T Ford could be bought for $260. Citroen pioneer front wheel drive and automatic transmission. Adolf Hitler commissions Dr Ferdinand Porsche to develop a peoples car the Volkswagen Beetle. First commercial flight overseas from Australia. (Darwin to Singapore). Disc brakes fitted to an Indianapolis race car. First regular commercial flight from Australia to the UK. General Motors Holden produce their first Australian designed and manufactured car. Citroen fits disc brake to its DS19 model passenger car. The first Morris Mini constructed. Aluminium alloys used in frames of bicycles. Apollo 11 landed on the moon. Wearing of seat belts was made compulsory in all motor cars in Victoria. Australia became the first country to make the wearing of seatbelts compulsory nation-wide. Middle East oil embargo increased the price of petrol dramatically. Bicycles, alternative fuel vehicles and fuel efficient motors gain wider support. NSW followed Victorias lead in introducing Random Breath Testing (RBT). Mountain bike races held at the Olympics for the first time. Light rail network in inner-city Sydney opened. Model T Ford named Car of the Century.
1861 1865
1868 1870 1872 1879 1884 1886 1890
1938 1947 1948
1955 1959 1960 1969 1970
1890 1895 1896
1899
1970s BMX bikes first appeared. 1972
1901 1903 1903
1904 1905 1906 1909 1909
1996 1997 2000
Figure 1.23 Timeline of major transport events
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Can you add at least three more important events to this timeline? Think about the development of trains, trams or solar cars. Turn to the exercise section and complete exercise 1.7.
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Exercises
Exercise 1.1 Describe how performance, comfort and/or safety was improved in the following five bicycles compared to earlier designs. List the materials used in the construction of the frame and the wheels. a
Figure 1.24 The Draisienne developed by Baron von Drais 1817
Improvements ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ Materials used ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________
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Figure 1.25 The velocipede developed by Ernest and Pierre Michaux 1861\
Improvements __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ Materials used __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________
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Figure 1.26 The ordinary or penny-farthing bicycle 1870
Improvements ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ Materials used ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________
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Figure 1.27 The Humber safety bicycle 1890
Improvements __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ Materials used __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________
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Figure 1.28 A mountain bike 2000 Avanti, 2000, p8
Improvements ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ Materials used ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________
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Exercise 1.2 Despite improvements in engine efficiency, safety features and comfort levels a modern family car today is comparatively cheaper to purchase brand new than a family car purchased in 1970. Talk to an older person about the equipment levels and safety features in a car from the early 1970s. a List four standard features found in a modern family car that were not commonly available in the early 1970s. Divide the list into two comfort features and two safety features. i Comfort features ________________________________________________ ________________________________________________ ________________________________________________ ________________________________________________ ii Safety features ________________________________________________ ________________________________________________ ________________________________________________ ________________________________________________ b Explain how four of the safety features listed have improve driver and passenger safety. i ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________
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ii
___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________
iii
___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________
iv
___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________
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Exercise 1.3 A light rail tram network is operating in inner city Sydney. a Explain why this is an appropriate transport option for this location but may not be a satisfactory solution to the transport needs of other urban and rural locations. _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ b List four advantages light rail systems have over other forms of public transport. i ii iii iv ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________
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Exercise 1.4 Select the alternative a, b, c or d that best completes the statement. Circle the letter 1 In materials development through time: a b c d 2 found materials preceded manufactured materials heavy metals preceded light-weight metals light-weight metals preceded man made composites all of the above.
The velocipede was an improvement over earlier bicycle designs because: a b c d it was steerable it could be pedalled efficiently it was the first bicycle with pedals it was more comfortable.
The velocipede was superseded because: a b c d it had poor brakes it was too heavy it was too slow it was too uncomfortable.
Mountain bikes are the most popular form of bicycle currently sold in Australia because: a b c d they are comfortable and versatile they can be ridden on dirt tracks they are inexpensive but strong they can go fast.
Carbon fibre is increasingly being used for bicycle frames because: a b c d it is very flexible it is inexpensive it has a high strength to weight ratio it can be tinted a range of colours.
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The major cause of accidents involving bicycles is: a b c d the lack of helmets worn by the riders the inexperience of the typical bicycle rider motor car drivers not wanting to share the road the lack of bike paths for the riders to use.
The road fatality rate in Australia has declined since 1982 because: a b c d cars are safer now and the community is more aware of unsafe driving practices there are less cars on the roads now more people are using public transport modern cars contain more passive safety features.
Motor cycle riders have a high fatality rate because: a b c d motor cycles have few passive safety features motor cycles only have two wheels car drivers dont like them on the road because they can go so fast motor cycles have few active safety features.
Motor cars contribute a lot of pollution to the air because: a b c d their motors are less efficient than other forms of transport they burn leaded fuel they have low occupancy rates there are so many of them on the road.
10 Electric powered vehicles have been expensive because: a b c d electricity is expensive to produce there hasnt been much demand for them the batteries used to store the electricity were very expensive the lightweight materials used in the body of the vehicle were very expensive.
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Exercise 1.5 a All modes of transport create some pollution. Describe the types and relative levels of pollution generated by the modes of transport listed. i Bicycle ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ii Motor car powered by a traditional petrol engine ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ iii Motor car powered by a hybrid petrol/electric engine ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ iv Electric train ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ v Jet aeroplane ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________
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Exercise 1.6 a Explain why alternative modes of transport are increasingly being used to move both people and goods instead of the rail network in rural NSW. _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________
List three advantages and three disadvantages of replacing rural train services with alternate forms of transport. i advantages _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ ii disadvantages _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ __________________________________________________
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Exercise 1.7 a Date the following events and sequence them on the time line below. The first one has been completed for you. General Motors Holden produce their first Australian designed and manufactured car Wearing of seatbelts made compulsory Australia wide The production line method of constructing motor cars pioneered by Henry Ford Wright Brothers make successful flight at Kitty Hawk QANTAS makes its first commercial flight Karl Benz patents his Motorwagen design Random Breath Testing (RBT) is introduced in NSW The introduction of the Rover safety bicycle greatly improves cycling safety and efficiency Mountain bikes first mass-produced The introduction of the Rover safety bicycle greatly improves cycling safety and efficiency __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________
1884
Figure 1.30
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State three of the events from part a, then explain how each impacted on modes of transport or transport systems in the years following. i ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ii ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ iii ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________
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Exercise cover sheet
Exercises 1.1 to 1.7
Name: _______________________________
Check!
Have you have completed the following exercises? Exercise 1. 1 Exercise 1.2 Exercise 1.3 Exercise 1.4 Exercise 1.5 Exercise 1.6 Exercise 1.7 Locate and complete any outstanding exercises then attach your responses to this sheet. If you study Stage 6 Engineering Studies through a Distance Education Centre/School (DEC) you will need to return the exercise sheet and your responses as you complete each part of the module. If you study Stage 6 Engineering Studies through the OTEN Open Learning Program (OLP) refer to the Learners Guide to determine which exercises you need to return to your teacher along with the Mark Record Slip.
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Progress check
In this part you explored transport systems and their social and environmental implications. You have also investigated the historical development of the bicycle with particular emphasis on the materials used. Take a few moments to reflect on your learning then tick the box which best represents your level of achievement.
Agree well done Disagree revise your work Uncertain contact your teacher Agree Uncertain Disagree
I have learnt about historical developments in transport systems effects of engineering innovation in transport on peoples lives construction and processing materials over time environmental effects of transport environmental implications from the use of materials in transport.
I have learnt to investigate the history of technological change related to transport and its impact on society identify design features in the engineering of transport systems over time critically examine the impact of developments in transport systems on the environment and society.
In the next part you will investigate the concepts of friction, work, energy and power by their application to transport problems.
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Part 2: Transport systems mechanics/hydraulics
Part 2 contents
Introduction..........................................................................................2
Friction ................................................................................................3
Normal force ............................................................................. 4 Friction force ............................................................................. 5
Work, energy and power .................................................................17

Work........................................................................................17 Energy.....................................................................................19 Power......................................................................................26
Introduction
In this part you will investigate mathematical and graphical methods to solve engineering problems involving friction relating to transport. The concepts of power and energy relating to transport will also be studied in greater depth.

You will learn about: engineering mechanics and hydraulics static friction, concept of friction and its use in engineering, coefficient of friction, normal force, friction force, angle of static friction, angle of repose, energy, power, potential energy, kinetic energy, work, power.
You will learn to: apply mathematical and/or graphical methods to solve engineering problems related to transport analyse problems involving static friction differentiate between the concepts of energy and power and apply appropriate calculations.
Friction
When developing personal or public transport systems engineers endeavour to maximise efficiency and safety. Friction is often considered to be the enemy of efficiency as it can cause wear on moving parts and provides resistance to the movement of a vehicle. With society becoming more and more conscious of environmental issues, engineers have addressed these by developing different ways of producing power to move the transport. Manual power, as used for bicycles, is good for the environment. Internal combustion engines, as used in motor vehicles such as cars, buses, and motor cycles, have continued to cause concern with vehicle emission, depletion of the ozone layer and the greenhouse effect. Electric motors are still being investigated for use with motor vehicles. Electricity has become the preferred power source on trains, replacing the steam and diesel-electric trains in the public transport system. Friction allows you to walk. If there was no friction, or resistance between the ground and your feet, then there would be no reaction as you push forward and your feet would simply slide out from underneath you. You have perhaps experienced this when walking on a slippery surface (ice, slime on rocks in water, muddy hillsides). Bicycles, cars and trains would not be able to move, stop or to turn corners if it were not for friction. Most forms of transport will be equipped with a braking system that will allow it to slow down or stop by converting kinetic energy (motion) into heat energy. Friction is present in all machines. It will always cause wear in the individual parts of a machine and to overcome friction, energy is wasted. Friction can be reduced to a minimum by lubrication (oiling, greasing, use of graphite) of the surfaces that are rubbing together. You will recall that you have already studied friction in Braking systems.
Normal force (N)

The normal force is a reaction force. It always acts normal (at 90 or perpendicular) to the supporting surface. It balances all the forces that have perpendicular components to the contacting surface. The normal force will often be equal to, but opposite in direction to the weight force.
mg
P FR N N = mg Figure 2. 1 Normal force equal to the weight
Care should be taken when there are forces that are inclined to the horizontal.
P mg
FR N N = mg + P sin Figure 2. 2 Normal force equal to weight + component of inclined force
Care should also be taken when the supporting surface is itself inclined. The weight force has two components; one parallel (tending to create motion down the plane) and one perpendicular to the surface.
mg cos
sin
mg
mg
N N = mg cos Figure 2. 3 Normal force equal to perpendicular weight component
Friction force (FR)

Frictional force is a reaction force that is exerted between the contacting surfaces which tends to prevent movement. It acts along the surface as shown in figure 2.1 and 2.2. Consider a body with an applied force on it. When the applied force is small, the body will not move, and the reaction force, the friction force, will be equal to the applied force. As the applied force is increased, so the friction force will increase to balance it. This friction force is preventing motion. It is called the static-friction force. At a certain maximum value of applied force, the body will be on the point of sliding. At this point, the frictional force is called the limiting friction. Once the body starts to move, the frictional force will be slightly less than the limiting friction. This condition is known as kinetic friction and is due to less interpenetration of the roughness of the contacting surfaces as they move over one another.
Equilibrium (static) Frictional force (N) Fl Fs Motion (kinetic) Fk
Applied force (N) Figure 2. 4 Relationship between friction force and applied force
m Coefficient of friction (m)

Experimental evidence shows that the limiting friction is proportional to the normal component, N. The ratio of the limiting friction to the normal reaction is given by m = FR N
where m is called the co-efficient of friction and gives an indication of the stickyness of two surfaces. Typical values for m range from 0.2 to 0.6 Worked example 1 An electric locomotive has a mass of 260 tonnes evenly distributed over its driving wheels. Calculate the greatest pulling force that the locomotive can exert before the wheels begin to slip. Solution The greatest pulling force will equal the limiting frictional force. The mass of the train must be converted to a weight. This is done by using the formula W = mg. Note also that 1 tonne is equivalent to 1000 kg (or 103 kg in engineering notation) The gravitational acceleration (g) is taken as 10 m/s 2 The normal force will equal the weight force N = mg = 260 103 10
= 2600 kN FR = mN = 0.25 2600
= 650 kN \ The greatest pulling force will equal the limiting friction of 650 kN.
Laws of friction
1 Friction always acts along the contacting surface between the two bodies.
2 3 4
The friction force always acts in a direction and sense so as to oppose any impending motion. If the bodies are in equilibrium, then the frictional force will be equal to the force tending to produce the motion. The magnitude of the ratio of limiting friction to the normal force is a constant. This constant (known as the coefficient of friction) is determined by the nature of the contacting surfaces. The limiting friction is independent of the area of contact.
f Angle of static friction (fs)

There will be two reaction forces. The normal force which balances the weight force and the limiting friction force which balances the applied force.
mg
P Fl N fs R
Figure 2. 5 Horizontal plane angle of static friction
A single force (called the resultant reaction) can replace these two reaction forces. The angle between the resultant reaction and the normal reaction is called the angle of static friction (fs). How many forces are now acting on the body? What is the significance of this? Consider the some body placed on an inclined slope. The angle of the slope is called the angle of inclination (q).
mg
sin
mg
Fl
R N
Figure 2. 6 Inclined plane angle of static friction
The weight force can be converted into two components: one component is parallel to the plane. This component, equal to mg sin q, will be the force that attempts to move the body down the plane. Because the motion would be down the plane, then the friction force must act up the plane so as to oppose any motion. one component is perpendicular to the plane. This component, equal to mg cos q, will be balanced by the normal reaction.
That is, the weight force will create two reactions, the normal reaction and a limiting friction reaction. These two components can be combined to form a resultant reaction in a similar way as was done with the horizontal plane. The angle of static friction will again be the angle between the resultant reaction and the normal reaction.
Angle of repose
It is useful to know if an object will slide on an inclined surface. The roughness between the surfaces can prevent movement up to a point, but if the slope is too steep, then the object may move despite the static friction acting between the two contacting surfaces. This may be incorporated into design situations. When the angle of inclination (q) is equal to the angle of static friction (fs), the body will be on the point of sliding and the friction will be limiting. This angle is called the angle of repose. At the point of limiting friction, q = fs = angle of repose Because the normal force is always perpendicular to the surface and the limiting friction is always along the contacting surface, then when they
are combined together to form the resultant reaction, they will always form a right-angled triangle. The resultant will equal the hypotenuse (the side opposite to the right angle).
Fl
R N
Figure 2. 7 Resultant reaction and angle of static friction
Using the trigonometry ratio, tan f = = = = Worked example 2
opposite adjacent lim iting friction normalreaction F1 N ms (coefficient of friction)
A suitcase is placed on an inclined plane. The angle of inclination of the plane is increased until the suitcase is on the point of sliding. At the instant the suitcase starts to move, the plane is inclined at 30 to the horizontal. Determine the coefficient of static friction between the contacting surfaces. At point of limiting friction; fS = q mS = E1 N
= tan fS = tan 30 = 0.58 Determine the coefficient of friction between a flat bottomed object and a reasonably smooth flat surface
Place the object onto the flat surface (a wide board would do here). Gradually lift the end of the board until the object is just on the point of sliding down the slope. Measure the angle of the slope at this point. This can be done with the aid of a protractor, or you can measure the height of the end that has been lifted up and compare it with the length of the board. Calculate the angle with your calculator. Hint: sin q = = oppsite hypotenuse height length of board
As q = fs, now take tan f to determine the coefficient of friction. Verify this result by applying a force to the object. This can be done when the surface is horizontal. Measure the applied force by using a spring balance. Weigh the object using the spring balance. Coefficient of friction (m) is the ratio of the limiting friction (= applied force) to the normal reaction (N), (= weight). m = ER N
How does this compare with determining the angle of repose? What happens if the board is lowered slightly when the object has started sliding? How can you explain this? Worked example 3 A 20 kg wooden crate is sitting on the floor. A force is applied at 30 as shown. Determine the force (P) if the crate is on the point of sliding. The coefficient of friction between the floor and the crate is 0.55.
P 30
Figure 2. 8 Wooden crate on floor
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Draw a free body diagram of the forces acting.

mg P 30 N Figure 2. 9 Free body diagram showing all forces acting Fl
As the forces are in equilibrium, use the equilibrium equations SH = 0 and SV = 0. When drawing the free body diagram, change the inclined force into its horizontal and vertical components. Also convert the mass into weight.
mg = 20 10 = 200 N P sin 30 P cos 30 N Figure 2.10 Free body diagram showing components Fl
Analytical solution F l = mS N = 0.55 N Summing the forces horizontally + SH = 0 P cos 30 - Fl = 0 P cos 30 = 0.55 N This equation has two unknowns and cant be solved by itself. Summing the forces vertically + SV = 0 N P sin 30 - 200 = 0 N = P sin 30 + 200 (2) (1)
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Substitute (2) into (1) P cos 30 = 0.55 (P sin 30 + 200) P ( cos 30 - 0.55 sin 30) = 0.55 200 P = = 110 (0.866 - 0.55 0.5) 110 0.591
= 186 N Graphical solution The graphical solution is a much simpler method that requires few mathematical skills. The free body diagram should still be used. It is important that the correct direction for the limiting friction is established. That is, it must oppose any impending motion.
mg P 30 N Fl R
Figure 2.11 Free body diagram resultant reaction
It is also necessary to find the angle of friction. You should recall that this is the angle between the normal reaction and the resultant reaction. This can be constructed by using the ratio of Fl / N is equal to m (0.55) in this example. The angle of friction can be constructed by drawing N at right angles to the surface and making it 100 mm long. From the end of this line, draw Fl in the direction established in the free body diagram. Because m = 0.55, then Fl will be constructed 55 mm long. This will now establish the angle of friction. fS. There are now three forces acting on the body. These are: the weight of the crate, (magnitude and direction known), the force P (direction only known, magnitude unknown) and
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the resultant reaction (direction only known, magnitude unknown).
From these forces, the known force is drawn to a suitable scale first. The known force in this example is the weight force of 200 N. Select a suitable scale (a scale of 10 mm = 25 N in this case). This ensures the diagram is large enough to establish an accurate solution. A vertical line 80 mm long is drawn. An arrowhead is placed on this line to indicate that the weight force is acting down. The force polygon is now completed by drawing the other two forces in the directions of those forces, then scaling off the magnitude of the force that is required. From the end of the weight vector, the angle of friction is constructed by measuring up 100 mm (representing N), then from the end of the 100 mm line, another line 55 mm long (representing Fl) is drawn. This gives the ratio of 55/100 (= 0.55). Note this only establishes a direction equal to the angle of friction. It does not give the actual values of the normal reaction or the limiting frictional force, but shows the line of action of the resultant reaction. From the top end of the weight vector, the direction of P (30 in this example) is drawn until it intersects with the line of action of the resultant reaction. The value of P is now scaled off from the force diagram. This determines the magnitude of the required force P.
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55 mm
= 0.55 ratio = 55 100 determines
30
mg = 200 N
P is scaled off diagram = 74 mm = 185 N
Scale 10 mm = 25 N Figure 2.12 Force diagram drawn to scale
Worked example 4 When unloading suitcases from the luggage compartment of an interstate tourist coach, the driver pulls the suitcase at an angle of 30 to the horizontal. The suitcase slides along the floor and the coefficient of friction between them is 0.3. Determine:
P
the effort the driver must exert so as to move the 30 kg suitcase the best angle he should pull at so as to minimize his effort.
mg = 30 10 = 300 N
Figure 2. 13 Suitcase being pulled
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100 mm
A graphical solution is the easiest way to solve this problem. The known force is drawn to a suitable scale. The magnitude of the weight force is calculated by multiplying the mass (30 kg) of the suitcase by gravity. Using a value of g = 10 m/s2, the weight of the suitcase is equal to 300 N. A suitable scale could be 10 mm = 30 N, so the weight force would be drawn 100 mm long. The angle of the resultant reaction is constructed. The coefficient of friction is 0.3. This is converted to a ratio of 3/10. The angle of friction is constructed by measuring up 100 mm (in the direction of N), then 30 mm (in the direction of Fl). This is shown as point X in the following diagram. Point X is joined to the lower end of the weight force to give the direction of the resultant reaction. The direction of the pull is given as 30. This is drawn from the top of the weight force until it intersects with the line of action of the resultant reaction. The length of this line is scaled off the diagram to determine the size of the pull required at 30. To determine the best angle to pull the suitcase from the luggage compartment, the force diagram is again used. The weight force and the angle of friction are the same as in the first part of the problem. The smallest force must be the shortest distance from the line of action of the resultant reaction and the top of the weight force. This will be perpendicular to the line of action of the resultant reaction. The magnitude of this force is again scaled off the diagram. It is also necessary to measure the angle of this force. This is done by using a protractor.
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30 x P1 P2 15 30 R2 R1
Scaled from diagram 300 N 100 P1 = 90 N P2 = 84 N

30
15
Scale 10 mm = 30 N Figure 2. 14 Force diagram
Turn to the exercise section and complete exercises 2.1 and 2.2.
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Work, energy and power
In the transport system, work is continually used to provide motion to cars, bicycles, trains and other vehicles used for private and public transport. It is also required to provide a resistance to stop a vehicle. Energy, the capacity to do work, is constantly converted from one form to another. You recall how this was applied when you studied braking systems. Work and power are required to overcome friction in the component parts of any machine. The concepts of work, energy and power are closely related. The study of these helps the engineer select the correct size motor to perform a certain task, or predict what performance could be expected from a given motor.
Work (W)
Work done on a body is defined as the product of two vectors; the force (F) and the displacement (s) created by the application of the force. The displacement must be measured in the same direction as the force. W= Fxs It may be convenient to use W = F x s cos f where f is the angle between the line of action of the force and the direction of the displacement.
F
displacement (s) Figure 2. 15 Force not applied in the same direction as displacement
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The unit of work has been given the name of Joule (J), named in honour of James Joule (181889), who conducted experiments to determine the work required to produce a unit of heat.
Total work
When more than one force is acting on a body to produce motion, the total work done can be found by finding the work done by the individual forces and adding these together, or by finding the work done by the resultant force. A special case occurs when a body is moving with constant velocity. Constant velocity implies there is no acceleration. This also implies there is no resultant force which in turn implies there is no work done. Similarly, if the object doesnt move, then s = 0 also implies there is no work done.
Work done by a force

The work done on a body can also be determined graphically from a force-displacement graph.
Force, F (N) Force, F (N)
Work (Joule) Displacement, s (m)
Figure 2. 16 Work done by a constant force
The shaded area represents the amount of work done over a given displacement. Worked example 5 A cyclist exerts a constant force of 250 N over a distance of 12 metres. Determine graphically the amount of work done over this distance. A graph may be constructed to plot force against displacement.
250
0 Displacement, s (m)
12
18
Figure 2. 17 Force-displacement graph for a constant force
Shaded area = 250 (N) 12 (m) = 3000 Nm = 3000 J \ Work done = 3 kJ
Energy
Energy is the capacity to do work. There are many forms of energy such as heat, electrical, chemical, radiation and nuclear energy. In studying the mechanics of private and public transport you will examine two forms of mechanical energy; kinetic energy and potential energy. The unit for energy is the same as for work the joule (J). Because the joule is a small quantity, it is more common to use multiples of the joule, in particular the kilojoule (kJ) and the megajoule (MJ).
Kinetic energy (KE)

The energy that a body possesses due to its motion is called its kinetic energy. Kinetic energy may be calculated mathematically by the formula: KE = 1 mv2 2
where m is the mass of the body measured in kilograms (kg), and v is the velocity of the body measured in metres per second (m/s).
Potential energy (PE)

The energy that a body possesses by virtue of its position is called its potential energy. The potential energy is equal to the work done in lifting a bodys weight (mg) through a vertical height (h). Potential energy can be divided into two forms:
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1 2
gravitational potential energy due to height elastic or strain potential energy due to elastic deformation (springs).
Gravitational potential energy is found by the formula PE = mgh where h is the vertical height and is independent of the path taken to achieve that height. In a hydro-electric scheme to produce energy, water is stored in a reservoir or dam high above the power station. The water has gravitational potential energy due to its height. This potential energy changes to kinetic energy as it flows down through the pipes. At the power station, the water turns the turbines to create electrical energy, which can then be used to drive electric trains, or produce light or heat energy.
Dam
Pipe Power station Turbine Mountain
Figure 2. 18 Schematic diagram of hydro-electric power station
Energy cant be created or destroyed but it can be transformed from one form to another form of energy. This is known as the principle of conservation of energy.
Strain energy (SE)

Strain energy is a form of potential energy. It is recoverable and is equal to the amount of work done in stretching or compressing a spring. When the load is removed, providing that no permanent deformation has occurred, the energy is recovered. A retractable ball point pen has a refill cartridge and a spring inside it. When the pen is ready to use, the spring is compressed.
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The spring now has some strain energy, which when released, will return the refill back to its writing position.
Force (N)
Elastic limit
W=SE Extension, e (m)
Figure 2. 19 Force extension diagram up to the elastic limit.
The work done in producing deformation is found by the area under the graph. This is known as the strain energy and equals the area of the triangle. SE= W = 1 Fe 2
You will recall from your work with force extension diagrams that the slope of the line up to the elastic limit is known as the stiffness. When working with springs, the slope of the line up to the elastic limit is known as the spring constant (k). The spring constant of a coiled spring is determined by the force required to stretch (or compress) a spring by a unit length. It is measured in N/m. F= ke Substitute this into the strain energy formula SE = = 1 Fe 2 1 k e2 2
Strain energy can be used to advantage by loading up a spring. When released, the spring does useful work. A mousetrap is a good example of this principle. The spring is deformed and secured in position. When the trigger is activated by the mouse, the spring is released and traps the mouse. By using the strain energy formula, the amount of stored energy can be calculated. This energy may be converted to another form of energy to generate motion, heat or noise.
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Conservation of mechanical energy

If a body is in motion under the action of external forces, the total energy in the system is constant. For a free falling body, for example, the sum of the kinetic energy and the potential energy is a constant. This can also be written as: Loss in potential energy = gain in kinetic energy or conversely Gain in potential energy = loss in kinetic energy Worked example 6 A bicycle and rider, of total mass 90 kg, coasts at 7 m/s and continues to coast up a raised section in the road 0.2 metres high.
B C
Figure 2. 20 Bicycle and rider with raised section in the road
Determine the velocity of the bicycle at point B, if frictional losses are negligible, and the rider still does not pedal. Using the conservation of energy principle: Total energy at point A = Total energy at point B KEA + PEA = KEB + PEB 1 mv2 + mgh = 2 1 90 72 + 0 = 2 1 mv2 + mgh 2 1 90 v2 + 90 10 0.2 2
2205 180 = 45 v2 v = 6.7 m/s ii The rider applies the brake at B and comes to rest on the raised section at point C. Determine the energy dissipated in the braking process. The bicycle has lost kinetic energy in coming to rest. This loss of energy is equivalent to the work done in bringing the bicycle from
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the initial velocity, u = 6.7 m/s to a final velocity, v = 0 (that is, at rest). Work done = Change in Energy = Change in KE (as there is no change of height) 1 1 mv2 mu2 2 2 1 = 0 90 6.72 2 = = -2025 J Negative sign indicates that the force doing the work acts in the opposite direction to the displacement. Energy dissipated Worked example 7 A cyclist pedals his bicycle up a 5 slope with a constant velocity as shown. The resistance to motion due to friction is 300 N. The combined mass of the cyclist and the bicycle is 90 kg.
mg
2.025 kJ
300 N
5 Figure 2. 21 Cyclist on a slope
Determine the work done by the cyclist when the bicycle has travelled 40 metres up the slope.
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mg sin 5
mg cos 5
mg = 90 10 = 900 N 5
P
5
300 N
Figure 2. 22 Free body diagram moving up the slope
SF
ma (a = 0 if constant velocity)
The cyclist travels at constant speed, therefore the forces parallel to the plane are balanced. P needs to overcome the component of the weight force parallel to the slope, that is, mg sin 5, and the friction. P mg sin 5 - 300 = P = = Work Done = = = = ii 0 300 + (90 10 sin 5) 378.4 N Force displacement 378.4 40 15136 J 15.1 kJ
Determine the driving force required at the wheels if the cyclist now turns around and travels down the slope with a constant velocity. The total resistance due to friction to motion is still 300 N.
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mg sin 5
mg cos 5
mg 5
300 N
5
FD
Figure 2. 23 Free body diagram moving down the slope
SF = FD + mg sin 5 - 300 = FD = =
ma (a = 0 if constant velocity) 0 300 78.4 221.6 N
For another set of conditions, the bicycle starts from rest at the bottom of the slope. When it has travelled 20 metres up the slope, it has a velocity of 3 m/s. Determine the increase in the energy associated with this motion. At the bottom of the slope Potential Energy, PE = 0 (as height = 0) Kinetic Energy, KE = 0 (as bicycle is at rest, v = 0) At 20 m up the slope Potential Energy = = = Kinetic Energy = = mgh 90 10 20 sin 5 1568 J 1 mv2 2 1 90 (3)2 2
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= Total Energy increase = = =
405 J 1568 + 405 1973 J 1.97 kJ
Turn to the exercise section and complete exercises 2.3 to 2.5.
Power (P)
Most transport will be driven by some sort of motor. This may be in the form of an internal combustion engine, an electrical motor or the human body as in the case of the bicycle. Power (P) is the time rate of doing work. P = = W t Es t
= Fv (since velocity = displacement/time) P = Fv is a particularly useful derived formula. The formula sheet supplied with the HSC examination paper uses P = W/t, but not P = Fv. Maximum power is the power required at maximum velocity. It is the maximum power that determines the size of the motor that is required. The average power determines the amount of fuel or electricity used in a given period of time. The unit of power is also given a special name of watt (W). The watt was named after the Scottish engineer, James Watt (17361819). He developed the steam engine and was the first to introduce a unit to describe the rate of doing work. The unit he described was the horsepower which is equivalent to 745.7 watts. The watt is equal to a joule per second. 1 W = 1 J/s
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Worked example 8 The Tangara motor carriage as used on suburban services in Sydney has a mass of 50 tonnes. The Electric Multiple Unit (EMU) exerts a constant force of 80 newtons/tonne on a carriage. Calculate the power exerted by the locomotive if the train is travelling at a speed of 72 km/h. Before the formula P = Fv can be used, the velocity of 72 km/h must be converted to m/s. To convert km/h to m/s, multiply by 1000 (this converts km to m), then divide by 3600 (this converts hours to seconds). 72 km/h = 72 1000 m/s 3600
= 20 m/s P = Fv = 80 50 20 = 80000 W = 80 kW Worked example 9 A 1 tonne car uses power at the rate of 15 kW when traveling at 20 m/s on a level road. The driver turns off the engine when he reaches an incline of 10. How far up the hill will the car run before it stops? Assume the frictional resistances remain constant. P Resistance force, FR = FR v = = P v 15000 20
= 750 N Weight component down incline, F = mg sin 10 = 1000 10 0.1736 = 1736 N Total force opposing motion = 1736 + 750 = 2486 N KE at bottom of incline = 1 mv2 2
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1 1000 (20)2 2
= 200 000 J KE of car = work done against friction = Fs 200 000 = 2486 s = 80.5 metres
h Efficiency (h)
In most practical cases, some of the power is lost in overcoming resistance forces. Friction and heat are the two main factors preventing a machine from making all the theoretical power available.
Indicated power (ip)

This is the power that is generated at the cylinders of the combustion engine. Frictional losses of power due to frictional forces are not considered. Indicated power is the power stated when advertising the power of a car.
Brake power (bp)

There are many frictional losses along the drive train of any vehicle. Brake power is the power that is available to do useful work at the driving wheels. The efficiency (h) of an engine is found by dividing the power output by the power input. h = = output input brake power indicated power
Note that the ratio of output/input can refer to work or to power. The indicated power will always be greater than the brake power, so the mechanical efficiency will always be less than one. Due to the action of friction in most machines, the work output is less than the work input. In a perfect (frictionless) machine, the input and
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output of work will be equal. This is called 100% efficient. In practice, this is never obtainable. The ratio is always less than one, and is normally expressed as a percentage. Worked example 10 A car with a mass of 0.9 tonne is travelling at a constant velocity of 80 km/h down an incline of 1 in 30. Calculate the power delivered by the engine if the value of m is 0.4. What power would be required of the engine if the car was travelling up the same incline at 80 km/h. Because the inclination has been given as a ratio, you need to convert this to an angle. The inclination is sometimes known as rise (vertical height) over run (horizontal length).
1 (Rise) 30 (Run) Figure 2. 24 Inclination of slope
tan q =
1 30
q = tan-1 0.0333 = 1.9

mg = 900 10 = 9000 N Fl N Figure 2. 25 Free body diagram showing forces acting
Weight component down the plane (helps drive car down plane) mg sin 1.9 = = Weight component at 90 to the plane = 900 10 sin 1.9 298 N mg cos 1.9
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N = = Limiting friction, Fl = = = FD + 298 3598 = FD = Convert the velocity 80 km/h m/s 80 km/h =
9000 cos 1.9 8995 N mN 0.4 8995 3598 N 0 3300 N
80 x 1000 3600 22.2 m/s FD v 3300 22.2 73260 W 73.3 kW
= Power to drive down the slope = = = =
Friction now has to be overcome (to drive it up the plane) FD - 298 3598 = FD = Power to drive up the slope = = = = 0 3896 N FD v 3896 22.2 86491 W 86.5 kW
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Worked example 11 A moving footpath is transporting people at a constant velocity of 2 m/s up a 1 in 20 slope. The footpath rises 4 metres over its effective length of 80 metres. Calculate the number of people that can be conveyed in an hour if the average mass of the people is 74 kg. the power rating of the driving motor is 3 kW, and the efficiency of the equipment is 70%. Work to move one person = = = To move n people h 70 100 Power output = = = = = E P Total work available for one hour 2100 n = = = = = mgh 74 10 4 2960 J 2960 n J Power output Power input output 3000 0.7 3000 W 2100 W 1 hr or 3600 sec W t
2960 n 3600
2100 3600 2960 2554 people
Turn to the exercises section and complete exercises 2.6 to 2.8.
You have now used some common mathematical techniques to analyse a variety of practical situations involving the concepts of friction, work, energy and power. Graphical methods of solving frictional and work problems have also been described. You can now use these techniques not only to solve problems associated with transport, but also in other fields of engineering.
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Exercise
Exercise 2.1 a Explain why rubber is a very suitable material from which to make car tyres. (Note the co-efficient of static friction or rubber on concrete 0.6 0.90.) _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ b Explain why many drive belts, like the fan belt on a car, are made from moulded rubber and fibre. _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ c Explain why some grips on a recreation bicycle pedal are made from rubber, whereas pedals on performance and cross country bicycles often use alloy pedals with clips. _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________
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Exercise 2.2 A 25 kg suitcase is pushed into the luggage compartment of an interstate tourist coach. The driver pushes with a downward force of 70 N at an angle of 30 to the horizontal. Apply a graphical method to determine: the coefficient of static friction if the suitcase is on the point of sliding the maximum force that can be applied, by either braking or accelerating, in order that the suitcase will not slide on the floor.
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Exercise 2.3 An electric car of mass 0.8 tonnes is travelling at 60 km/h and enters a 40 km/h speed zone outside a school. Calculate the total work done by the brakes, frictional forces and air resistance to reduce the cars speed to the new speed limit.
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Exercise 2.4 The car now travels at the speed limit of 40 km/h. Name the type of energy possessed by the car if it is travelling along a flat section of road. Calculate the numerical value of this energy.
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Exercise 2.5 A railway carriage is moved from rest up a 3 slope by a dieselelectric powered locomotive exerting a force of 20 kN. The carriage has a mass of 30 tonnes. Apply the mathematical method using the work / energy principle to solve how far up the slope the carriage will have moved when its velocity is 15 km/h. Neglect frictional forces acting.
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Exercise 2.6 A bus and its passengers have a combined mass of 5 tonnes. The bus is obeying the speed limit and is travelling at a constant velocity of 50 km/h on an inner city level stretch of road. Apply a mathematical method to calculate the total value of frictional forces acting if the bus is using 14 kilowatts of power. Calculate how much extra power with a gradient in the road of 10 the engine must develop to maintain the velocity of 50 km/h up the hill? Assume the losses due to friction remain constant.
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Exercise 2.7 An electric car is coasting down a slope of 20 at 60 km/h. The car and driver have a combined mass of 850 kg. a Differentiate between the concepts of energy and power and determine, with appropriate calculations, what power the engine would need to supply to enable the car to climb the same hill at 60 km/h. _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ b Explain what would happen if the power of the motor of the car was doubled. _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ c Discuss the changes in energy during the decline of the slope. Explain why the speed of the car would remain constant while descending the slope. _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________
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Exercise 2.8 Select the alternative a, b, c or d that best completes the statement. Circle the letter. 1 Friction is: a b c d the property created between contacting surfaces when the roughness of one surface interpenetrates with another surface a reaction force which acts along the contacting surface in the same direction as the net force supplying motion a reaction force which is equal to the net force supplying motion a resistance force that only acts when a body is in motion and it opposes that motion.
The coefficient of friction is: a b c d the product of the limiting friction and the normal force the ratio of the limiting friction to the normal force the ratio of the normal force to the limiting friction a numerical value that is always equal to or greater than 1.
The normal force is: a b c d always equal to the bodys weight (mg) the resultant force that creates motion to a body a reaction force acting perpendicular to the contacting surface the product of the limiting friction and the coefficient of friction (m).
The friction force is: a b c d the force that overcomes friction and supplies motion to a body the force exerted between contacting surfaces of two bodies which tends to prevent movement between them the force that will stop a body from turning over and allows it to slide a set force that is constant between two different materials.
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The angle of static friction is found when the normal force and the limiting friction force are replaced by a single resultant reaction. It is: a b c d the angle between the resultant reaction and the contacting surface the angle between the resultant reaction and the normal reaction equal to the tangent of the coefficient of static friction only used on an inclined plane.
The angle of repose is: a b c d when a body is resting in equilibrium on an inclined plane when an inclined force is not big enough to create motion equal to the angle of inclination of a plane when it is equal to the angle of static friction at the point of limiting friction the angle of the resultant reaction force to the horizontal.
Work is: a b c d done on a body when an external force is applied to the body, but does not move it the product of force acting and displacement found by the area under a stress-strain diagram always done when a force acts on a body.
Potential energy is: a b c d always equal to the kinetic energy due to the principle of conservation of energy the capacity of a body to do work by virtue of its position measured as the work done in lifting a body through a vertical height in a given amount of time measured as the work done in moving a bodys weight (mg) through a distance to a new position.
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Kinetic energy is: a b c d always equal to the potential energy due to the principle of conservation of energy the capacity of a body to do work by virtue of its motion found from the product of the mass of the body and the height of the body measured as the work done by a body before being brought to rest by an externally applied force.
10 Power is: a b c d the rate at which work is done the product of work and time and is measured in watts a measure of the efficiency of a motor also known as torque.
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Name: _______________________________
Check!
Have you have completed the following exercises? Exercise 2.1 Exercise 2.2 Exercise 2.3 Exercise 2.4 Exercise 2.5 Exercise 2.6 Exercise 2.7 Exercise 2.8 Locate and complete any outstanding exercises then attach your responses to this sheet. If you study Stage 6 Engineering Studies through a Distance Education Centre/School (DEC) you will need to return the exercise sheet and your responses as you complete each part of the module. If you study Stage 6 Engineering Studies through the OTEN Open Learning Program (OLP) refer to the Learners Guide to determine which exercises you need to return to your teacher along with the Mark Record Slip.
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Progress check
In this part you applied the concepts of friction, work, energy and power, to analyse engineering problems related to transport. Take a few moments to reflect on your learning then tick the box which best represents your level of achievement.
I have learnt about: engineering mechanics and hydraulics static friction, concept of friction and its use in engineering, coefficient of friction, normal force, friction force, angle of static friction, angle of repose, energy, power, potential energy, kinetic energy, work, power. I have learnt to: apply mathematical and/or graphical methods to solve engineering problems related to transport analyse problems involving static friction differentiate between the concepts of energy and power and apply appropriate calculations.
In the next part you will examine materials used in the manufacture of transport components and the processes used to produce desirable properties in these materials relating to their applications.
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Part 3: Transport systems materials
Part 3 contents
Introduction..........................................................................................2
Testing of materials............................................................................3
Non-destructive tests ................................................................. 3 Destructive tests........................................................................ 5
Ferrous metals..................................................................................12
Plain carbon irons and steels.....................................................12 Alloy steels ..............................................................................14 Forming processes ...................................................................21
Non-ferrous metals...........................................................................36
Aluminum and some of its alloys................................................37 Brasses ...................................................................................40 Bronzes ...................................................................................42 Strengthening and heat treatment..............................................43
Polymers............................................................................................46
Thermosoftening polymers........................................................48 Elastomers...............................................................................52 Thermosetting polymers............................................................54 Polymer forming processes.......................................................57 Engineering textiles ..................................................................62 Laminated and tempered glass..................................................63
Part 3 Transport systems materials
Introduction
Engineers are interested in the development, properties and availability of materials and how this has affected the design of various forms of personal and public transport. In this part you examine specific materials and investigate structure/property relationships and testing procedures as they relate to transportation systems.
What you will learn?

You will learn about: specialised testing of engineering materials and/or systems heat treatment of ferrous metals structure/property relationships in the material forming processes non-ferrous alloys ceramics and glasses polymers.
You will learn to: explain the properties, uses, testing and appropriateness of materials used in transportation identify appropriate heat treatment processes justify appropriate choices for ferrous and non-ferrous materials and processes used in transportation parts and systems experiment with metals to reinforce the concepts of heat treatment explain the method and applications of various ferrous metal forming processes justify appropriate choices for ceramics and glasses used in transportation parts and systems justify appropriate choices of polymers and their manufacturing processes used in transportation parts and systems.
Testing of materials
Testing of materials provides critical data to the design engineer and ensures that products are manufactured to the required specifications. There is an ever increasing array of tests that can be performed. They can be categorised as either non-destructive or destructive tests.
Non-destructive tests
Mechanical tests that don't damage the item being tested are known as non-destructive tests. These tests are vital in determining the specific properties of manufactured items or in determining the effect of forming processes on a material's properties.
Radiographic examination
X-rays, gamma rays and ultrasonic testing were all dealt with in detail in Civil structures. When you consider devices associated with both personal and public transport there are many components that could be tested by one of these types of testing. Describe how a x-ray test would be carried out. ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________
Did you answer? Radiation is used to penetrate the item tested and then register on either a photographic film or a fluorescent screen. Any internal void allows the rays to pass through more easily, resulting in a dark area on the film.
These types of tests are used to investigate internal features of components. This allows the engineer to check that there are no points of weakness inside a casted, forged or welded joint. Explain why is it important to thoroughly check components used for high-speed trains. ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________
Did you answer? The consequences of failure in a structural component of a high-speed train could be catastrophic, hence the importance of thorough and regular checks.
Modelling
As you read in the previous module, engineers use both scale and full size models to test design concepts. For example full size crash tests are conducted on both trains and motor vehicles to determine the effectiveness of design changes. With the continuing development of computer simulations much of the data gained from actual tests is used to validate the computer predictions. In the case of trains, cars and bicycles, aerodynamics have become increasingly important for a number of reasons. When a transport vehicle slips easily through the air it uses much less fuel, can travel at a faster speed and generates much less wind noise. Over the past 30 years engineers in Europe and Japan have slowly developed high-speed rail networks and there are now trains that can travel at well over 500 kph and commuter services that average close to 400 kph. Much of this development has occurred through sophisticated computer simulation programs, scale-model tests in wind and water tunnels and analysis of wind-flow around full-sized models on tracks. Specialised wind tunnels that use moving ground planes to simulate conditions underneath vehicles have been used to show that most wind drag is caused by the wheels, bogies and other equipment under the train. Future generations of trains will have much smoother under-frame contours.
Discuss how current designs of racing bicycles and rider equipment allow for less air resistance than historical cycles, such as the ordinary, and how current designs of passenger vehicles are much more aerodynamic than cars that were built in the early 1900s. Bicycles __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ Cars __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________
Did you answer? For bicycles did you mention tube shapes, shaped helmets, skin-tight clothing, rider position for bicycles? In car design did you mention smoother, curved body designs, closer to the road, air scoops and spoilers?
Destructive tests
These are mechanical tests that test specimens to destruction. Often standard specimens are used so that the results of the tests can be directly compared. This allows an easy comparison of the mechanical properties of materials.
Tensile tests
When considering the strength properties of materials in transport components, it is important to look again at the tensile test. List some of the mechanical properties that are indicated on a stress/strain curve derived from the load/extension graph created during a tensile test. ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________
Did you answer:

Ultimate tensile stress Elastic limit
Yield stress Stress 0
Strain
Figure 3.1 Low carbon steel stress/strain graph
Some critical properties, from this type of graph, that are considered by the engineer include elasticity, yield strength and ultimate tensile strength. Define each of the following terms: elasticity __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ yield strength __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ ultimate tensile strength __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________
Did you answer? Elasticity the ability of the material to return to its original condition Yield strength the point at which plastic deformation commences UTS the maximum stress that can be applied to a material.
Notched-bar impact tests

These tests attempt to measure the toughness and impact strength of materials. They are often used to assess the affect of a variety of heat treatment procedures on a common material. The tests use a notched standardised specimen. The notch establishes a stress point where a failure may start. A swinging pendulum is used to simulate an impact loading. The pendulum always starts from a known height with known potential energy. The height that the pendulum attains after impacting with the specimen, when compared to its starting height, gives an indication of the energy used to fracture the specimen. There are two tests commonly used: Izod test Charpy test.
Scale Start angle
End angle Specimen Hammer
Anvil Figure 3.2 Impact testing machine
Izod test
A standard specimen, 10mm square in cross-section, is mounted vertically with the notch facing the approaching pendulum as shown in figure 3.3.
Striker Swings on an arc
Standard notch (same side as striker)
10 mm square specimen
SIDE VIEW Figure 3.3 Izod notched-bar impact test
Charpy test
The standard square-sectioned specimen is mounted as a beam between two supports 40 mm apart. The notch is on the opposite side to the approaching pendulum as shown in figure 3.4.
Striker Standard notch
Standard 10 mm square specimen
TOP VIEW Specimen Striker
FRONT VIEW Figure 3.4 Charpy notched-bar impact test
Fatigue tests
Most pieces of machines, including trains, cars and bikes, are subjected to many different loads leading to fluctuating or changing stresses. Things may break when a stress is repeated enough times, even though the maximum applied stress is a lot less than the known breaking strength of the material. This is called fatigue failure. A good example of fatigue can be seen in the performance of bicycle frames made from steel, aluminium and titanium. Steel and titanium have clear minimum fatigue limits and even if the frame bends it doesn't alter the life expectancy of the frame. On the other hand, the yield strength and UTS of aluminium are quite close together which means each small bending stress takes the frame closer to fatigue failure. The most visible engineering response to this problem is seen in the larger tubing often seen in aluminium bicycle frames. This stiffens the frame preventing flex and therefore fatigue. The ability of a material to resist fatigue is tested in a number of different ways.
Testing of a specimen
A number of tests have been developed that allow a standard sized specimen to be assessed for fatigue. One test, the Wohler system, has the specimen mounted in a revolving chuck, like a metalwork lathe. The free end is loaded with a known load on a bearing. As the specimen revolves, the known load causes a fluctuating bending stress in the material. While this test can't exactly copy service conditions, the results provide a point of comparison between materials.
Ball race
Standard specimen Chuck Load
Figure 3.5 The Wohler cantilever fatigue test
Testing of components
Tests have been developed that allow the actual loading conditions to be simulated. An example of this would be the testing of the suspension
assemblies in cars. Machines are designed that clamp onto the wheels and, under test conditions, provide loading similar to the car travelling hundreds of thousands of kilometres, in a much shorter time-frame. Fatigue failure will eventually occur and design decisions can be made as to whether component parts need to be redesigned. List parts of a motor vehicle that are subjected to cyclic loads and therefore would possibly fail due to fatigue. __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________
Did you answer? Did you suggest things like suspension springs, steering pins, wheels, axles, connecting rods and brake slide pins. Even door handles, window winders, seat springs, windscreen wipers and hinges are all loaded in a way that could cause fatigue failure.
Other tests
As part of the production of bicycles, cars and trains other tests would be carried out on various component parts. Some of these tests have been described in detail in previous modules. Hardness and wear resistance of components like bearings, wear plates, brake discs and train wheels would be tested by the Rockwell, Vickers or Brinell tests. Bending stresses of components like chassis rails and bicycle frame tubes could be assessed by a transverse beam test. Compression tests are used to test the compressive stresses of items like the balls and rollers used in bearings Special proving tests have been designed for assessing the effects of impacts involving bicycles, cars and trains. Bicycle helmets were made compulsory in New South Wales after extensive testing and development that proved the value of helmets to riders involved in collisions. Part of the development of each new car is collision testing. Cars are crash tested, at various speeds, and the data recorded is used to improve the safety of vehicles. Seat belts, air bags and side intrusion bars have all been introduced and refined through the use of crash testing.
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High-speed trains have been carefully designed with end crumple zones. Much of this design work was done using computer simulation but full size crash tests are also used to validate the computer-generated data. Turn to the exercise section and complete exercise 3.1.
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Ferrous metals
The following section details the most significant, versatile and influential metals used by engineers. Define the term ferrous metal. __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________
Did you answer? The element iron is the predominant material in ferrous metals.
Plain carbon irons and steels

In a number of preliminary modules, you examined the structure, properties and applications of plain carbon ferrous metals. The following table below reviews this work and suggests some applications specific to bicycles, motor vehicles and trains.
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Applications of plain carbon irons and steels

Composition %C Dead Mild 0.05-0.1 Mild
Pearlite
Microstructure
Properties soft, ductile, can be severely cold worked, malleable.
Applications chains, automobile body panels
Pearlite
0.1-0.3
doesn't harden appreciably when quenched, weldable, can be cold worked
brackets, bolts, nuts, screws, car wheels,
Medium Carbon
Pearlite
0.3-0.6
can be hot or cold formed, suitable for forging and heat treatment
crankshafts, brake cables, railway track, axles
High Carbon
Pearlite
0.6-0.9
suitable when high strength and hardness are needed. heat treatable
suspension springs, wire cables, wear plates
Carbon Tool 0.9-1.5 White Cast Iron
Pearlite
excellent wear resistance in plain or hardened condition
balls and rollers for bearings
Fe3C
very hard and brittle, white colour on fractured surface
intermediate step in production of malleable iron
Pearlite
Grey Cast Iron

Pearlite Graphite flakes
grey on fracture, weak in tension, strong in compression, brittle, castable excellent casting properties, improved strength and ductility
engine blocks
Malleable Cast Iron
Pearlite
auto disc brake rotors, brake drums
Graphite
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By referring to the previous modules and other sources, you may be able to add other relevant applications to the table. Figure 3.6 provides a good graphical representation of the structure/property relationships in plain carbon steels.
El
on ga
S UT
tio n
HB
100 % Pearlite Ferrite 50 Pearlite
Cementite
0.2
0.4 0.6 0.8 Carbon (%)
1.0
1.2
Figure 3.6 Structure/property relationships in steels Schlenker, B. 1974, Introduction to materials, p 214, John Wiley and Sons Australia.
Alloy steels
Engineers are continually designing steels with the most appropriate properties for any service situation. One method to achieve this control over properties is to alloy the steel with additional materials.
Stainless Steel
When more than 12% of chromium is present, the alloy steel is protected due to the film of chromium oxide that forms on the surface and has increased strength and hardness. Stainless steels are used extensively for body panels in trains, internal fittings and structures in carriages, bicycle gear cables, derailleur cages, woven protective sheathing on flexible brake lines and motor vehicle trim.
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If 1225 % chromium is added to low carbon steel, the alloy can't be hardened, except by cold working. It is suitable for cold working applications such as woven protective sheathing on flexible brake lines. When 12-18% chromium is added to medium carbon steel, the alloy can be quench hardened. The disc rotors used on disc brakes on top-of-the range bicycles and rust-free springs are made from this material. Alloys containing 18% chromium and 8 % nickel are commonly available and are suitable for constructional work.
Chrome-molybdenum alloys
These alloys typically contain around 0.3% carbon and small quantities of around 1.1% chromium and 0.25% molybdenum. The combination of these elements produces an alloy that posseses good deep hardening properties, ductility and weldability. Cro-moly alloys are used widely for high-quality steel bicycle frames as they create a frame that is inexpensive, strong, stiff, easy to repair and has a resilient and lively feel. Turn to the exercise section and complete exercise 3.2.
Heat treatment of ferrous metals

Heat treatment is the controlled heating and cooling of a material to obtain required properties. Details on the recrystallisation of metals can be found under Forming Processes section later in this module. Steel is basically an interstitial solid solution. This means that the carbon fits into spaces within the lattice structure of the iron. Heat treatment of steel can cause dramatic effects on the properties of the metal. This is only possible because of the change in allotropy that occurs in iron at around 910C. At room temperature, iron exists in a body-centred cubic structure while above 910C it exists as a face-centred cubic structure. The face-centred cubic iron can dissolve up to 2% carbon within its lattice structure (at 1100C) while at room temperature body-centred cubic iron can only dissolve 0.008% carbon. When iron-carbon alloys are cooled, causing them to change from FCC to BCC, sufficient time must be allowed for the majority of the dissolved carbon to move out of the spaces or interstices and form the interstitial
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solid solution ferrite and the compound cementite. Ferrite is iron with 0.008% carbon and is a soft, ductile material. Cementite is iron with 6.67% carbon and is quite hard and brittle. Variations in cooling rates prevent this movement of the carbon and provide dramatic differences in properties. The different grades of steel can be heat treated in a number of ways which result in a very wide range of properties.
Annealing
Annealing of all ferrous alloys can be done using one of two basic processes. a Full annealing Full annealing involves the heating of the alloy to over 900C, then soaking it until the iron changes back from a BCC structure to a FCC structure. Slow cooling, to a low temperature, then takes place either in a furnace or in good heat insulating material. The purpose of full annealing is to allow the grain structure to return to equilibrium condition. This will achieve large unstressed grains, induce softness and improve magnetic and electrical properties. b Process annealing This is suitable for softening cold-worked low carbon steels and recognises that these alloys are made mainly from ferrite. As ferrite recrystallises at around 500C, annealing between 500600 will produce total recrystallisation of the ferrite while leaving the small amount of pearlite in its stressed state. Process annealing is much faster than full annealing and is the industrial process normally selected for softening this grade of steel.
Normalising
Normalising is similar to full annealing except the steel is heated to a slightly higher temperature and then is cooled in still air. This slightly faster cooling rate produces a finer equiaxed, equilibrium structure than does full annealing. These smaller grains provide increased yield strength, UTS, notched-bar toughness values and greater hardness while giving a slight reduction in ductility. Castings and forgings are often normalised to relieve some of the stresses induced due to uneven cooling rates. There are many castings and forgings in transport devices that would be heat treated in this way.
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Hardening
As described in previous modules, the hardening of steel depends on the different solubilities of carbon in FCC and BCC iron. Figure 3.6 shows the relative difference in hardness between steels that have been annealed and those that have been quenched.
800 700 Brinell hardness % increase in hardness 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 % Carbon 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 Hardness as annealed Hardness as quenched
Figure 3.7 Hardness of annealed and quenched steel Schlenker, B. 1974, Introduction to materials, p230, John Wiley and Sons, Australia.
Explain why increasing carbon content results in increasing strength in annealed steels with reference to the structure and the properties of phases present in steels. __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________
Did you answer? To quench harden an alloy it must be heated and soaked till all the carbon is again dissolved into the FCC lattice. The item is then quenched in salt water or oil. As there is insufficient time for the dissolved carbon to be relocated as the iron tries to change back to BCC, the carbon trapped in the lattice of the iron distorts the structure and produces a highly stressed state. This stressed structure is known as martensite.
As indicated in figure 3.7, quench hardening a 0.6% carbon steel increases the hardness 3 to 4 times that of annealed steel.
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Tempering
While martensite is a very hard structure, it is also extremely brittle. Most hardened steel components require tempering before they can be used. When martensite is heated, some of the trapped carbon diffuses out of the structure in the form of iron carbide particles. This movement relieves some of the stress and reduces the brittleness and hardness of the structure. Tempering temperatures and times are important as the higher the temperature and the longer the time the greater the reduction in hardness. When tempering martensite the aim is generally to retain hardness while increasing toughness. When hardness is important, as in the case of a bicycle chainwheel, a tempering temperature of around 240C would be used. When more elasticity and toughness are required, as in the case of a vehicle suspension spring, a temperature around 300C is more appropriate.
Surface hardening of steels

Often there is a need to create a component with a hard skin but a tough centre. This will provide wear resistance while allowing for shock loadings. Carburising, nitriding or selective hardening can all be used to achieve surface hardening. a Carburising Pins and linkages used in the suspension and steering assemblies of motor vehicles must be both tough and resistant to wear. These components are machined from very low carbon steel and then heated to around 950C in a special carbon-rich atmosphere for between 36 hours. Carbon enters the surface layer of the steel changing this 'skin' to medium-high carbon steel. When the item is quench hardened, martensite forms in the skin while the low carbon steel is unaffected and remains soft and tough. b Nitriding Automotive crankshafts, camshafts and some high strength ball races require a very high core-strength combined with high surface hardness. They are often made from low carbon steels containing small proportions of aluminium, chromium and molybdenum. Once all machining is completed, these components are heated to 500C in a nitrogen-rich atmosphere for 40100 hours. Very hard nitrides of the trace metals form in the 'skin' and as the component doesn't need to be quenched the finished part is free from distortion and has a good surface finish.
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Selective hardening When higher core strength is needed it may be more appropriate to use a medium or high carbon steel than a low carbon steel. Splines on axles and drive shafts and the teeth of gears may have their 'skins' hardened by rapidly heating the surface of the part to over 900C, then quenching. Martensite would form on the surface and the core would be unaffected. A gas powered flame or electrical induction coil is used as the heating source. Water jets that quench the surface follow the heat source.
Investigate the effects of heat treatment on various ferrous alloys.
You will need: bicycle brakes a paper clip a car suspension spring (still attached to the car is O.K.) a file an old hacksaw blade old lawn mower blades that have been replaced on your mower
Carry out the following: 1 Squeeze the brake handle, observe how the stress induced in the metal by the cold working gives the spring elasticity. The springs on the bicycle that stop the brake blocks from rubbing on your rims are cold drawn from low carbon steel. Bend the paper clip, note how easy it is to bend out of shape. This is because it hasnt been as severely deformed. Look up under the front of a car near one of the front wheels. There is a big coil spring providing suspension for the car. Stand up and carefully push down, on a strong point of the car body, to squash the spring, see how the car bounces back up. (If it keeps bouncing up and down you should think about getting the shock absorbers replaced!). This spring is made from medium carbon steel that has been hot coiled then hardened and tempered. Its internal structure is also stressed to provide elasticity. This stress is achieved through heat treatment not through the forming process. Take a file and try to file a groove into the hacksaw blade. First try filing on the teeth edge then try filing on the smooth back edge, note which is easier. The blade has been only hardened on the teeth edge and not on the back. This should explain why it was easier to file on the non-hardened smooth back edge.
2 3
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Take the file again and try to file the lawn mower blades, see if they the same hardness all over. They should be as they have been hardened and tempered! Suggest reasons why the teeth edge has been hardened and the back edge has not. _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________
Outline why is it necessary to both harden and temper lawn mower blades. _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________
List other parts that need to have a hard, wear resistant surface and are possibly heat-treated. Think specially of components on bicycles, cars and trains. _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________
Did you answer? 1 If you mentioned that the teeth need to be really hard because they are cutting metal then you are on the right track. Did you also realise that hardness and brittleness go together so that a fully hardened blade would probably break too easily? Not hardening and tempering the back of the blade makes the whole blade tougher. It really becomes a type of composite structure. 2 The blades need to be hard to resist bending and deformation in use and to extend the life. They also need to tough and not brittle. Tempering will reduce brittleness so they wont shatter if hit by a small stone or twig and will increase toughness so they are more durable and longer lasting. 3 You could mention many, many different components including: the gear teeth on a bicycle the chain links on a bicycle gear chain
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brake dics on a car engine cylinders and pistons in cars wheel bearings contacting components in the gear box wheels on trains brake components on trains.
Forming processes
Forming processes are the techniques used to shape the material. The following information describes several techniques and highlights the advantages and disadvantages of each forming method.
Casting
Casting of liquid metal into a mould cavity is a convenient method of manufacturing components. Casting processes have a number of common features: a mould cavity is made either from a reusable pattern or as a permanent metal mould there must be a method for removing the solidified casting from the mould the metal to be cast is melted and delivered to the cavity by gravity or by pressure.
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Casting Method Sand casting (Sand mould)
Advantages intricate shapes can be produced, slow cooling rate, simple equipment so economical good quality surface finish, dimensional accuracy, relatively free of defects, less labour intensive than sand casting improved dimensional accuracy, excellent surface finish, high output rates, uniform internal structure ability to accurately produce intricate shapes not possible with forging or machining
Disadvantages labour intensive, separate mould required for each pour, correct mould packing is essential high initial cost of the metal patterns therefore only suitable for long runs
Applications engine block, rolling stock bogies
shell casting (Sand mould)
some automotive crankshafts, exhaust manifolds,
Die casting (Metal mould)
confined mainly to zinc and aluminium alloys, metal 'dies' are costly so only suitable for large runs limited to the production of small components, heavy labour intensity increases costs
bicycle components, carburettors, handles, gear boxes
Investment casting (Plaster/sand mould)
levers, cams, turbine blades, any small accurate component
Sand casting
A pattern of the item to be cast is made in timber or metal. Specially prepared sand, mixed with clay or other binders, is packed in a box around the pattern. The box is divided into a number of parts, usually two, so that the pattern can be removed. When the mould parts are reassembled, a cavity of the shape of the required item remains. Molten metal is poured into the mould through a 'runner' and air is allowed out through a 'riser'. Once solid, the casting is liberated from the mould by breaking the sand mould apart. The sand can be reused.
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Drag
Pattern Pattern placed on bottom of drag Drag rammed with sand Riser Sprue Cope
Cope rammed with sand
Drag turned over and cope placed on top with riser and sprue pins
Runner
Gate
Patterns and pins are removed and runner and gates are formed Figure 3.8 Sand casting
Moulten metal poured in
Shell casting
This process is similar to sand casting except the sand is bound together by an artificial polymer bonding material. Each half of the shell is made on a metal pattern plate that is heated and then covered with the resin/sand mix. A skin of sand forms on the surface due to the melting of the resin binders. Excess sand mixture is tipped off, the half-mould skin is cured in an oven and then stripped off the pattern plate. The two mould halves are joined together with glue or fasteners. This completed mould is placed in a box and supported with either extra sand or small metal balls. The molten metal is poured in and the solidified casting is released by breaking the shell away from the outside.
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Hot Sand with pattern resin
Dump box
Sand with resin is put in the dump box
Pattern and dump box inverted
Shell
Ejector pins
Shell removed using ejector pins
Pattern and dump box rotated again
Molten metal
Flask Shells Metal shot Clamp The shells are clamped together and molten metal is poured in
Figure 3.9 Shell casting
Die casting
This process involves the molten metal being forced into a permanent metal mould. The mould is designed in such a way that the casting can be easily removed once the mould is opened. Mould production is expensive therefore this process is only suitable when a large number of castings are required. Mass production labour costs are much less than for other casting processes.
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Molten metal
Fixed platten
Moving platten
Fixed block
Finished casting
Injection piston Die Casting cavity Ejector pins Casting solidified with mould ready to open
Figure 3.10 Cold chamber die casting
Investment casting
This is thought to be an ancient process that started with prehistoric man who shaped items from beeswax. This was then coated with clay and the whole lot was then thrown in the fire. In the fire, the clay hardened and the wax was melted out leaving a cavity into which molten metal could be poured.
Wax patterns mounted onto a wax runner Flask is filled with investment mould slurry After mould material has set and dried the patterns are melted out of mould
Bottom plate
Molten metal poured into mould by vacuum, gravity or centrifugal force
Mould material is broken away from castings
Casting is trimmed and polished
Figure 3.11 Investment casting
Today, permanent moulds are used for casting the intricate wax patterns. These wax patterns are attached to a central runner and the whole 'trunk and branches' is placed in a cylindrical metal 'flask'. This flask is filled with a mixture of very fine sand and plaster of Paris. Once the plaster has dried, the mould is inverted and passed through an oven so the wax melts out leaving a series of mould cavities. Molten metal can then be
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either poured into the mould or, if wall thicknesses are thin, forced in under pressure.
Hot and cold working

Many forming methods involve the plastic deformation of metal so that a permanent change in shape occurs. If the metal is heated above its recrystallisation temperature, it is hot worked and the distorted grains are able to regrow as equiaxed grains. If this deformation occurs below the metal's recrystallisation temperature the internal structure remains distorted and it is called cold working.
Hot working
A metal is hot worked when it is heated to a temperature that is above its recrystallisation temperature. When a metal is hot worked, it is more malleable at the higher temperature so it is easier to deform. As recrystallisation takes place at the same time as forming, the final product has regular, small equiaxed grains replacing the course as-cast grains in the original metal ingot. This new structure is stronger, tougher and more ductile than the as-cast structure. Some common hot working processes used in bicycles, cars and trains include: rolling of plate, sheet and profile sections forging of shapes with superior properties to those of castings extrusion of both solid and hollow sections piercing of solid metal to form tubes.
The disadvantages of hot working include poor surface finish due to the oxides and scaling and poor dimensional accuracy due to the necessity for simple tools. Other procedures such as acid-pickling and machining are normally carried out on hot worked components.
Cold working
Cold working takes place at a temperature below the recrystallisation temperature. Cold working has some distinct advantages if good surface finish and increased strength and hardness are required. The following table lists
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some of the advantages and disadvantages of cold working when compared to hot working.
Advantages of cold working no need for heatingi improved dimensional control larger forces needed better surface finish work hardening occurs increased strength properties directional properties are produced reduced metal loss and tool wear because of scaling only method of hardening mild steel and most non-ferrous metals undesirable directional properties may be produced metal must be free of oxides and scales before working Disadvantages of cold working more rigid and powerful equipment needed
Some common cold working procedures used in bicycles, cars and trains include: drawing of rod, wire and tube rolling of plate, sheet and strip and threads cold-heading or upsetting extrusion of a variety of profiles.
Recrystallisation
After a metal has been cold worked, its crystal lattice structure is greatly distorted and the material is in a stressed state. If the metal is heated above its recrystallisation temperature, nucleii form at the areas of greatest stress, the grain boundaries. From each nucleus, a new distortion-free lattice structure develops and in time new small equiaxed grains form out of and replace the distorted grains. Each metal has a unique recrystallisation temperature. Aluminium recrystallises at 150C, iron at 450C and molybdenum at 900C, just to name a few. If the recrystallisation temperature is maintained for a longer time, the small eqiaxed grains will be replaced by larger equiaxed grains. This is known as grain growth and is generally avoided as it causes a reduction in the strength properties of the metal.
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Recrystallised metal is not as strong or hard as the original cold worked structure but recrystallising improves electrical conductivity and ductility. A recrystallising process, such as annealing, may be carried out at an intermediate stage or at the conclusion of a cold working procedure. Alternately, hot working may be used which produces a final structure of fine equiaxed grains similar to an item that has been cold worked and then annealed. Define both hot and cold working. 1 Hot working _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ 2 Cold working _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________
Did you answer? Did you mention plastic deformation of the material and talk about whether the working was done above or below the recrystallisation temperature? They're the principles that should be mentioned!
Drawing
Generally done cold, drawing is used in the production of wire, rod and tubing. Wire is done in large spools while rod and tube is cut to length and then drawn. The internal diameter of tube is controlled through the use of a mandrel. The original equiaxed structure is pulled through very hard steel dies that reduce in diameter and consequently reduce the cross-section and increase stresses in the drawn material. Only ductile materials, such as low carbon steel, are suitable for drawing. Wire used in brake and gear cables is drawn as is the wire from which bolts and screws are formed. Metal tubes used in bicycle frames are cold drawn to increase the strength properties of the tubes while allowing them to be as light as possible.
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Die Drawing direction
Hardened insert Figure 3.12 Wire drawing
Fixed mandrel
Drawing direction
Floating mandrel Drawing direction
Figure 3.13 Tube drawing
Rolling
In rolling, the cross-sectional shape is altered by passing the metal through a series of rollers of a certain shape and set distance apart. Pairs of rollers rotate in opposite directions and drive the metal between.
Rolling direction Recrystallisation taking place
Recrystallised finegrained structure
Figure 3.14 Hot rolling
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Rolling direction Cold worked structure
Original cast structure
Figure 3.15 Cold rolling
Some hot rolled sections like round, square and rectangular may be the stock from which other components are manufactured while railway track is an example of a finished hot rolled section. Cold rolling is commonly used to increase the strength and resilience of sheet materials for items such as body panels on train rolling stock and cars.
Forging
Forging occurs when localised compressive forces deform metal. The advantage of forging, both hot and cold, is that the forming process causes the grain of the metal to 'flow' and follow the shape of the component. This makes the component stronger than similar cast and machined components.
Figure 3.16 Grainflow or 'fibre' in a forged component
Hot forging or drop forging is similar to the methods used by the old blacksmith except large hydraulic 'hammers' are used. Special two-part dies, normally with several impressions, are used to allow forming in
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stages. As dimensional accuracy is not very high, some form of machining is always needed. Components such as axles and bottom brackets on bicycles, connecting rods and drive yokes in cars and couplings in trains are all drop forged. Cold forging also uses large machinery but doesn't always require follow-up machining as the surface finish is relatively good. Ends are fitted to the flexible cables used in bicycle brakes by the process of swaging which is a type of cold forging. Upsetting or heading is a very common type of forging done both hot and cold. It involves the gripping of rod in a 'vice' so that excess material, at one end, is squashed by a closed die. Automotive engine valves and axles are hot upset and then machined while bolt and screw heads are upset cold.
Force Punch Force Grainflow or fibre in the upset bolt head
Figure 3.17 Upsetting
Extrusion
Any component with a continuous, parallel profile can be extruded. Some metals can be extruded cold but the addition of heat will considerably increase the plasticity of the metal. The direct extrusion process involves an amount of metal being placed in a chamber. A ram then pushes the metal through a simple profile die at the end of the chamber. Most low strength, non-ferrous metals are easily extruded while special lubricants and high strength dies are necessary for the extrusion of steel. The extrusion of hollow profiles requires the use of mandrels or bridge dies to allow the hollows to be formed.
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Ram
Die Extruded solid shape
Billet pushed through die Ram Die Extruded pipe
Mandrel Figure 3.18 Direct extrusion of solid and tube
Plug
Piercing
Tube can be made from rod by the Mannesmann process. It is a hot working process where the rod is rotated between two rollers which rotate in the same direction. This action produces an elliptical section in the rod drawing metal away from the centre. A rotating mandrel pierces into the centre forming the bore of the tube. The tubes produced will be sized and straightened on other rollers and can undergo further hot and cold forming processes.
Rotating skew rolls
Seamless pipe
Billet
Rotating mandrel Figure 3.19 The Mannesmann process
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Seamless tubes used in bicycle frames start their life via this process and are then drawn cold to give dimensional accuracy and increased strength properties. Tubes used in light weight frames are butted at the ends. This involves controlled upsetting of the tube to thicken and therefore strengthen it at the ends as the joints are the regions of greatest stress. After looking at these forming processes it is possible to consider various component parts of a bicycle. Complete the following table by suggesting a likely material and forming process for each of the parts. For this activity, it would be good if you had a bicycle to closely inspect. If this isn't possible, one of the pictures found earlier in this module will do!
Component Wheel hub Material Aluminium alloy Forming process Cold forged then CNC machined and spoke holes drilled Cold drawn, thread rolled and end upset and bent Hot extruded profile then cold rolled and the joint tungsten inert gas welded Cold forged then anodised to increase wear resistance Pierced, cold drawn then butted
Spokes
Stainless steel
Rims
Aluminium alloy
Chainwheel
Aluminium alloy (anodised) Steel alloy or aluminium alloy Stainless steel
Frame tubes
Brake cable (inner) Brake cable (outer) Brake calipers Brake disc Pedal crank Seat frame
Cold drawn then twisted into a flexible cable Cold drawn then spiral wound
Medium carbon steel Aluminium alloy Stainless steel Aluminium alloy Mild steel or aluminium alloy Medium carbon steel
Die cast Cold stamped then machined Hot forged then machined Cold drawn then bent to shape
Bottom bracket axle
Drop forged and machined
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Seat post Brake levers Gear frame Bolts and screws Handle bars
Did you answer? Seat post Steel alloy or aluminium alloy Aluminium alloy Steel alloy or aluminium alloy Mild steel Pierced and cold drawn
Brake levers
Die cast
Gear frame
pierced, cold drawn than bent to shape and butted Wire is drawn to make bolts and screws then heads are upset cold Pierced, cold drawn then bent to shape
Bolts and screws Handle bars
Steel alloy or aluminium alloy
Note that those components may be made of different materials and by different forming processes depending on the style and quality of the bicycle. For example, the brake levers may be made of cast or moulded polymer.
Turn to the exercises section and complete exercise 3.4.
Powder forming
Powder forming, also known as powder metallurgy, has three clear steps in the manufacture of components. 1 Powder manufacture Brittle powders can be mechanically disintegrated while ductile metals are atomised by blasting a stream of molten metal with a jet of air. Chemical and electrolytic methods can also be used. Once
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produced, these powders are blended in the correct proportions ready for the next stage. 2 Pressing Hardened steel or carbide dies are filled with the powder that is then pressed. Pressing contols the porosity of the powder, mechanically 'keys' some of the particles together and can cold weld some of the particles together. The pressed component is rigid but has little strength. 3 Sintering After pressing, the component is heated in a furnace to a temperature below the metal's melting point. With powder mixtures, the temperature may be set so that the lowest melting point metal melts and flows through the structure 'cementing' the component together. In cemented carbides the ceramic particles are cemented with cobalt or nickel. Powder forming is suitable for producing a number of different types of components including: solid bronze bearings, with voids to trap lubricants, and solid metal filters are common uses of this technology. These bearings are used to support many spindles found in cars such as in the alternator, starter motor and windscreen wiper motor. complex shapes such as gears, cogs and levers that would otherwise require a lot of careful machining. The gears in the gear box of a car are manufactured by this process. very hard materials that would be too difficult to machine composites between materials that don't normally mix. The brushes used in electrical devices such as the starter motor in a car are often made from a blend of copper and graphite.
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Non-ferrous metals
Non-ferrous metals are routinely used by design engineers. The choice of what metal to use is necessarily based on the properties of the metal, and the cost of the metal. The table below briefly lists some common non-ferrous metals and alloys that are used in bicycles. The table also includes each material's properties and suggests some specific applications.
Metal Aluminium Properties corrosion resistant, soft, can be cold worked combines relatively high strength, workability, and corrosion resistance Uses swaged ends on cables
Aluminium 6061-T6 Al - 98% with Fe, Si, Mg, Ti, Cu, Mn, Cr, Zn Aluminium 7075-T6 Al - 90%, Zn - 6%, Mg, Cu, Cr, Ti, Si, Zr, Fe Titanium
used extensively for tube in bicycle frames, bicycle wheel hubs and rims
a very stiff and high strength alloy used for structural parts, resists stress-corrosion cracks light and strong, resilient and shock absorbing, non-corrosive
forged bicycle drive parts such as cranks and chain wheels. Anodised for hardness used for tube in high quality bicycle frames, light weight fittings on top quality bicycles used for tube in very high quality bicycle frames
Scandium
twice as strong as similar size aluminium and around the same weight corrosion resistant, soft, can be cold worked
Brass 70% Cu /30% Zn Chromium
spoke eyelets in aluminium alloy rims, swaged ends on cables
hard element with a wear resistant, clear oxide
plating for both increasing wear resistance and aesthetics
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Some properties of non-ferrous metals and alloys are: good formability low density corrosion resistance high thermal and electrical conductivity stiffness and strength usually lower than ferrous metals poor weldability.
Non ferrous metals are also used in cars and trains. To reduce mass in high-speed trains, aluminium alloys are used for carriage bodies, bogies and even seat frames. Using aluminium sheets, instead of copper wires, in transformers has reduced the overall mass of these by 33%. Have a good look all over a motor vehicle, and list the parts that appear to be made from or coated with a non-ferrous metal. You can normally tell from the colour. Many non-ferrous metals are silvery or many different shades of yellow in colour. __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________
Did you answer? Did you find things like the rear-view mirror frame, door handles, rocker cover, head, master cylinder, carburettor, fuel injectors, alternator body, water pump, gearbox housing and sump?
Aluminium and some of its alloys

Pure aluminium
Aluminium's high affinity for oxygen proved to be a disadvantage when trying to extract the metal from it's ore, bauxite. Aluminium has a higher affinity for oxygen than has carbon so aluminium can't be burnt out of bauxite and can only be separated from oxygen economically by electrolytic means.
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In 1825, an expensive reducing agent was used to produce the first samples of aluminium. In the Court of Napoleon III only the most favoured guests were privileged to use forks and spoons made from aluminium while the others had to 'make do' with mere gold plate and silver cutlery. Aluminium's great affinity for oxygen is advantageous in that a dense, impervious film of oxide forms on the surface and protects the metal from further oxidation. This natural corrosion resistance can be further improved by anodising, a treatment that artificially thickens the natural oxide film, and the slight porosity of the oxide allows it to be coloured with organic or inorganic dyes. Since aluminium oxide is extremely hard, this oxide layer also increases wear resistance. As aluminium has over 50% of the specific conductivity of copper, weight for weight it is a better conductor of electricity than copper and is widely used, normally twisted around a steel core, as a current carrier in the electric grid system. Pure aluminium is relatively soft and weak in its annealed condition and is generally used in the alloyed condition for most engineering applications.
Aluminium alloys
The addition of alloying elements is made to improve mechanical properties such as tensile strength, hardness, rigidity and machinability and sometimes to improve casting properties. Aluminium alloys may be used in both the cast and wrought conditions and some may have their properties further modified through precipitation hardening. Some elements added to aluminium and their effects include: copper, which is used in a majority of alloys that are destined for precipitation hardening magnesium, which allows precipitation hardening to occur while retaining high electrical conductivity and good corrosion resistance silicon, which allows precipitation hardening to occur while retaining high electrical conductivity and good corrosion resistance iron, which assists in precipitation hardening titanium and manganese, which refine the grain structure zinc and chromium, which help to produce excellent tensile strength.
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Aluminium silicon alloys Various alloys within this system are used in the cast and wrought condition. Those alloys containing aluminium and between 9% and 13% silicon are near to the eutectic composition. They therefore have a low melting point and are suitable as die-casting alloys. These alloys have excellent foundry characteristics and resistance to corrosion. Common casting uses include general-purpose sand castings and pressure or gravity die-castings in the form of intricate fittings, engine sumps and gearboxes. Wrought alloys have good forgability and a low coefficient of thermal expansion. Uses include forged automotive pistons, sheet panelling and welding wire. Aluminium copper alloys Alloys that contain between 2.5% and 5% copper will respond to treatment by precipitation hardening. This phenomenon was first observed in 1906 and the alloy was first produced commercially as duralumin around 1910. The first significant use of duralumin was during WWI as structural members of Zeppelin airships. Consider an alloy containing 4% copper. Above 500C the microstructure will be all single-phase alpha solid solution. Under equilibrium cooling, a precipitate of CuAl2 will occur. A few large particles of hard and brittle CuAl2 intermetalic compound will appear in the alpha grains. The resulting structure will lack strength and will be brittle. If the alloy is reheated to 500C, the alloy once again contains all singlephase alpha. On quenching the alloy, the copper is retained in solution and in this condition the alloy is stronger, harder and more ductile than the equilibrium structure. If the alloy is allowed to remain at room temperature, it will be found that the strength and hardness gradually increase - to a maximum after six days. This change is due to submicroscopic particles of CuAl2 moving out of solid solution and causing slight distortion of the alpha lattice structure. This process of natural ageing is often replaced by artificial ageing. The alloy is reheated to 120C causing precipitation of the fine copper-rich phase to occur within a few hours. Care must be taken not to allow overageing to occur which will allow the alloy to return to near equilibrium conditions of alpha with visible CuAl2 precipitate. This will reduce the mechanical properties of the alloy.
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These alloys are used in both the cast and wrought condition for general purposes, goose necks and seat posts on bicycles and framing and cladding in the aircraft industry. Aluminium Silicon-magnesium alloys Magnesium and silicon combine to form magnesium silicide (Mg2Si) which in turn forms a simple eutectic system with aluminium. Precipitation of Mg2Si after artificial aging, allows these alloys to reach their full strength. Wrought alloys in this system are characterised by excellent corrosion resistance and more workability than other heat-treatable alloys. Applications include canoes, furniture, vacuum cleaner tubing, bridge railings and architectural applications. Casting alloys exhibit good castability, strength, pressure-tightness and corrosion resistance. In the heat-treated condition their mechanical properties are similar to those of the aluminium-copper alloys. Uses include aircraft applications, machine-tool parts and general-purpose castings. Aluminium zinc alloys Commercial wrought and forging alloys, such as the 7000 series, contain around 6% zinc and smaller amounts of magnesium, copper, manganese and chromium. Subsequent heat treatment produces a high strength alloy with high corrosion resistance that is used for aircraft structural parts, bicycle cranks and chain-wheels and other applications that require a high strength to weight ratio. The alloys may also be cast and have very good machinability. They may be used for aircraft fittings, turret housings and radio equipment.
Brasses
These are alloys of copper and up to 45% zinc plus other elements such as tin, lead, manganese, aluminium and iron. Alloys containing up to 37% zinc have a single-phase structure existing entirely of a. This a phase is typically tough and ductile making these brasses suitable for severe cold working by pressing, drawing and extrusion. This is also true of other a phases such as ferrite in the ironcarbon system.
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Under equilibrium cooling a brasses form large equiaxed grains creating a soft and malleable structure. If they are cooled at a slightly faster rate, a cored structure is produced with the centre of each grain richer in the higher melting point copper and the outer portion richer in zinc. These skeleton-like cores will reduce the malleability of the material. The microstructures in figure 3.20 show brass containing 70% copper & 30 % zinc, commonly known as cartridge brass, cooled under equilibrium and faster that equilibrium conditions.
cored
Equilibrium Cooling Cored Structure Figure 3.20 Cartridge brass microstructures
In alloys with more than 37% zinc, a hard and brittle b phase is also present. In fact a brass containing 60% zinc contains all b until it cools to around 750C when the a starts to precipitate out within the grains of b. Brass containing 60% copper and 40% zinc is commonly known as Muntz metal and its structure is shown in figure 3.21.
b
a precipitate Figure 3.21 Muntz metal under equilibrium cooling
The following table briefly lists some common brasses, includes each material's properties and suggests some specific applications.
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Metal Cartridge Brass 70/30 copper/zinc Muntz Metal 60/40 copper/zinc High Tensile Brass 58% Cu, 28% Zn with small amounts of Mn, Al F Pb & S Brazing Alloys 50/50 Cu/Zn
Properties corrosion resistant, soft, can be severely cold worked
Applications cold rolled sheet, wire, tube, electrical contacts in motor vehicles.
corrosion resistant, high strength, excellent hot working properties.
extruded as tubes and rods, hot rolled plate, screwed electrical terminals in cars pressings, forgings and stampings, switchgear, clutch discs in motor vehicles used as a filler rod when applying low temperative joining methods
high strength combined with excellent wear resistance
hard and brittle, essentially b brasses
Bronzes
Bronzes are any copper alloy, except for the copper zinc series.
Tin bronzes
Bronzes containing copper and around 10% tin were probably the first alloys to be used by man. In Britain, bronze articles almost four thousand years old have been found. One of the significant factors in the Early Roman conquests was probably the bronze sword. They realised that 10% tin gave a hard bronze while less tin produced a softer alloy. Alloys up to 7% tin are all a phase which is a tough and ductile solid solution that can be successfully cold worked. The hard and brittle d phase is normally present in all alloys containing more than 7% tin and alloys above this composition are hot worked or cast. Wrought alloys contain up to 7% tin and are supplied as rolled sheet and drawn rod. Coinage bronze containing copper with 4% tin and 1% zinc, is soft and ductile and, as implied by the name, is used for "copper" coins. Casting alloys contain up to 18% tin and are used for bearings with the hard d phase resisting wear and the a phase matrix providing toughness
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and shock resistance. These alloys typically have high strength, toughness, a low coefficient of friction and resist corrosion. Uses include lock washers, cotter pins, bushes, clutch discs and springs. The inclusion of up to 1% of phosphorous will further improve strength properties and lead will improve machinability and wear resistance. Leaded alloys are used for automotive crankshaft bearings.
Aluminium bronzes
These bronzes are single-phase cold worked structures up to 5% aluminium and hot worked alloys contain around 10% aluminium. The 10% alloy can be heat treated in a similar way to steel producing a martensitic structure when quenched from 900C. The main uses of aluminium bronzes depend on features such as: the ability to retain strength at elevated temperatures good corrosion resistance at ordinary temperatures high resistance to oxidation at elevated temperatures good wearing properties pleasing colour making some of these alloys useful for decorative work.
The table outlines the details of two common aluminium bronzes.

% 80 Other Al 10% Fe 5% Ni 5% 95.5 Fe 2.5% Ni 1% Mn 1% can be cast or cold worked, good strength, resists corrosion, fatigue and wear widely used for die and sand casting, valves, gears Properties suitable for casting or forging, good strength and hardness, can be hardened and tempered Applications shafts, spindles and castings that require strength and corrosion resistance, valve seats and spark plug bodies
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Strengthening and heat treatment

List processes that are used to change the properties of non-ferrous alloys. __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________
Did you answer? Did you come up with cold working, annealing, quench hardening, tempering, precipitation hardening and artificial aging?
Many non-ferrous metals can only have their strength altered by cold working. As the cold working process distorts the lattice structure of the metal, tensile strength, yield strength and hardness increase while ductility and conductivity decrease. The degree of changes to properties is relative to the amount of deformation. For example, if a piece of annealed 70/30 is compared with another piece that is cold rolled to half the thickness the following results are observed. The cold rolled piece has twice the tensile strength and eight times the hardness of the annealed piece. The annealed piece is nine times as ductile and fifteen percent more conductive than the cold rolled piece.
Refined grains Flattened elongated grains of
Normalised
Cold worked
Figure 3.22 Normal and cold worked structures
Temper designations
Properties resulting from cold working are well understood and manufacturers carefully control the amount of deformation to produce just the right properties in the product. Terms such as half-hard, extrahard, and extra spring have traditionally been used to describe the properties of cold worked copper-based items and to also indicate the percentage reduction. Half-hard is caused by a reduction of around 20% while extra spring is caused by around a 70% reduction.
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Classifications of aluminium and its alloys are achieved through the use of a notation rather than a name. The 6061 alloy used in some bicycle frames has a temper notation of T6.
Recovery
In a highly stressed material, the combined effects of internal stresses and intergranular corrosion may cause season cracks to appear along the grain boundaries. In some cold worked materials it is therefore desirable to slightly relieve some of the stresses. Low temperature annealing, well below the recrystallisation temperature, will not change the distorted structure or desirable properties but slightly relieves some of the stresses at the grain boundaries.
Annealing
Annealing involves heating and soaking the metal above its recrystallisation temperature then cooling it back to room temperature. With most non-ferrous materials the rate of cooling isn't important so once annealing is completed the metal can be cooled rapidly. The more heavily a material is cold worked the more nucleii will form on recrystallisation. This will initially lead to a large number of smaller equiaxed grains. When lightly cold worked material is recrystallised the initial structure is fewer larger grains While ever the metal soaks above the recrystallisation temperature, the grain structure continues to grow into larger equiaxed grains. This grain growth produces a softer material because the large grains are easier to deform and there are less grain boundaries to restrict the movement of the grains.
Nucleation commences at grain boundaries
Grain growth occurs
Recrystallised structure
Grain growth
Figure 3.23 Structures showing recrystallisation and grain growth
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Precipitation hardening
Some non-ferrous alloys, when cooled under equilibrium conditions, become hard and brittle due to the complete precipitation of a metal compound. If these alloys are reheated back into a single-phase structure then quenched, the compound is not allowed to precipitate. In time, a week at room temperature or a couple of hours under low heat, submicroscopic particles of the compound move into the lattice structure of the single-phase structure. This has the effect of slightly distorting the lattice structure and increasing the hardness and strength of the material. One common alloy that is treated in this way is duralumin. It is an alloy of aluminium and 4% copper that has been used on bicycles for seat posts, pedal cranks and goose necks.
Hardening and tempering

Just like steels, some non-ferrous alloys can be hardened and tempered. The advantage of these materials over steel is they have much greater corrosion resistance. A common example is an aluminium bronze containing copper with 10% aluminium. It is quenched from around 1 000C to produce a martensitic structure. Reheating and soaking at around 550C improves the toughness of the aluminium bronze while reducing its brittleness. Turn to the exercise section and complete exercise 3.5.
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Polymers
Define the term polymer. Check the glossaries from the preliminary modules for a definition. __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________
Did you answer? A definition that indicated many repeating parts or long molecular chains with a basic repeating structural pattern would have been on the right track.
As you have learned previously, polymers can be both naturally occurring, like cellulose and rubber, and man-made, like nylon and Bakelite. Polymers are of two basic types, thermosoftening that remelt when heated and thermosetting that don't. There are also other structural factors that can greatly influence the properties of polymers. Look over your car and bicycle then identify any parts that are made from a polymer. __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________
Did you answer? Did you find items like the dashboard, console, seat belts, carpet, mirror housings, bumper panels, light covers, cable covers, reflectors, body trim cover strips, hub caps, tyres, tubes, handle grips and brake blocks?
By the end of this module you will have a good idea of the types of polymers used for these parts and will know how they have been made.
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Thermosoftening polymers
Most thermosoftening polymers are based on covalently bonded hydrocarbon chains with carbon and hydrogen as the basic building blocks. Any hydrocarbon that has a multiple covalent bond in its structure can be polymerised. A good example is ethene or ethylene that can be polymerised to form polythene or as more commonly known polyethylene. H H H H
Bond broken Figure 3.24 Polymerisation of ethylene
H H H H
H H H H C C C C H H H H
C C + C C
This type of simple polymerisation is known as addition polymerisation and involves the linking of monomers with the inclusion of all parts of the structure and without leaving any waste. Heat, pressure and a suitable catalyst are required to break the multiple bonds and then reform them to create a very long molecule that is covalently bonded along its length. Copolymerisation occurs when different monomers are added together to provide a combination of properties. Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene or ABS is an example of a copolymer. Break the double bonds in the vinyl chloride monomers in figure 3.24 to create polyvinyl chloride or PVC. H H Cl H H H Cl H
C C + C C
Figure 3.25 Polymerisation of vinyl chloride
Did you answer? H C H H C C H C
Cl H Cl H
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There shouldn't be any double bonds in your polymer as all these will have been broken in the forming of the polymer. You should have a continuous string of carbon atoms with chlorine and hydrogen atoms attached to them in the ratio of one chlorine atom for every three hydrogen atoms. Generally you can consider a thermosoftening polymer to have a structure that looks like a plate of cooked spaghetti. The long chains are randomly arranged in an amorphous pattern and any crystalline regions are purely by chance not by design.
Tangled polymer chains Figure 3.26 Structure of a simple linear polymer
Properties of thermosoftening polymers

Linear thermosoftening chains all have the same basic structure. There are strong covalent bonds along the chains but no primary bond at all between the chains. Because of the uneven distribution of electrons involved in some of the covalent bonds, often one part of the linear chain has a positive charge while other parts are negatively charged. If these two regions are close there will be an attraction that can influence the properties of the polymer. This attraction is a type of secondary bond known as a Van der Waals force. This attraction can occur both within and between chains. Low softening temperature Only the weak secondary bonds need to be broken to allow the polymer to 'flow'. This occurs around 100C for most thermopolymers. Nylon is an exception to the rule! Oxygen atoms on one chain are attracted to hydrogen atoms on adjacent chains through a stronger type of secondary bond. This elevates the softening temperature of nylon to around 240C and also increases its strength properties. Unfortunately it also gives nylon a greater attraction for water and special dryers must be used when moulding nylon to ensure steam bubbles don't form inside the mouldings.
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Transparent verses opaque As in glasses, any polymer that is amorphous can be transparent while crystalline polymers will be opaque. Some polymers are made up of simple, uniform groups that form simple parallel chains. These polymers often have areas where the chains are closely aligned and consequently light will not pass through. Highdensity polyethylene is an example of this type of structure. Other polymers have a mixture of large and small groups that don't allow alignment and therefore the light can easily pass through the structure. Perspex, used in tail light lenses, is an example of this type of polymer. Get hold of: a freezer bag (you know the noisy, grey ones that hang in rolls in fruit shops). This is high density polyethylene. a clear bag (like a Glad snaplock) or some clear non-adhesive book covering plastic or some plastic food wrap. This is probably low density polyethylene.
Suggest, in terms of their structure, why one type of 'plastic' is clear but the other is, at best, translucent. __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________
Did you answer? Did you talk about the freezer bag being crystalline while the other was amorphous?
Take the clear non-adhesive plastic and stretch it till it is just about to break. Hopefully your plastic went white or grey at this point. Explain what has happened to the structure to cause this colour change. __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________
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Did you answer? Did you mention that the polymer had become crystalline at this point and therefore it had also become opaque?
Strength It is much harder to break primary bonds than secondary bonds so any material will be stronger when its primary bonds are stressed. If thermosoftening polymers have simple linear chains they will be stronger along the chains than across them. A good example of this is a plastic supermarket bag. Get hold of a 'plastic' supermarket bag (you know the ones that the bottoms fall out of when you fill them with bottles of soft drink). This is high density polyethylene. When this bag was manufactured the polymer chains would have been aligned from top to bottom so that really only secondary bonds are acting across the bag. Would you expect it to be stronger when you pulled between the handles and the base or when you pulled from side to side? Prove your answer! Take hold of the bag and see in which direction it stretches more easily. Were you right? It is quite significantly stronger from top to bottom because you are trying to break strong covalent bonds. Strength and rigidity can also be caused in some polymers because of the large groups that are attached to the long chains. These large groups act like branches and when they catch on other branches on adjacent chains the chains are prevented from sliding over each other. Of course the large groups also prevent crystallisation so these types of materials are typically clear and rigid. Polycarbonate, used as an unbreakable glass substitute in windows, is an example of this type of polymer.
Branches do not link between chains Figure 3.27 A linear polymer with branched chains
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Elastomers
Some thermosoftening polymers still have a multiple bond in their structure after polymerisation. Rubbers, both natural and synthetic, are examples of this type of polymer. Due to the sliding of the chains, natural rubber items will become distorted under a tensile load. This can be minimised through the process of vulcanising. This involves the controlled breaking of some of the 'spare' multiple bonds in the polymer and the formation of covalent bonds between adjacent chains. Sulfur is introduced as the vulcanising agent or link between the chains and the process also requires both heat and pressure. These strong and permanent covalent bonds between chains means that it will no longer completely soften under heating but the strength properties of the rubber are improved. The greater the number of cross-links between chains the more rigid the rubber becomes. Ordinary vulcanised rubber contains about 4% sulfur and about 10% of the spare double bonds are involved. Ebonite contains 45% sulfur and all the double bonds are broken. Unfortunately, double bonds not involved in the vulcanisation process can be broken and cross-linked by oxygen or ozone. This form of oxidation is known as perishing and embrittles the rubber. H H H or CH2 CH3 C CH CH2
n
C C C C H H H C H H
S
S
S
Sulfur cross-link Figure 3.28 The vulcanisation of natural rubber
Fillers such as carbon black and silica are often added to vulcanised rubber as they increase the materials resistance to both abrasion and tearing.
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Neoprene or polychloroprene is a synthetic rubber commonly used in contact with oils and solvents. Used in the flexible hoses in the hydraulic brake systems and fuel systems of cars, this polymer is crosslinked with the oxides of zinc or magnesium. Butyl rubber is another common synthetic. As it doesn't have any spare double bonds, it is often copolymerised with just the right amount of isoprene to provide cross-linking sites. After vulcanisation there are no sites left for oxidation to occur so the life of the rubber is prolonged. This rubber holds air and gases very well and is used extensively in the manufacture of bicycle tubes and tyres.
Properties of elastomers
A lightly vulcanised elastomer will display the following properties: electrical insulator as all electrons are involved in bonding relatively good abrasion resistance extend to many times its original length, under a tensile load, then return to its original shape after the load is removed this property known as resilience.
Stress
Strain Figure 3.29 Stress/strain curve of an elastomer
Note how the curve in figure 3.29 is a different shape to the stress/strain curves for metals. It doesn't start with a straight-line section and is therefore seen to be an inelastic material. The early part of the curve shows much extension with little applied load. At this time the long tangled chains are being straightened out and only secondary bonds are being broken. Towards the end, the graph rises sharply indicating that a greater load is needed but produces little extra extension. This is because all the chains are now straight and the strong primary bonds are resisting further
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change. Ultimately these primary bonds will be broken and the elastomer will fail. Get hold of a 'rubber' band (a wide one would be best) Stretch the rubber band with your hands and confirm the stress/strain curve shown in figure 3.29. The band is easy to stretch at the start but gets harder the more you stretch it. Eventually it becomes white and, if you are strong enough, it breaks.
Thermosetting polymers
Some polymers form a network structure that has primary bonds in all three dimensions. This form of polymerisation often occurs through a condensation reaction where molecules combine and a by-product is left over. Phenol-formaldehyde, or bakelite, is one example of this type of polymer.
CH2O + C6H5OH + C6H5OH
Formaldehyde Phenol Phenol
C13H10(OH)2 + H2O
Phenol formaldehyde Water
Figure 3.30 Condensation polymerisation
The strong covalent bonds, in all three dimensions, means that these polymers are typically rigid, hard, opaque and will not soften under heat. The polymers can take the form of powder or liquid resins and catalysts that are mixed together in the correct proportions. Some are just mixed and formed, like polyester resin used when fibre glassing and epoxy resin (araldite), while others, like Bakelite, require heat and pressure for polymerisation to occur. Fillers such as chopped fabric and glass fibre improve the impact strength while mica improves electrical resistance and graphite reduces the coefficient of friction. Thermosetting polymers, like polyurethane, can also be foamed and used as the light weight core in foam sandwich fibre reinforced polymers. Foamed polymers, like foamed polystyrene, also absorb impact and can be used in items such as bicycle helmets.
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Additions to polymers
Polymers are nearly always mixed with additives to enhance the properties of the composite body. Some of these additives are: pigments that provide colouring plasticisers that lubricate between the polymer chains to increase flexibility stabilisers, such as carbon black, that prevent damage from uv rays fillers that simply reduce the amount of polymer needed but also alter the properties. these include glass fibres for strength and wood flour to increase rigidity.
Some polymers used in bicycles and cars

Thermosoftening
Polymer Polyethylene Polythene Properties low melting temperature, tough, flexible, insulator, low density has branched chains reducing crystallinity, high density is linear Applications coating on outer of bike gear and brake cables
Polycarbonate
high impact strength, transparent, UV stable, dimensional stability
unbreakable window 'glass', bike helmets, bike light bodies
Polypropylene
very tough, rigid, electrical insulator, inert, bends as a hinge without cracking
seat belting, carpet, onepiece accelerator pedal, battery outer casing
PVC Polyvinyl chloride
excellent electrical insulator, hard, rigid and tough or with plasticisers added it is soft, tough and flexible, backed with textile as a fabric
covering on electrical wiring, covering on bike seats and some upholstery trim in cars, handle grips
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Polyamide (nylon)
excellent chemical resistance, high strength, heat resistant, dimensional stability, wear resistant transparent, excellent optical properties, weather resistant
gears inside instruments, bushes, low-friction washers, fabric belts in tyres car weather shields, bicycle and car reflectors and light lenses, instruments Helmet outers, chrome plated body trim
Acrylic perspex ABS
fatigue resistant, hard, rigid, tough, impact strength, good surface finish, metallic in feel, can be chrome plated
Elastomers
Polymer Vulcanised rubber Properties low cost, good all-round properties, flexible, tough Applications car tyres, engine mounts, bike brake blocks radiator hoses, flexible fuel and brake fluid lines
Neoprene
good heat resistance and resistance to oils, flexible, tough
Butyl rubber
good resistance to ozone, holds air and gases well
inner tubes, bicycle tyres, singles
Thermosetting
Polymer Silicones Properties inert, resists oxidation, excellent electrical insulator, can be formed into rubbers excellent insulators, trap air in the way of sponge, inert Applications insulators, seals in air, water and hydraulic systems upholstery foam, noise insulation
Polyurethane foam
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Polymer forming processes

The following processes are used in the manufacture of parts for bicycles, cars and trains.
Injection moulding Extrusion film and solid Blow moulding Calendering Rotational moulding Casting Compression moulding Transfer moulding
Injection moulding
Polymer granules are placed in a hopper that feeds into a heating chamber. The polymer is forced through the chamber by a 'screw' where it is melted. The molten polymer is injected into a cool permanent metal mould. Once the polymer sets, the mould opens and the finished item is removed. Mould design must allow items to be removed from the mould. This is the most widely used type of polymer forming process and is used on all types of polymers.
Polymer pellets loaded into hopper Nozzle Heater Movable mould
Rotating screw or hydraulic ram
Spreader
Moulded part
Figure 3.31 Injection moulding
Polymer components such as pedals, lights, handle grips and reflectors on bicycles and consoles, body trims, rear light assemblies and glove boxes on cars are all made by injection moulding.
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Extrusion
Each form of extrusion starts with the melting of polymer granules as for injection moulding. A continuous profile is made when molten polymer is pushed through a specially shaped die. As this polymer solidifies it may be cut to length or rolled up. Thermosoftening polymers and elastomers are commonly extruded into items such as seals around car doors. Bicycle tubes are extruded, joined to form a ring and then the valve is fitted. Polymer can also be extruded around another material as in the case of PVC insulation extruded onto the outside of copper wire that is used in the electrical systems of trains and cars.
Hopper feed for plastic granules
Heating coils Die
Rotating screw feed
Extruded product
Figure 3.32 Continuous extrusion
Polymers can also be extruded as films as shown in figure 3.33.
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Film wound onto rolls Rollers to guide film
Blown film
Cooling air
Air to inflate film Extruded plastic
Figure 3.33 Film extrusion
Though not used much in transport components, this process is used to make thin films or bags in many different thermopolymers.
Blow moulding
This process can be used to make bottles and narrow necked containers. Polymer is softened by heat then it is extruded, with the assistance of gravity, as a tube. The metal mould closes around the viscous polymer tube sealing the lower end and leaving a hole at the top. Air is blown into the top pushing the hot polymer against the walls of the mould.
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Mould Blow pin
Compressed air
Compressed air
Hot extruded plastic Closing mould seals polymer tube Figure 3.34 Blow moulding
Plastic blown to take the shape of the mould
Thermosoftening polymers are moulded using this process and blow moulding is used to form items such as the drink bottle on a bicycle and fluid reservoirs for cooling, cleaning, brake and clutch systems in cars. Turn to the exercise section and complete exercise 3.7.
Calendering
This process was once used for the production of films but is now more often used to form composite materials. For example viscous PVC is spread onto the surface of a fabric and then rolled. Patterned rollers can be used to produce a textured surface on the polymer. Vinyl coated fabrics used in some upholstery in cars and on the seats of bicycles is made using this process.
Coating knife Coating liquid
or
Fabric backing Figure 3.35 Calendering
Knife over roll coating
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Rotational moulding
Rotational moulding is used to mould hollow stress-free items. A permanent metal mould is made of the outer shape of the product. A measured quantity of polymer granules is loaded into the mould which is then closed. The mould is moved into a heating chamber and rotated constantly through 360. The polymer granules melt when they come into contact with the heated mould and a 'skin' forms on the inside of the mould.
Heated to 170270C and rotated Cooled while still rotating and then removed from mould
Powdered plastic poured into mould
Figure 3.36 Rotational moulding
Casting
All types of polymers can be cast once in a viscous state. Acrylic, polycarbonate and polyurethane foams are cast into large sheets. Polyester resins are blended with glass fibres and cast into moulds either by hand or by spraying techniques. Many of the internal panels in trains are made from glass reinforced polymers that have been cast in this way. Carbon fibre reinforced bicycle frames are also made through this process of casting. Careful placement of the carbon fibres provides much greater control of the flexibility and response of the bicycle frame. A variety of frame tubes can be made and then glued together or an inflatable internal mould may be used and a one-piece frame cast.
Compression moulding
This process is commonly used for forming elastomers and thermosetting polymers. Polymer powders are mixed with fillers and then placed directly into a heated mould. The closing mould compresses the polymer and this combination of heat and pressure polymerises and forms the item.
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Car tyres are manufactured in a type of compression mould. A variation of this process is transfer moulding which is also used for thermosetting polymers. The polymer is combined and melted in another chamber then transferred into the mould where it is subjected to pressure and further heating to promote curing.
Force Moulded pot
Mould plunger
Heated mould
Moulding material Ejector pin or Split mould
Figure 3.37 Compression moulding
Engineering textiles
Many of the man-made polymer fibres have properties that are not always typical of textiles. However, a very common application of a polymer in a textile form is shade cloth, used to restrict ultra violet rays and provide shade. Polypropylene, polyethylene, polyester and nylon are all woven into fabrics that are used in filtration systems. Different applications and environments will require careful assessment of each material by the textile engineer. A social problem, such as vandalism on trains has provided textile engineers with a number of difficulties. Train seats were once covered
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with a vinyl fabric on foam padding. Unfortunately this fabric was easily torn so the challenge was to develop a comfortable, non-rip and easily cleaned fabric for train seats. Seats in current trains are covered with a tough woven polymer fabric that is extremely hard to tear, is comfortable and fairly easy to clean.
Laminated and tempered glass

In most cars today, the windscreen is made from laminated glass and the other windows are made from tempered or toughened glass. 1 Have a good look at the windows in your car. You should find some details about the window stamped in one corner. Jot those details down. _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ 2 Explain how glass is toughened or tempered with the aid of a sketch. _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________
Did you answer? 1 Did you find the name of the manufacturer, probably Pilkington if it's an Australian made car, and details of the manufacturing and heat treatment processes? Did you find the words 'safety glass' on the windscreen? This indicates that the windscreen is laminated. 2 The dampening process involves heating the glass to its annealing range and rapidly cooling the outside surfaces by air blasting. As the glass mass cools, it contracts to develop compressive stresses in the skin and tensile stresses in the interior.
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1 Heat the glass to the annealing range
2 Air blast the outside surfaces Compressive stresses in skin
3 Slowly cool to room temperature
Tensile forces in the interior
Figure 3.38 Tempering glass
Sketch and label the failure patterns for untreated, laminated and toughened glasses.
Did you answer?
Untreated glass
Laminated glass
Toughened glass
Figure 3.39 Feature patterns of glass
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The laminated windscreen on your car has been carefully manufactured using the following procedure: annealed glass is cut to the correct size and shape using a template. pairs of windscreen glass are heated in a lehr or furnace and draped into a metal mould to form the correct shape the shaped glass is cooled slowly to an annealed condition the pairs are split and thoroughly cleaned a layer of polyvinyl butyl is laid between the layers of the glass (the tint at the top of a screen is in this polymer layer before laminating) the laminated screen is then run between rollers to remove most of the trapped air time in an autoclave with heat and pressure will remove the rest of the air and leave the screen clear each screen is tested to check for optical clarity.
It is only in recent years that all windscreens have been made from laminated glass as they were once mainly made from toughened glass. Suggest why it is safer to make windscreens from laminated glass rather than toughened glass. __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________
Did you answer? It is all to do with the failure pattern for each type of glass. While toughened screens are much stronger than laminated screens, when a toughened screen does break the driver can't see at all. This is very dangerous when a truck flicks a stone up while you are travelling at 110 km/ph on a country road.
Of course all the other glass in the car is toughened making it very strong. If it does break, the stresses in the glass cause the whole panel to shatter into small pieces with relatively smooth edges. This means it wont cut you and, as these are side and rear windows, your view of the road ahead will not be obscured.
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Exercises
Exercise 3.1 a With the aid of a sketch, describe the Izod notched bar impact test.
_______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ b Complete the following table by suggesting an important service property and the most suitable test that could be used to assess this property.
Component A cast train wheel Service property Test
A bicycle frame
Suspension springs
Bicycle helmets
A brake cable
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Discuss situations where modeling or proving tests may be used in the development of bicycles, cars or trains. _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________
Exercise 3.2 a Sketch and clearly label the microstructures of the two carbon steels identified and the cast iron.
Low Carbon Steel
Grey Cast Iron
Carbon Tool Steel
Complete the following table by suggesting a plain carbon steel suitable for the application and the forming process used to manufacture the component.
Component Steel type Forming process
Gear and brake cables
Common bolts
Railway track
Auto disk brake
Auto suspension springs
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Name one steel alloy and explain how its properties differ from those of mild steel. _______________________________________________________ State the changes in strength properties that occur as carbon content is increased in plain carbon steels. _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________
Exercise 3.3 a Explain how the structure of medium and high carbon steels allow them to be quench hardened. _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ b Suggest why normalising would be carried out on a ferrous casting. _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ c Complete the following table by suggesting the properties achieved and typical applications, in transportation components, for each of the forms of surface hardening listed.
Hardening process Carburising Properties Applications
Nitriding
Selective Hardening
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Explain the purpose of tempering hardened structures. _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________
Exercise 3.4 a Describe the process of die-casting. _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ b Sketch and label the grain structure that results from hot rolling.
Explain the grainflow that occurs in an upset bolt head with the aid of a sketch.
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Explain the processes involved in making a butted bicycle frame tube from a piece of solid alloy steel rod. _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________
Complete the following list by suggesting a suitable manufacturing process for each of the aluminium alloy components: i bike wheel rim ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ii bike pedal crank ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ iii bike wheel hub ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ iv auto engine sump ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________
Exercise 3.5 a State four reasons why powder forming may be used. i ii iii iv ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________
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List three stages of the 'powder forming' process. _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________
Complete the table below by suggesting at least one (but more if possible) non-ferrous metal that can hardened by the process given.
Process Cold working Precipitation hardening Quench hardening Non-ferrous metal
Discuss the structural changes that cause precipitation hardening. _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________
Exercise 3.6 a Compare and contrast addition and condensation polymerisation, with the aid of sketches. addition condensation
_______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________
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List some of the typical properties of thermosoftening polymers. _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________
Sketch the structures of a linear thermosoftening polymer and a branched thermosetting polymer.
Linear ii
Branched
Give a specific example of each type and then list typical properties. Linear thermosoftening polymer Branched thermosetting polymer ______________________ ______________________
Example: Properties: d
______________________ ______________________
List three typical fillers used in polymers and suggest the use of each. _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________
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Exercise 3.7 a Explain the process of vulcanising in rubber, with the aid of a sketch.
_______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ b Complete the following table by suggesting a service property required, a suitable polymer and probable forming process for each of the applications listed.
Application Service property Polymer Forming process
Reflector lens
Bicycle tube
Drink bottle
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With the aid of a sketch describe blow moulding,
_______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ b Explain why normally flexible polymers turn white and reduce in flexbility under a severe tensile load. _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________
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Exercise 3.8 Select the alternative a, b, c or d that best completes the statement or answers the question. Circle the letter. 1 Testing by modelling would be used when designing a high speed train to assess: a b c d 2 movement of air over the train movement of air under the train movement of air over and under the train position of emergency exists.
Both the Izod and Charpy tests use a: a b c d notched specimen, pendulum and ruler notched specimen, pendulum and energy indicator parallel specimen, pendulum and ruler hammer, wire specimen and energy indicator.
By definition, a ferrous metal is one that: a b c d rusts when exposed to still air contains any amount of iron becomes hard when quenched has iron as its major element.
Phases found in the structures of all plain carbon steels at room temperature are: a b c d ferrite and cementite cementite and austenite pearlite and ferrite pearlite and graphite.
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As carbon content increases in plain carbon steels, up to 0.8%C, the steel becomes: a b c d stronger and more ductile softer and more ductile stronger and tougher weaker and softer.
Hot working is the: a b c d plastic deformation of a material above its recrystallisation temperature working of a material when it is heated above 250C plastic deformation of a material when it is hot controlled working of any material with the aid of any heating source.
Cold working processes include: a b c d rolling, upsetting and casting piercing, rolling and upsetting forging, casting and drawing upsetting, rolling and drawing.
The following can all be used to increase the hardness of various non-ferrous alloys: a b c d precipitation hardening, quenching and cold working annealing, quenching and normalising precipitation hardening, recovery and tempering quenching, cold working and annealing.
Compression and transfer moulding are both used for forming: a b c d non-ferrous alloys thermosetting polymers ceramics thermosoftening polymers.
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10 Which of the following groups of processes use a permanent metal mould? a b c d Die casting, injection moulding and shell moulding Blow moulding, investment casting and extrusion Blow moulding, die casting and rotational moulding Film extrusion, shell moulding and injection moulding.
11 The best sheet polymer to use as 'unbreakable' window panels would be: a b c d acrylic polypropylene nylon polycarbonate.
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Name: ___________________________________
Check!
Have you have completed the following exercises? Exercise 3.1 Exercise 3.2 Exercise 3.3 Exercise 3.4 Exercise 3.5 Exercise 3.6 Exercise 3.7 Exercise 3.8 Locate and complete any outstanding exercises then attach your responses to this sheet. If you study Stage 6 Engineering Studies through a Distance Education Centre/School (DEC) you will need to return the exercise sheet and your responses as you complete each part of the module. If you study Stage 6 Engineering Studies through the OTEN Open Learning Program (OLP) refer to the Learners Guide to determine which exercises you need to return to your teacher along with the Mark Record Slip.
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Progress check
In this part you investigated materials used to make transport component parts their, how they can be modified and the processes used in manufacturing. Take a few moments to reflect on your learning then tick the box which best represents your level of achievement.
Agree well done Disagree revise your work Uncertain contact your teacher Agree Uncertain
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I have learnt about: specialised testing of engineering materials and/or systems heat treatment of ferrous metals structure/property relationships in material forming processes non-ferrous alloys ceramics and glasses polymers.
I have learnt to: explain the properties, uses, testing and appropriateness of materials used in transportation identify appropriate heat treatment processes justify appropriate choices for ferrous and non-ferrous materials and processes used in transportation parts and systems experiment with metals to reinforce the concepts of heat treatment explain the method and applications of various ferrous metal forming processes justify appropriate choices for ceramics and glasses used in transportation parts and systems justify appropriate choices of polymers and their manufacturing processes used in transportation parts and systems. Extract from Stage 6 Engineering Studies Syllabus, Board of Studies, NSW, 1999. Refer to <http://www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au> for original and current documents.
In the next part you will examine the generation and transmission of electricity, and electric motors and systems in various types of transport.
Disagree
Part 4: Transport systems electricity/electronics
Part 4 contents
Introduction..........................................................................................2
Electricity for power and information ...............................................3

AC and DC electricity................................................................. 5 Electrical power......................................................................... 7
Generating electricity .........................................................................9

Coal fired power stations............................................................ 9 Hydro-electricity .......................................................................13 Solar energy ............................................................................14 Wind power..............................................................................17 Other sources of energy............................................................19
Transmission and distribution of electricity ..................................22

The grid system........................................................................22 Single-phase versus three-phase ..............................................22 Generating voltages and losses.................................................28 Electrical transmission ..............................................................28 The distribution system .............................................................38
Principles of electrical motors.........................................................42

Motors .....................................................................................42
Introduction to digital systems........................................................57

Analogue signals......................................................................57 Digital signals...........................................................................59 Boolean logic ...........................................................................59 Combination logic circuits..........................................................60
Electricity systems in transport.......................................................64

Parameterising electrical systems in transport ............................66
Exercises ...........................................................................................81 Progress check .................................................................................89 Exercise cover sheet........................................................................91
Part 4: Transport systems engineering/electronics
Introduction
Electricity is the fundamental to our lifestyles yet we generally take it for granted. Most forms of transport that we use today are reliant an electricity in some form. Electricity is used in transport systems for providing motive power and for communicating information. In this part you will investigate how electricity is produced and how it is used in the myriad of ways that make it an invaluable source of energy for transportation systems. You will also examine how electricity/electronics can be used for communicating information in control systems.

You will learn about: power generation/distribution electrical energy and power AC/DC circuits electric motors used in transport systems principles applications
control technology.
You will learn to: identify the electrical systems used in the transport industry investigate the principles and application of electric motors used in the transport indusrty analyse the basic principles of control technology as applied to the transport industry explain elementary digital logic.
Electricity for power and information

We take advantage of electricity in many different ways. At home we use electricity to cook our food, to give us light, and to wash our clothes. At work we use electricity to run our computers, irrigation pumps and photocopiers. For fun, electricity runs our video player, television and mobile phone. However, none of these examples use electricity in its pure form. Pure electricity is simply a flow of electrons along a conductor. There are not many practical uses for that! In each case the electricity is converted into another form of energy or into information. Almost all applications of electricity can be classified into one of two categories: using electricity for power (or energy), or using electricity to represent information. What is meant by power? In power applications of electricity, we are primarily interested in the amount of energy or power being delivered. For example, a 50 Watt light might be powered by 240 Volts at 50 Hz (mains voltage) or by 12 Volts as DC (as in a car). The power, and hence light, is the same in each case, although the height and frequency of the electrical waveform powering the lamp is quite different. Identify three electrical appliances in your home that are specified in terms o their power rating. What are the devices, and what are their power ratings?
Figure 4.1 A toaster an appliance that uses electricity for power to generate heat
What is meant by information? Using electricity to represent information is less obvious than using electricity for power. In the information context, we are interested in certain properties of the electrical signal such as its frequency, amplitude, or duty cycle (ratio of on-time to off-time). For example, radio waves use different amplitudes and frequencies to transmit information (such as spoken words or music). We refer to different radio stations in terms of their transmission frequencies, but not in terms of their powers. Computer modems use electricity to communicate with other computers. Here we are interested in data rates and signaling protocols rather than the power being transmitted or received. Identify three electrical appliances in your home that are used to process information. What are the devices, and what sort of information do they process?
Figure 4.2 An unusual view of a common appliance a PC that uses electricity to process information
You will learn more about the use of electricity to process information in the module on Telecommunications engineering. Turn to the exercise section and complete exercise 4.1.
AC and DC electricity
In Household appliances you learned the difference between AC and DC. AC and DC stand for alternating current and direct current respectively. The terms describe a fundamental property of an electrical signal. In an AC circuit the electrons that constitute the current oscillate back and forth in the circuit: that is, the direction of the current alternates. The rate at which the current alternates is called the frequency. The mains electricity we obtain from our domestic supply has a frequency of 50 Hertz (Hz) which means that the direction of current alternates 50 times per second (or if you like, the electrons change direction 50 times per second). Figure 4.3 shows the instantaneous amplitude of the current as it varies with time. Note that the shape is sinusoidal.
T= 1 f
Current amplitude
max
T = period f = frequency
time
max
Figure 4.3 AC current waveform
If the waveform is equally positive and negative, how can it do any work?
A simple analogy is that of sandpaper being rubbed over a block of wood. The sandpaper can go back and forth over the same area but still do real work. Alternating current is also very useful in communications applications. We can take advantage of different frequencies to allow multiple users to occupy the same medium without interfering with each other. For example, two radio stations with broadcast frequencies of 102.4 MHz and 104.2 MHz can both broadcast in the same space using the same techniques without interfering with one another.
In a DC circuit, the current always flows in the same direction. This can be thought of as a special case of AC where the frequency is 0 Hz as shown in figure 4.4.
Current amplitude
DC
0 Figure 4.4 DC current waveform
time
The most common source of DC is from a battery. (There is no such thing as an AC battery.) Solar cells also generate DC power. DC is used in some power applications. The most common is in motor vehicles where the electrical systems run at 12 Volts DC (cars) or 24 Volts (trucks). DC is also used where we want to control the speed of electric motors (such as in electric trains). DC is rarely used in communications because of the potential interference that multiple users of the same channel would experience. It is possible to convert AC into DC by using a rectifier (or converter) circuit. DC may be used to generate AC signals using an inverter circuit. Finally, the terms AC and DC refer to current (alternating and direct). What about voltage? Of course, the voltage waveform is the same shape as the current waveform (although its amplitude is usually different). That is, in an AC circuit the voltage polarity (direction) changes at the same frequency as the current direction. Why aren't AC circuits called alternating voltage or AV?
The reference to current instead of voltage is essentially an historical artifact. In the pioneering days of electrical engineering, engineers focussed on current instead of voltage. Hence the terms AC and DC. Nowadays, even though we tend to refer to voltage more often than current, the older terms are still retained.
Electrical power
The terms power and energy are often used interchangeably, though from their definitions it is clear that they are technically different (refer back to Household appliances if you need to refresh your memory). It is important to be clear in your mind as to exactly what you mean when you use either term.
Uses of electrical power

Electrical power has many applications in contemporary society, including: heating: in the home for cooking, hot water, ironing; in industry for furnaces and process industries motors: in the home for washing machines, refrigerators, vacuum cleaners, video cassette players; in industry for fans, rolling mills, conveyor systems, pumps lighting: in the home for room and outdoor lighting, decorative lights; in industry for factory illumination, advertising, safety warnings and security radiation devices: in the home for microwave ovens; and in the community for radio and television transmissions (here the power is important to reach as many people as possible).
Other uses of electricity include: cooling systems (these are usually based in motors) electric arc welding (essentially another form of heating) lifting devices (again, based on motors).
Can you think of another application in your home that uses electricity as a source of energy or power?
Impact of electrical power on society

Modern societies have so embraced electrical services that we often take them for granted. Indeed, many of us only think about our electrical supply when it fails! Electricity is now considered to be an essential supply, and an emergency situation arises when the electrical supply fails. In times of crises, repair of the electrical supply is one of the key priorities for emergency service teams.
Dependence on a reliable supply of electricity hasn't always been the case. Older generations in our communities can still recollect living without electricity. Can you find someone in your own community who had to live without electricity. How did they manage? Could they keep their food cool? What did they do for entertainment? In developing countries, where the supply of electricity is not reliable or is non-existent, foreign aid is often used to establish a dependable electrical infrastructure. Together with clean water and a communications infrastructure, electrical supply is seen as one of the foundations of a modern community. This module focuses on the use of electrical systems in personal and public transport systems. In particular, the module looks at sources of energy (both mainstream and alternate), the generation, transmission and distribution of electricity, principles of rotating electrical machines (motors and generators), and introduces the concept of control systems and digital logic. These are evaluated in the context of transport systems, using bicycles, motor cycles, cars and railway locomotives as examples.
Generating electricity
In this section we look at various sources of energy, where they are found, how they are harnessed, and the salient operational characteristics of plants designed to generate electricity from the energy sources.
Coal fired power stations

History of coal fired power generation
In 1904 the first substantial power station began operations at Pyrmont in Sydney. Prior to that, electrical generation had been undertaken by local councils, primarily for the purposes of electric lighting. The first electric street lighting in Australia was established in Tamworth in northern New South Wales in November 1888. The Electricity Commission of New South Wales was formed in 1950 in response to the increasing demand for electricity in the years following World War II, at a time characterised by chronic power shortages. The Commission's initial task was to increase generating capacity as quickly as possible while planning for future electricity requirements. One of the key strategies employed was to locate coal-fired power stations next to their fuel source. By the 1960's, a number of new power stations had been constructed next to coal deposits. These included stations at Tallawarra in the Illawarra region (opened 1951, closed 1989), Wangi Wangi on Lake Macquarie in the Hunter region (opened 1953, closed 1986), and Wallerawang in the Central West of NSW (opened 1957, still operating). As demand for electrical energy increased further, small power stations were closed or upgraded, and new, larger power stations built in locations close to coal supplies. For example, the Tallawarra power station had a total generating capacity of 320 MW. The newer stations such as Eraring and Bayswater have four units each of 660 MW. Try to find out where the closest power station to your home is located.
The major power generating stations

Responsibility for the primary power generation in New South Wales is shared between Pacific Power, Delta Electricity and Macquarie Electricity. Between them, these three organisations operate the states seven main power stations and produce over 90 percent of the state's electricity. Other energy providers in the state are developing alternative energy sources such as wind and solar generation in response to consumer demand for green energy, but these supplies represent only a fraction of the total power generated. We will look at these alternate energy sources later. New South Wales' major power stations are:
Station Name Bayswater Location Upper Hunter Valley Upper Hunter Valley Lake Macquarie Central Coast Central West Adjacent to Lake Liddell Power output 2640 MW
Liddell
Lake Liddell
2000 MW
Vales Point Munmorah Wallerawang
Lake Macquarie Lake Munmorah Lake Wallace, Lake Lyell Thompsons Creek Dam Lake Macquarie
1320 MW 1320 MW 1000 MW
Mount Piper
Central West
1320 MW
Eraring Table 1
Lake Macquarie
2640 MW
Major power generating stations in New South Wales
Figure 4.5 shows an aerial view of Bayswater power station in the Upper Hunter Valley near Muswellbrook. The water supply for the cooling system can be seen at the left bottom of the image. The coal receival area is visible on the left, while the four steam condensing towers are prominent.
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Figure 4.5 Bayswater Power Station near Muswellbrook
How a modern coal fired power station works

The coal used in a typical modern power station is sourced from local mines and transported to a station stockpile by conveyor belts. Here, the coal is sampled, weighed and stored for later recovery by reclaimers and bulldozers for use in the power station. Coal is stored at the station in case the supply of coal from the mines is disrupted for some time, during which the power station must be able to continue producing electricity. Before being used in the furnace, coal is crushed into a fine powder. This increases the efficiency of the combustion process. The coal powder is blown into the furnace using a stream of pre-heated air. The heat generated by the burning coal is used to boil fresh water in a boiler to produce high-pressure steam. This is done by circulating purified fresh water through the inner 'walls' of tubing lining the boiler furnace chamber. Pure fresh water is used so that the salts found in seawater and unpurified water do not clog or corrode the boiler plant. In a boiler supplying a modern 660 MW turbo-generator, over two million litres of water are converted to steam each hour. The steam is heated to around 540 degrees Celsius. Maximum coal consumption is about 250 tonnes an hour. The exhaust gases from the boiler furnace are passed through a series of filters to recover the ash that results from burning coal. This ash is collected and then used in other applications. (A common application is as landfill where excellent drainage properties are required.)
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The steam that is produced by the boiler is injected at very high pressure onto the blades of a turbine. The turbine shaft is directly coupled to the drive shaft of the electrical generator. After being used to drive the high-pressure turbine, the steam is used to drive a medium pressure turbine. This turbine has a larger diameter than the first (high-pressure) turbine. Finally the steam exhausted from the medium-pressure turbine is uses to drive a low-pressure (larger diameter) turbine. By using a succession of increasingly larger diameter turbines, maximum energy can be extracted from the steam as its temperature and pressure decrease. Figure 4.6 shows a portion of a high pressure steam turbine from Eraring power station. This turbine blade has been damaged (see circular marking on right-most blade) and has been brought to the engineering lab for examination and testing.
Figure 4.6 A portion of high pressure steam turbine
On leaving the low-pressure turbine, the steam is cooled back into liquid form in a condenser, and then re-used in the boiler. This is done in large cooling towers that visually dominate coal-fired power stations. These towers exude large volumes of steam that are often mistaken for smoke pollution. The cooling towers at Bayswater power station can be seen clearly in figure 4.5.
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The steam turbine shaft is directly coupled to the shaft of the electrical generator. The generator shaft rotates at 3000 revolutions per minute. This equates to 50 revolutions per second, which gives us the mains power frequency of 50 Hertz.
Hydro-electricity
Hydro is a Greek word that means water. Energy or power from water has been used for thousands of years. However, for most of this time, the energy was not converted to electricity, but used directly to mill flour, drive winches and so forth. Hydro-electricity is obtained from the conversion of the kinetic energy in flowing water into electrical energy.
History of hydro-electricity in Australia

The first hydro-electric generating plant in Australia, Duck Reach Power Station, was constructed in 1895 on the South Esk River near Launceston Tasmania, comprising three 100 kW generators. The first relatively large use of hydro-electric generation in mainland Australia was built on the Nymboida River by the then Clarence River County Council in 1923. That plant was rated at 4.8 MW and is still in operation. In 1927 two 5 MW units were installed at Burrinjuck Dam by the NSW Public Works Department. In 1949 agreement was reached between the Commonwealth, NSW and Victorian Governments to form the Snowy Mountains Hydro-electric Authority. The Authority subsequently built seven power stations, together with many dams and tunnels. It is still considered to be one of the greatest engineering feats in Australia, if not the world.
How a hydro-electric power station works

Hydro-electric power generation harnesses the potential energy stored in elevated bodies of water. Water stored in a dam is released through huge pipes into a power station located below the dam wall. The water is directed through the base of a vertical turbo-generator where it passes
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through the turbine blades, which are attached to the shaft and generator. The shaft spins at a controlled speed to maintain the required 3000 rpm (or 50 Hz). The principle of electricity generation is essentially the same in both hydro and thermal (steam) power stations. However, in coal-fired power stations high-pressure steam is used to drive the horizontal turbine, in a hydro-electric station water is used to drive vertically oriented turbines. The amount of power that can be generated by a hydro station depends on the height from which the water falls (called the head) and the amount of water available (the flow). The greater the head and the flow, the more electricity can be produced.
Where hydro power is generated

Electricity generated by the energy of falling water provides about 10% of the electricity produced in New South Wales each year. The largest amount is generated in the seven hydro-electricity power stations of the Snowy Mountains Scheme with a total generating capacity of 3756 MW. The 5.5 MW Glenbawn Dam hydro station has been operating since February, 1995. The Glenbawn station was constructed in an existing 8.23 m diameter diversion tunnel and utilises energy from water which is used for irrigation and flushing. In the past, this water had been channelled down the Hunter River and its energy wasted. A number of other hydro stations are located throughout Australia. In NSW these include Hume Weir, Burrinjuck Dam, Kangaroo Valley, Bendeela, Keepit Dam, Warragamba Dam, Brown Mountain and Wyangala Dam. Operation of these hydro stations is generally dependent on the level of water in their associated storage dams and the need for water downstream for irrigation or other purposes. Why do you think Australia generates relatively small amounts of hydro electricity compared with the output of its coal-fired power stations?
Solar energy
Solar energy is the term used to describe the conversion of sunlight into electrical energy using photovoltaic cells. Solar photovoltaic cells directly convert sunlight to electricity. This differs from solar thermal (hot water) technology, which converts sunlight to heat directly, but not to electrical power.
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History of solar power in Australia

The adoption of solar energy in Australia is a relatively recent technology when compared with, for example, coal-fired and hydro power stations. Solar energy was first used in the 1950s to power space capsules and telecommunications satellites. It is a good example of space technology finding subsequent application in broader markets.
How solar power works

Solar power is based on the use of photovoltaic cells. Individual photovoltaic cells are manufactured on thin wafers of silicon. Each cell produces only around 2.2 Volts, with the silicon wafers themselves being very fragile. Consequently, photovoltaic cells are not very convenient for practical use. A solar panel is the generic name given to a number of photovoltaic cells connected together and packaged together in a more robust form (such as within an aluminium frame with a protective glass cover). This type of packaging allows panels to be produced with more practical (higher) output voltages and to withstand reasonable handling without damage. The physics underlying the production of electrical energy from photovoltaic cells is much less readily understood than the basic operation of coal-fired and hydro power systems. A proper understanding of the technology requires an appreciation of quantum physics and semiconductor physics.
Where solar power is generated

Significant quantities of solar power are generated at a number of sites throughout New South Wales: Singleton solar farm Stage 1 it consists of 3456 modules across an area of 1.25ha. The modules are supported by steel framing facing true north and angled at 30 degrees to the horizontal. Each module consisting of 36 polycrystalline solar cells - is rated at 60 Watts. This gives a peak output of more than 200 kW. The system is connected to the electricity grid at 11kV. Singleton solar farm Stage 2 consists of a further 3312 Canon amorphous solar modules producing a peak power of 200 kW. The individual modules are rated at 60 Watts and are mounted on a steel base with a polymer coating instead of glass.
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the Olympic Village each house in the suburb has rooftop solar panels capable of generating 1600 kW hours per year. Queanbeyan the solar farm consists of 720 solar panels arranged in nine separate modules. Each solar panel has a 77 Watt capacity, with a total system capacity of 50 kW. Homebush Business Park using 140 silicon solar modules (each module consisting of 36 monocrystaline solar cells) and producing a system output of about 11 kW. at the National Innovation Centre in Redfern, to produce system output of about 10 kW. at Foreshore Park in Newcastle the system installed on the roof of the carriage shed comprises 80 silicon solar modules and is rated at 6.5 kW. (Interestingly, the railway carriage shed once housed the locomotives that brought coal to the Newcastle Power station that was very close by.)
Figure 4.7 Solar panel installation on the roof of the old carriage shed at Newcastle Foreshore Park
Why do you think that the solar panels at the Singleton solar farm (and elsewhere) are oriented towards true north and inclined at 30 degrees to the horizontal? There are many other applications where solar cells are used to generate smaller amounts of power for specific needs. For example, many marine navigation markers are powered by solar cells mounted on the markers. Many new street light designs are incorporating solar power generation. Remote telecommunications equipment is often powered by solar energy. Solar installations are popular on boats and caravans, where the power is used to complement other sources of power or to keep batteries charged. Photovoltaics are also used to power many consumer products, such as calculators, torches, battery chargers and watches. These types of applications have significantly reduced the dependence on batteries for small quantities of electrical power.
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Australia has the highest per capita use of photovoltaics in the world. Total installed capacity is around 13MW and is growing by about 2MW per annum.
Figure 4.8 Calculator that uses solar power to complement a battery
Can you find an example of electricity being generated by solar power near to your home? How much power do you think is being generated by the system? Assume that photovoltaic cells generate approximately 100 Watts per square metre of solar panelling.
Wind power
History of wind power in Australia
Perhaps the most quintessential image of rural Australia is that of a windmill drawing water from a bore. Of course this application does not convert the wind power to electrical energy, but uses the mechanical energy to drive the pump directly. The first commercial wind farm in Australia was designed and built by Western Power Corporation in 1993 at Esperence Western Australia. Nine turbines generate up to 2MW providing about 12 per cent of the town's base load electricity requirements. Generally, applications of wind power being used to generate electrical power in Australia are in their infancy. Other forms of power generation have been more attractive in most situations, particularly given that many parts of Australia do not experience consistently strong winds to ensure an adequate supply of electricity. However, interest in wind powered generation is strong, and many commercial developments are under way.
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How wind power works

The principle of wind powered generation is relatively simple: wind flowing across the blades of a wind turbine cause the turbine shaft to rotate. This shaft is connected to a generator, often through a system of gearing to increase the rotational speed of the generator's shaft. (Higher shaft speeds means that the generators can be physically smaller to produce the amount of electricity.) The amount of energy generated is dependent on wind speed and the diameter of the blades. The power output is in fact proportional to the cube of the speed of the wind. That is, every time the wind speed doubles, the energy that can be extracted increases by a factor of eight. This has a down side: if a wind turbine is designed to produce, say, 1000 Watts at a wind speed of 30 kph, it will only produce 10 Watts at a wind speed of 15 kph. This rapid change in power output limits the actual power that can be generated from a turbine designed to withstand a given maximum wind speed. Increasing the blade diameter increases the swept area (that is, the cross section of the wind that is passed through the turbine). However, increasing the blade diameter also imposes significant demands on the mechanical strength of the blades due to the large forces that result from the high tip speeds and torques produced.
Where wind power is generated

The first grid-connected commercial wind farm is located at Crookwell in NSW, and consists of 8 turbines each capable of generating 600 kW, giving a total of 4.8 MW. The largest site of wind powered generation in NSW is at Blayney in central NSW. The wind farm consists of 15 wind turbine generators each of 660 kW capacity, giving a total maximum capacity of 10 MW. Kooragang Island near Newcastle hosts one of the most accessible wind turbines, being located immediately beside a busy road. The turbine nacelle (hub) measures 8 m x 3 m, weighs 28 tonnes and is mounted on top of a 50 m tubular steel tower. The turbine's blades are reinforced polyester. Each blade is 22 m long, giving a total swept area of 1502 m2 (more than 1/4 of a football field). From blade tip to ground level, the turbine is 72 m. The peak power output from the plant is 600 kW. Numerous smaller plants can be found in many areas. Most of these turbines tend to have a capacity of no more than 5 kW and are used primarily for remote domestic applications, often in conjunction with other sources of power such as solar and diesel generation.
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Figure 4.9 Kooragang wind turbine near Newcastle, the apparent height of the structure is no illusion
Other sources of energy

There are many other sources of energy that can be used for electrical power generation. These include: internal combustion engines biomass tidalwave energy geothermic.
Internal combustion engines

These applications include diesel, petrol and natural gas powered engines that are used to drive local generators. Such systems are generally used either in remote locations where connection to the grid is uneconomic, or for back-up power supplies in critical applications (such as hospitals) for use when the main grid supply fails. Plant sizes can be quite varied, from a couple of kW in small portable petrol generators, to hundreds of kW for substantial installations.
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A significant advantage of these systems is that they can be started in a relatively short time, and run only as, and when, required. Another application for generators driven by engines is of course found in cars, trucks, buses and other vehicles. The power to drive lights, ignition systems, electric windows and sound systems is provided by a generator (technically an alternator see later material on electrical machines) driven by a belt off the engine. Figure 4.10 shows the alternator in a car driven by a belt of the crankshaft.
Figure 4.10 A mobile generator in this case, the alternator of a car
Biomass
This source of energy is derived from the decomposition or combustion of biodegradable materials. During decomposition, combustible gases such as methane are given off and used to power gas turbine engines which in turn drive generators. Such plants are commonly known as landfill gas systems, and are built around old large tip sites. Examples can be found at Lucas Heights and at Bare Creek in Sydney. These plants total around 22 MW in generating capacity, and can be run continuously while ever the supply of gas remains. In combustion, materials such as fuelwood, forestry residues, bagasse (the waste from sugar cane) and municipal solid waste can be combusted in furnaces and boilers to produce heat and hence steam to feed steam turbine generators.
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Tidal
Tidal generators use the changing height of ocean water with tidal variations to create small dams which can then be used in a similar way to hydro power generating systems. Since the power obtainable is related to the height of the water, tidal plants tend to be viable only where significant tidal heights can be found, such as in the north-west of Western Australia.
Wave energy
This mode of energy extraction is similar to tidal, but uses the more frequent but less intense action of waves to drive turbines. Unless the generating plant can be made to float, the principle is only applicable in areas that have minimal tidal influence.
Geothermic
This source of energy is derived from deep underground where the temperatures of the bedrock are hundreds of degrees Celsius. This temperature is sufficient to generate steam, and hence generate electricity through the normal means.
The energy is accessed by pumping water into the bedrock, where it boils in contact with the heated rock. The resulting steam is then drawn off and used to power turbines. In some situations, the water occurs naturally, and steam can be drawn off directly. In each of the alternate energy forms described above, we only harness a very small fraction of the total energy available from that source. Turn to the exercise section and complete exercise 4.2.
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Transmission and distribution of electricity
The previous section looked at how electrical energy is generated on a large scale. In this section we will look at how that energy is transmitted and distributed to consumers, and identify some of the key issues in controlling and maintaining that infrastructure.
The grid system

Having generated the electricity in large power stations, it is necessary to transport the power to the people and industries that need it. The system of electrical power lines that connect the power stations to the population centres is known as the electrical grid system or simply, the grid. The grid system carries energy from the power stations through a network of transmission lines to major distribution points. From here, the energy is carried via a distribution network to consumers. The transmission grid can be thought of as the main arteries of the energy distribution system. The distribution network can similarly be thought of as the capillaries, being made up of many smaller lines reaching into all parts of the state. We will look more closely at the generation, transmission and distribution networks in this section.
Single-phase versus three-phase

Figure 4.11 shows the variation of voltage with time of a single-phase domestic supply.
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Current amplitude
max
T= 1 f
T = 20 ms f = 50 Hz
time
max
Figure 4.11 Single-phase voltage supply showing variation of voltage with time
From earlier work we noted that the power in an electrical circuit was proportional to the square of the voltage, that is:
P=V V V2 = R R
Consequently, the power from a single-phase supply also varies with time. Figure 4.12 shows the variation of power versus time for a singlephase supply. Note that at some instants, the power is at a maximum, and at other times (10 ms after the maximum power is attained) the power is zero. Note also that the average power is only 50 per cent of the maximum instantaneous value.
T= 1 f T = 10 ms f = 100 Hz
Power Pmax
Paver
time
Figure 4.12 Single-phase supply showing variations of power with time
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Problems with single-phase power

The pulsating power is not usually a problem for typical appliances found in domestic situations such as washing machines and refrigerators. However, for larger appliances and installations (of the order of several kW and upwards), the power pulses can impose excessive torques on mechanical components, leading to vibration, or at worst mechanical failure. Ideally, we would like the power in the system to be constant.
Three-phase system
One way in which constant power can be achieved is by designing a system with three separate circuits that are displaced in time relative to one another, such that the sum of the powers from the three circuits is constant. Such a system is known as a three-phase system. You will remember the term three-phase from Household appliances when you learned about the induction motor. Figure 4.13 shows the variation of voltage with time for a three-phase system.
Voltage Vmax
A phase B phase C phase
time
Vmax Figure 4.13 Single-phase and three-phase electrical circuits
The three-phase-to-phase voltages are all sinusoidal, with the same maximum amplitude, and displaced in time (phase) by 120o from each other. The power in a three-phase system is the vector sum of the power obtained between each of the three-phases. It can be shown (using vector arithmetic) that the sum of the power from the three phases is constant, that is, it does not vary with time!
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Because of its constant power property, the three-phase system causes much less stress to the mechanical components of generators and motors connected to the system. Virtually all generators use three-phase for this reason. Figure 4.14 shows the powers obtained from the three-phase-to-phase voltages, together with the total power.
Power Paver PAB PBC PCA
time
Figure 4.14 Power in each of three-phases together with the total (constant) power
Advantages of three-phase power

The three-phase system has a number of other advantages over singlephase systems: a single-phase circuit can be obtained from a three-phase supply by connecting the electrical load between one phase of the three-phase supply and the neutral (or common) point of the three-phases. This enables electricity distributors to supply some homes with singlephase supplies, and others with three-phase supply, from the same distribution network. by connecting an electrical load between any two phases of the three-phase supply, higher voltages can be obtained (415 Volts between phases, as compared with 240 Volts from a single-phase to neutral). Since power is proportional to the square of the voltage, higher powers can be obtained from the phase-to-phase connection than from the phase-to neutral (single-phase) connection. See figure 4.15. This is why large hot water systems and heaters sometimes require a three-phase supply.
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A phase B phase C phase Neutral 415 V Phase to phase connection 240 V Phase to neutral connection
Figure 4.15 Connections and voltages for phase to phase and phase to neutral circuits
it is possible to transmit three-phase power over long distances by using only the three separate phase conductors (that is, without the need to run a fourth neutral conductor: under certain conditions, a new neutral connection can be made at the destination of the power link). By comparison, three separate single-phase systems would require six wires. it can be shown that the three-phase system is more efficient in terms of resistive losses than three separate single-phase systems for the same net power transmission.
Almost all transmission and distribution of electrical power is done via three-phase systems. That is why the most common arrangement of wires seen on a power pole is to have three conductors. Sometimes, and most often nearer to consumers than to generators, a fourth conductor (the neutral wire) will be seen. Occasionally, just two conductors will be seen on power poles. This is usually a single-phase circuit. In some circumstances (usually only in remote areas), the earth itself is used in place of one of the conductors. This results in a single wire, earth return (SWER) system! Figure 4.16 shows a power pole carrying a three-phase supply (at 11 kV) on the upper crossarm, and a three-phase plus neutral (at 415/240 V) on the lower crossarm. The wires exiting to the left and right of the picture are providing single-phase supplies to three adjacent houses. The angled bar mounted lower down the pole is a streetlight.
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Figure 4.16 Power pole carrying a three-phase system at 11 kV and threephase plus neutral at 415/240 V
Electrical supply voltages are highly dangerous. Do not touch, or even get close to, the electrical wires supplying your home, or any other building. What sort of electrical supply feeds your home? Is it single-phase (two wires) or three-phase (four wires)? You should be able to tell by looking where the wires are connected to the house. If you have three-phase connected, ask somebody which appliances in your home run on three-phase supply. If you have a single-phase supply, try to locate where the nearest threephase supply is to your home. You should be able to follow the wires back towards their source. Turn to the exercise section and complete exercise 4.3.
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Generating voltages and losses

The main coal-fired stations in New South Wales typically generate power at around 20 kV. For example, Liddell generates at 22 kV, while Eraring and Bayswater both generate at 23 kV. Power is generated using the three-phase system to maintain constant power and hence torque in the generator. The choice of generating voltage used in generating plants represents a trade-off between the insulation needed to withstand higher operating voltages and the resistive losses associated with high currents. Higher voltages require a greater level of insulation to prevent short circuits. Insulation increases the initial cost of the equipment. Hence it would appear that low voltages would be preferable for generation. Recall that power is the product of voltage and current; that is P = V x I. For a constant generator power, lower voltage results in increased current. All conductors, such as commonly used copper, have a resistance. Consequently, when a current flows through such a conductor, some heat is generated (so-called resistive losses). In a generator, the heat that is produced is difficult to dissipate because the generator is a rotating machine, and cooling pipes need to be able to rotate with the machine. We can calculate the amount of power lost through P = V x I = (I x R) x I = I2R. Note that the power lost is proportional to the square of the current. This indicates that resistive losses can be minimised by reducing the current. Thus, on the one hand, we want to reduce voltage to reduce insulating costs, but on the other hand we want to reduce the current to minimise resistive losses. There is no simple answer. The generating voltages of 2223 kV represent an engineering compromise between these two factors. We will see later that the optimal compromise for this same problem in transmission lines results in much higher voltages than are used for generation.
Electrical transmission
The transmission system represents the main arterial route for transmitting large quantities of electrical energy. The transmission system connects the generating sites with regions of significant demand (cities, large towns, large industries and mines). The transmission network in New South Wales is administered centrally by TransGrid.
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The transmission network is highly visible (some would say too visible), and perhaps looks deceptively simple. It represents, however, one of the backbones of our technological society. The key components of the system are: transmission towers insulators conductors transformers switchyards protection systems metering systems.
Transmission towers
The transmission towers are probably the most prominent part of the transmission system. Towers on the principal links are often constructed of fabricated steel, while structures on lesser links may be based on concrete or wooden poles. Figure 4.17 shows a steel transmission tower. The tower is carrying three-phase power at 330 kV. The multiple conductors are used to reduce resistive losses. This particular tower is unusual in that it is the end of the line: the conductors are terminated on this tower and go no further.
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Figure 4.17 Steel tower carrying transmission lines
The spacing of the towers is very dependent on the nature of the land the lines cross. On flat land, the spacings between towers are quite even, and of the order of hundreds of metres apart. In rough country (over moutain ranges) towers can be very close together or far apart, depending on the location of towers required to maintain a minimum clearance above the ground.
Insulators
The insulators are necessary to isolate the current carrying conductors from each other and from the ground. These insulators may be suspended from transmission towers, or may be found on ground based plant such as transformers and protection equipment. Figure 4.18 shows a typical disc insulator. As a general rule, the number of insulating discs is indicative of the voltage at which the system was designed to operate. That is, a system designed to operate at 500 kV will have more insulating discs than a system designed to operate at 220 kV. The insulators themselves are typically made from glazed porcelain discs, with galvanised steel fittings on either side. Steel is, of course, conductive, and hence the insulating properties are achieved from the porcelain components only.
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Insulators are generally maintenance free. However, under some conditions the surface of the insulating discs can become contaminated with conductive particles. While this occasionally results in a complete failure of the insulator, it is not uncommon to hear a crackling noise or see a faint glow at night from the insulators as small amounts of current trickle over the surface of the dirty insulator, especially in wet or damp conditions.
Figure 4.18 Close up of high voltage disc insulators
Conductors
The electrical conductors carry the current throughout the system. Historically, these conductors have been made from copper. Over the last few decades, however, aluminium has replaced copper in many situations due to the decreased cost and weight of aluminium over copper. Electrical conductors are subject to a phenomenon known as skin effect. This phenomenon results in a non-uniform current density across the section of a conductor. In particular, more current flows closer to the surface of the conductor (the skin) than it does down the middle. Thus in conductors with large cross sections, the central core of the conductor is essentially wasted as negligible current flows there. Electrical conductors used in transmission lines (and distribution networks) are thus made up of multiple thin strands twisted together. This gives more surface area (skin) for a given diameter of conductor, and the resulting conductor has effectively a lower resistance (there is more conducting material where it is needed) as see in figure 4.19.
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At very high voltages, the phenomenon is even more pronounced. That is why on high voltage transmission towers you will often see four small diameter conductors in close proximity to each other on each phase of the system. These four conductors give more surface area than one larger conductor, again enhancing transmission efficiency.
Single solid conductor showing higher current density on the circumference, with negligible current in the centre.
Multicore conductor. The outer conductors have more skin area than a single solid conductor of the same cross sectional area. The centre conductor is steel for necessary tensile strength.
Multiple multicore conductor. High voltage transmission lines use spacers to separate multiple conductors. Again, steel cores give tensile strength.
Figure 4.19 Typical current densities in solid, multicore, and multiple multicore conductors
Transformers
It was noted above that for a given power, generator voltages represent a compromise between the level of insulation needed to withstand higher voltages, and the resistive losses associated with current carrying conductors. While the best compromise for generators is of the order of 20 kV, this is not necessarily the case for transmission lines. The compromise for transmission lines results in optimal transmission voltages of 200 kV to 500kV, with a consequential reduction in transmission currents. What factors do you think contribute towards higher voltages and reduced currents for transmission than are used for generation? (Hint: think about the distances involved.) There is thus a need to be able to increase the voltage and decrease the current (while keeping total power constant) where the generator is connected to the transmission line. A device that achieves this is called a transformer.
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Transformers work by converting the electrical energy into magnetic energy through a wire coil wrapped around an iron core (somewhat similar to an electromagnet). The iron core has a second coil of wire wrapped around it, with the second coil having a different number of turns to the first coil. The second coil is connected to the output of the transformer. The magnetic energy produced by the first coil is absorbed by the second coil, which results in a current flowing in that coil. Figure 4. 20 illustrates the principle involved.
Magnetic flux
Vp Primary winding Magnetic flux
Vs
Secondary winding
Figure 4.20 Principle of operation of a power transformer
The ratio of the number of turns (of wire) on each coil determines the ratio of the voltages produced in each coil (circuit). We can use transformers to step up (increase) voltages and also to stepdown (decrease) voltages, with corresponding decreases and increases in the associated currents respectively. The power at the input (the primary winding) is virtually the same as the power at the output (the secondary winding). There is some loss of energy in the transformer, but this is usually negligible in comparison with the amount of power passing through the transformer. Transformers can be found at both ends of a transmission line: at the generating end to increase the voltage from around 20 kV to 330 or 500 kV, and at the end of the transmission line to decrease the voltage for distribution to consumers. (They are also used extensively in the distribution network to further reduce voltages before they are connected to your home.) What would be the consequences of operating an electrical power system without transformers?
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Transformers tend to be large uninteresting looking boxes, invariably painted grey. They have two sets of insulating posts to accommodate the primary and secondary windings. The transformers are usually filled with oil to help keep the internal conductors cool (remember those resistive losses?) and to help insulate the windings. Larger transformers also have radiators and fans attached to cool the oil. Figure 4.21 shows a large power transformer. (This one is actually at Eraring power station.) The radiators and cooling fans can be clearly seen. The ceramic post insulator seen protruding from the top of the transformer is close to two metres in length this gives some idea of the size of the transformer.
Figure 4.21 Typical high voltage transformer showing cooling radiators and fans
Why do you think transformers need oil cooling, where as transmission lines, which carry the same amount of power, do not? (Hint: think about how to dissipate heat caused by resistive losses inside the windings of the coils.)
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Switchyards
A diagram of the transmission system of New South Wales shows that some transmission lines are duplicated, that is, some areas can be fed via multiple paths. This situation is beneficial from the point of view of redundancy. If one of the duplicated lines fails, the load may be diverted through the remaining functional lines. In order to be able to perform these diversions, some form of switching must be used. Transmission switchyards need to be carefully laid out so that the high voltages they withstand do not short circuit between conductors, or to earth. All of the switches need to be rated to withstand the very high voltages and currents. The yards also need to be safe both for operational and maintenance personnel. Switching can be very dangerous. The switches require a more sophisticated technology than that found in domestic 240 Volt 10 Amp applications. High voltage switchgear uses contacts immersed in inert gases or oil to quickly extinguish the inevitable electric arcs resulting from opening a high current circuit. Figure 4.22 shows a typical high voltage switchyard. (This one is at Waratah in Newcastle.) The switchyard is fed from a 330 kV supply that enters from the top left. The yard enables switching of supply from multiple incoming feeders (transmission lines) to multiple outgoing feeders. All of the live conductors are supported on large insulators.
Figure 4.22 High voltage switchyard
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Protection systems
Power systems represent both a substantial monetary investment, and an essential service. We want to protect them, and users of the system, from damage that might be caused by internal or external faults. In thinking here about protection, we focus on electrical protection mechanisms as opposed to mechanical protection. For example, a domestic fan heater has mechanical protection to stop users from touching live electrical parts. It also usually has electrical protection in the form of: an earth connection to prevent the external casing from becoming electrically live caused by a breakdown in the insulation an earth leakage protection circuit (either in the heater itself or in the domestic switchboard) to switch the power off if current flows in the earth lead (which indicates a fault in the insulation) a fuse or circuit breaker (either in the heater itself or in the domestic switchboard) to prevent fire in the case of over currents caused by a short circuit.
Electrical protection in a grid network is similar, though more elaborate, than that found in domestic installations. The most common forms of protection are: over current Electrical conductors in the network are designed to withstand currents up to a fixed maximum, beyond which they may fail due to overheating caused by resistive losses. If the current in a conductor exceeds a preset threshold, the overcurrent circuit breaker protection is triggered, isolating that link. The overcurrent circuit breaker is similar in principle to the circuit breakers found in domestic installations, but of course is much larger and more sophisticated to handle the higher currents and voltages. over voltage Insulation in the network is designed to withstand a certain maximum voltage, beyond which the insulation may fail causing a short circuit. If the voltage at some point in the network exceeds a preset threshold, the over voltage protection trips a circuit breaker, again isolating that link. under voltage Recall that power is the product of voltage and current. If the system voltage is allowed to fall too low, then the current in any constant power devices connected to the system will increase. Higher currents increase resistive losses (remember P =I 2 R ) and can cause
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those devices to overheat. Hence there is a need to protect the system from operating under specified voltages. lightning A direct lightning strike onto power lines or associated infrastructure can cause excessive voltages and currents in the system. Lightning does strike in the same place twice, especially when attracted by large steel towers dominating the landscape. The transmission system has lightning conductors located above the various apparatus to prevent direct strikes from hitting the main conductors. On transmission towers and lines, one or two thin conductors are positioned above the main conductors attached to the highest points of the towers for this purpose. In switchyards, tall steel towers (sometimes with lightning-attracting aerials) are positioned between and around the main equipment. Figure 4.22 showed a high voltage switchyard. The steel towers and aerials seen rising above the main conductors and switches are for lightning protection. These aerials are connected directly to earth and protect the yard from direct lightning strikes. earth leakage If there is a fault on the transmission line causing some or all of the current to flow to earth (for example, through a fallen tree touching power lines and the ground), that same current must also flow from the earth back into the transmission system at some other point to complete the circuit. The earth leakage protection monitors conductors connecting the transmission system to earth, and if a current in the earth link is detected (indicating a fault elsewhere on the system), the circuit breakers are tripped preventing further possible damage to life or property. The same principle is used in earth leakage relays in domestic and industrial systems. thermal overload If transformers or other equipment in a system get too hot, it is usually indicative of a fault developing in that equipment. The thermal overload protection is designed to generate alarms, or isolate equipment, if excessive temperatures are detected. moisture penetration While pure water is an insulator, contaminated water is invariably a conductor. If moisture penetrates into transformers, circuit breakers or other enclosed apparatus, the insulation in that equipment can break down, causing a short circuit.
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Metering systems
It is important to monitor key variables in the system (such as power, current and frequency) so that the system can be kept within designed operating limits. The monitoring equipment has to be able to carry full load current at transmission voltages without compromising the integrity of the insulation. Metering is an equally important task. The role of the transmission system is to deliver power to the distribution network, for on-selling to consumers. Invariably, the transmission and distribution networks are managed by different organisations, and hence there is a need to meter power so that appropriate billing can be arranged.
The distribution system

The transmission system is used to carry bulk electrical energy from the generating sites to the main population centres. From here, the electricity is distributed to consumers via the distribution network. The distribution network in New South Wales is administered by a number of energy retailers: Energy Australia NorthPower Integral Energy Great Southern Energy Advance Energy Australian Inland Energy.
Who supplies electricity to your home? What area does that supplier cover? In general, the distribution network contains many of the principal components already described in the transmission network. For example, transformers, switchyards, protection equipment and metering and monitoring equipment all perform the same roles in a distribution network as in a transmission network. The key differences between distribution and transmission networks are: no generation The distribution system has traditionally not included any sources of power, instead simply distributing the power obtained from the transmission system.
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(Deregulation of the power industry in New South Wales has in recent times encouraged the states electrical energy retailers, who are invariably also responsible for the distribution network, to diversify into alternate or green energy production, and to encourage cogeneration by their consumers.) many more lines The distribution network is numerically more dense than the transmission network. There are many more power poles, switchyards, transformers and so on in the distribution network. This is simply because there are many more consumers to be serviced, with these consumers being spread over a more diverse area. lower operating voltages By the time the power reaches the individual distribution lines, the total power in each line is relatively small, given that there are so many lines going to different areas. Consequently, the need to increase voltage to reduce resistive losses is less significant. The distribution network thus uses system voltages of 132 kV down to 11kV, and then 415/240 V close to the consumer. The lower voltages also provide a safer working environment where there are higher populations, and offer savings in terms of lesser insulation requirements. Figure 4.23 shows a typical distribution transformer found in many urban areas. Three-phase 11 kV is carried on three conductors on the uppermost crossarm. The next highest crossarm is carrying a set of fuses that protect the 11 kV supply from faults in the transformer below. The short crossarm below the fuses carries 11 kV insulator posts to hold the 11 kV conductors securely in place as they pass between the 415/240 V conductors on the way to the transformer. The fourth crossarm from the top carries the 415/240 V supply from the transformer for distribution to households in the area. Note that this supply has four conductors one for each phase, and one for the neutral wire. The transformer itself is oil filled and has cooling fins on its outer casing.
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Figure 4.23 Typical 11 kv to 415/240 V distribution transformer
Why might distribution networks use poles instead of towers for supporting the network? (Hint: the higher the system voltage, the greater separation must be maintained between the conductors of each of the three phases, and between each phase and the ground.) more ring feeds We observed previously that some areas of the state enjoy duplicate or ring feed by transmission lines feeding those regions. These ring feeds offer the possibility of continuity of supply when one of the feeders is out of service. The distribution network has many such ring feeds, particularly in urban areas, that permit continuity of supply when feeders are taken out of service by fault or for routine maintenance. higher proportion underground, particularly in urban areas: There is increasing pressure on power authorities to put their networks underground (instead of leaving them on overhead structures), particularly in urban areas. This pressure is both by consumers seeking more reliable power supplies, and by environmental groups seeking a more aesthetically pleasing landscape. However, the capital cost (that is, initial cost) of underground cabling is many times that of overhead construction, with these costs rising with increasing system voltages and currents.
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Distribution authorities have more of their network underground than have transmission authorities. Figure 4.24 shows a cablehead, where overhead power lines are connected to an underground cable. These conversions are common at the boundary between an older residential subdivision (with overhead conductors) and a newer subdivision (with underground supplies).
Figure 4.24
Cablehead where overhead power lines are converted to underground cable
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Principles of electrical motors
Approximately 99%of all power generated is done so via rotating electrical machines. Similarly, approximately 75% of all electrical power is consumed in rotating machines. Electrical machines are important! Motors (and generators) have evolved for around 100 years. Many clever minds have been applied to the task of inventing, refining and applying all manner of machines to many different and specific applications. Consequently, we cannot expect to understand all of the types of motors that exist. Our aim is to understand the principles of operation of the most common types of motors, and to appreciate why particular types of motors are employed in specific applications. How many electric motors do you think there are in your house?
Motors
In Household appliances you learned about magnetic induction and how an induction motor works. You will now look at some other kinds of motors.
Synchronous motors
Consider the arrangement of magnets shown in figure 4.25. If we were to slide the stator magnets in an arc around the rotor magnet, we could induce the rotor magnet to rotate.
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Rotor magnet Fixed stator magnet Fixed stator magnet
Resultant torque Figure 4.25 Configuration of permanent bar magnets to induce torque
This is the principle of the synchronous motor. In practice, it is not quite that easy: in order to rotate the stator magnets, we would need a motor. But we are trying to make a motor
Single-phase synchronous motor

In figure 4.26, the permanent magnets have all been replaced with electromagnets. Each is a wire coil around an iron core. Remember that when a current flows through a coil, a magnetic field is set up, similar to that produced by a permanent magnet. The iron core simply strengthens the magnetic field produced.
Torque Figure 4.26 An electrical machine to generate torque
If we supply DC current to the stator coils, the magnetic field produced by the stator electromagnets will always be in the same direction. A torque is induced on the rotor coil that tries to align the rotor and stator magnetic fields. That is, the rotor will tend to spin until its north and south poles align with the south and north of the stator. If, on the other hand, we were to supply an alternating current to the stator coils, the magnetic poles would change their polarity every halfcycle of the electrical supply. That is, for the positive half cycle of the AC waveform the stator magnets would be, say, N S, and for the negative half cycle of the supply, the magnets would reverse to S N. See figure 4.27. Note that the cross and dot in a circle on either side of the magnet represent several windings of a coil with an iron core.
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Power supply
Power supply
Figure 4.27 Stator fed by alternating current to give oscillating magnetic field
Suppose we were to place a rotor in this oscillating field. The rotor might be a permanent magnet, or an electromagnet fed by a direct current (both of which give a constant magnetic field). Initially the north pole of the rotor will be attracted to the south pole of the stator, and hence the rotor will rotate to align the magnetic fields accordingly. Then, when the stator field changes polarity, the rotor will rotate another half-revolution in order to align its north pole with the stator's new south pole. Every time the stator changes polarity, the rotor again spins another half-revolution. We thus have achieved our goal of continuous rotation of the rotor! Clearly the rate at which the rotor spins is related to the rate at which the stator field changes its polarity. The faster the stator field changes, the faster the rotor will spin. That is, the rotor and stator speeds are always synchronised. Hence the term synchronous motor. If the stator is fed from a fixed frequency supply, such as the 50 Hz mains supply, the rotor will run at a single speed of 3000 revolutions per minute. Why does the rotor run at 3 000 rpm when the stator is fed with 50 Hz alternating current? This simple arrangement of a synchronous machine has two potential problems: if the rotor's magnetic field is aligned at q = 0o or q = 180o to the stator's magnetic field, the motor has no torque (remember that the torque is proportional to sin q), and hence the motor cannot start itself the torque produced by the machine is uneven. This variation arises from two sources: i the alternating current supplying the stator windings is (sinusoidally) time varying: the torque produced is directly proportional to the magnitude of this current
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ii
as the rotor spins, the angle q between the stator and rotor magnetic fields varies, and torque is also proportional to sin q.
Both of these problems can be resolved by adding additional stator windings as explained below.
Three-phase synchronous motor

Figure 4.28 shows a machine with three pairs of stator windings. This contrasts with the single pair of stator windings shown in the machine of figure 4.26. The pairs of windings are labelled A, B and C, with each pair displaced around the circumference of the machine by 120o from each other (equally spaced).
Coil C' Coil B
Coil A
Coil A'
Coil B'
Coil C
Figure 4.28 Synchronous motor with three pairs of stator windings
If we now supply the three stator winding pairs with three-phase alternating current (one phase to each pair of windings), the resulting stator magnetic field can be shown (using vector arithmetic) to be of constant magnitude, and rotates around the stator at a constant angular velocity. This is known as a rotating magnetic field. You have learned about this technique already. It is used in the induction motor. This situation contrasts with the single-phase stator where the magnitude of the magnetic field varies sinusoidally with time, and only ever lies diametrically across the machine between the winding cores. Figure 4.29 illustrates the rotation of the magnetic field around the three-phase stator.
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C'
C'
A'
A'
B' C'
C B
B' C'
C B
A'
A'
B' C'
C B
B' C'
C B
A'
A'
B'
B'
Figure 4.29 Constant amplitude rotating magnetic field in a three-phase stator winding
The rotating magnetic field achieves the same outcome as if we manually moved the permanent magnets of figure 4.25 in an arc around the rotor. The rotating magnetic field means that there is always a torque imposed on the rotor, regardless of the position of the rotor with respect to the stator windings. The constant amplitude field ensures that the torque produced is constant instead of time varying. The angle q now needs to be more clearly defined. In particular we use q to describe the angle between the stator and rotor magnetic fields (and not to describe the angle of the rotor with respect to a fixed point on the stator). The torque produced is proportional to the sine of this angle.
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This means that the rotor can spin at a synchronous speed (determined by the frequency of the alternating current supply) with a constant angle q between the rotor and stator magnetic fields. Figure 4.30 shows the definition of q for a synchronous motor with three-phase stator.
Angle between magnetic fields Figure 4.30 Definition of q in a rotating magnetic field
Characteristics of synchronous motors

Single-phase synchronous motors are rarely, if ever, used because of the problems outlined earlier. All practical synchronous machines use threephase stator windings for the reasons given above. The rotor winding is fed by a direct current to maintain the electromagnetic rotor field. Feeding a current to a rotating electromagnet requires the use of slip rings. Slip rings allow the rotor to rotate while still maintaining an electrical connection between the rotor winding and the direct current source supplying it. Figure 4.31 shows a set of slip rings on a synchronous machine.
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Figure 4.31 Slip rings in a synchronous machine
Synchronous motors can only run at the speed of rotation of the stator's magnetic field. The torque generated by a synchronous motor is self-regulating in the following sense. If there is negligible load on the rotor it is free to virtually line up exactly with the stator field (q = 0o). However, if we attach a significant load torque to the motor (such as a pump or fan) the rotor will tend to lag behind the stator field. The torque produced by the machine is of course proportional to sin q, and thus q increases until the motor torque is exactly equal to the load torque. If the load torque exceeds the maximum motor torque (when q = 90o), the rotor will lose synchronism with the rotating stator field and stall. This situation is known as pole slipping. In practice a synchronous motor with load attached is difficult to start. This is because the rotor needs to accelerate from standstill to synchronous speed in a very short period of time. This is virtually impossible with any significant inertia on the rotor. In order to overcome starting problems, special additional windings can be added to the rotor. These additional windings only contribute significant torque to the motor while it accelerates. Once at synchronous speed, these windings do not contribute any torque. Synchronous motors have limited practical application because of their low starting torque and fixed speed.
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Direct current (DC) motor

Figure 4.32 shows a machine that is very similar to that shown in figure 4.26, but now with many coils distributed around the rotor. Note that these additional coils and their spacings are not associated with any concepts of three-phase systems. In this instance, we would like as many additional coils as we can afford.
S Mark N
Mar
Ma
rk
N Figure 4.32 Direct current motor
A mark on the rotor is used in the figure to indicate the rotor position with respect to the stator. The stator is supplied with a direct current. This creates a constant magnetic field between the stator's north and south magnetic poles. The lines of flux are not shown for clarity. The rotor, too, is supplied with direct current. In the uppermost diagram of figure 4.32, all of the coils on the left hand side of the rotor have current flowing into the page, while the coils on the right hand side have current flowing out of the page, as indicated in the figure.
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These currents produce a constant electromagnetic field in the iron rotor whose north and south poles are as shown. The location of the boundary between coils with opposing current directions is fixed in the construction of the machine. The rotor experiences a torque that seeks to spin it clockwise. It is seen that the angle between the stator and rotor magnetic fields is 90o, corresponding to the position of maximum torque. In the middle diagram, the rotor has moved slightly in a clockwise direction. The direction of currents in the rotor windings, however, is the same relative to the stator position as in the previous diagram. This has been achieved by switching of current direction in the top and bottom coils. The magnetic north and south poles have moved anti-clockwise around the rotor by an angle corresponding to the rotor coil spacing. The rotor again experiences maximum torque from its interaction with the stator's magnetic field. In the lowermost diagram, the rotor has moved further again in a clockwise direction; another coil has had its current direction reversed, and the rotor's magnetic field is again in the same place with respect to the stator field. It is evident that if we continue to switch the direction of current in one coil at a time, we can establish a magnetic field that is rotating with respect to the rotor, but that is stationary with respect to the stator. (The angle between the rotor and stator fields is 90 o giving maximum torque from the machine.) We have thus enabled the rotor to experience torque whilst rotating continually with respect to the stator. This is the principle of the direct current, or dc, motor! The switching of the direction of the currents in the rotor coils is achieved by means of a cylindrical switch known as a commutator. This switch is made up of carbon brushes that make contact with individual segments of a copper cylinder mounted on the rotor. See figure 4.33.
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Figure 4.33
A commutator on a medium sized DC machine. The commutator segments and carbon brushes are evident, as is a slight build-up of carbon on commutator segments.
The commutator is in some ways similar to the slip rings found in a synchronous machine. They both use carbon brushes acting on copper surfaces attached to the spinning rotor in order to feed current to the rotor coils. However, the slip rings are continuous around 360o of the rotor circumference, whereas each commutator segment spans only several degrees of the rotor circumference. The commutator is the weak link in a DC machine. Being an electromechanical device it requires regular maintenance to ensure proper operation. If the commutator gets dirty (from build-up of carbon deposits) excessive heat can be generated by current flowing across a high resistance joint (remember the problems associated with switching high voltages and currents). The carbon brushes themselves must be replaced when they wear. If not, the brushes will become too short to make proper contact with the commutator segments which results in arcing between brushes and commutator. Again, this results in excessive heat build-up which can melt the commutator.
Characteristics of DC motors
Unlike synchronous machines, DC motors do not have a fixed speed. A DC motor can be made to run at any speed (up to a point) by simply increasing the stator and/or rotor currents to increase torque (remember
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that the torque produced is proportional to the product of the stator and rotor currents). In contrast, alternating current motor speeds are limited by the frequency of the power supply. This is the principal advantage of DC machines. The rotor and stator currents can be controlled separately, giving what is called a separately excited machine, or concurrently giving a series or shunt machine. This enables motor characteristics to be tailored to suit particular applications. We will look more closely at these concepts later. In some DC motors, particularly smaller motors such as those found in model cars, the stator is made up of permanent magnets instead of the electromagnets shown in figure 4.32. This enhances the simplicity and robustness of these motors. Smaller motors also tend to have fewer rotor coils (and hence fewer commutator segments). For example, small DC motors used in model cars and trains can have as few as four coils. The number of coils is clearly evident when the number of commutator segments is examined. Again, this is done to reduce complexity and cost of such motors. Figure 4.34 shows a small DC motor used in a model train.
Figure 4.34 A small permanent magnet DC motor in a model train
DC motors can produce very high starting torques. This characteristic makes them very suitable for applications where substantial loads have to be started from rest. The main disadvantages of DC machines are the high initial cost, the high maintenance required on the commutator, and the need to have a direct current supply.
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The complexity of the DC motor's commutator adds considerably to the construction cost of DC motors, and especially to those motors with many rotor coils and commutator segments. The subsequent maintenance required also costs time, and requires the removal from service of the motor during the maintenance period. The direct current supply is problematic given that most of our electrical power is alternating current produced by synchronous generators. Direct currents must be obtained through rectification of the alternating current, adding further cost to a DC motor installation. If variable speed is required, the DC supply must be made to be variable. DC machines are losing their significance in modern applications as more advanced power electronic circuits are devised to enable other motor types (primarily induction motors) to be run at variable speeds. Many older industrial plants still use DC machines, but their years of service are likely to be numbered.
Applications of DC motors
DC motors are used in many applications where variable speed, high starting torques or high power to size ratios are required. These applications include: trains the motors must be able to start a fully laden train from rest, run at variable speed, and be small enough to fit within the bogies of the train conveyor systems here the primary need is high starting torque for starting under load, though variable speeds can be useful where the rate of product delivery needs to be varied steel rolling mills as metal plate is rolled thinner it travels faster (the excess material has to go somewhere!). Variable speed drives are required to accommodate varying plate thicknesses during the rolling process model trains, cars and so forth high power to size ratios and variable speeds are provided electric windows, aerials, windscreen wipers and so forth in cars, trucks and buses here the primary advantage is that the DC power is readily available, though the high power to size is also attractive.
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Universal motors
We have looked at the principle of operation of a DC motor. In this machine, a constant magnetic stator field is created using an electromagnet fed by direct current or by a permanent magnet. The rotor has direct current fed to it through a commutator. One might be tempted to ask what would happen if a DC motor was provided with alternating current instead of direct current? The answer is that the motor will still work! Think again about the DC motor diagram in figure 4.32. Let us assume that the rotor and stator are connected to the same alternating current supply. During the positive half cycle of the supply waveform, the current direction is positive, and the currents in the motor are as shown in figure 4.32. During the negative half cycle, the direction of the alternating current is reversed. Since the stator and rotor share the same supply, the currents in both the stator and rotor reverse. This means that all of the north poles become south poles, and the south poles become north poles. The motor, however, still experiences torque in the same direction as it did during the positive half cycle. That is, the motor runs in the same direction during both positive and negative half cycles of the alternating current supply! While the direction of rotation is constant, the torque produced by the motor is not. Because the magnitude of the AC supply varies sinusoidally with time, the torque produced also varies sinusoidally with time. By comparison, the same machine fed with direct current will produce constant torque. Motors that are designed to run on either AC or DC are called universal motors.
Characteristics of universal motors

While universal motors can work on either DC or AC supplies, in practice their design and construction is optimised for use on AC supplies. The reason is simple: all of our mains electricity is alternating current. That is, universal motors are designed for use at 240 Volts 50 Hz. Universal motors can be run at variable speed by controlling the magnitude of the voltage supplied to the motor. As it turns out, it is relatively simple to build electronics to vary the magnitude of the voltage obtained from the mains; at least it is easier than having to convert the
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AC mains into DC, and then vary the voltage of the DC supply. Unlike other AC motors, the range of speeds of a universal motor is not limited. Universal motors offer high torque for their size. For relatively small motors sizes (no bigger than hand-sized), universal motors produce more torque than any other AC motor design. Universal motors, like DC motors, have brushes in them to make contact with the rotor coils. Like DC machines, the brushes need to be maintained to ensure proper operation. The high torque, variable speed and ability to run on AC make these motors ideal for domestic applications. It was noted that a DC motor could also be used as a DC generator. However, the same is not true for universal motors.
Applications of universal motors

Universal motors are used in many appliances found in and around the home. Almost all hand power tools such as drills, sanders and power saws use universal motors. Inside the home, universal motors can be found in vacuum cleaners, food blenders and hair dryers. Almost every domestic appliance with a small motor has a universal motor in it. Figure 4. 35 shows a universal motor in an orbital sander.
Figure 4.35 A universal motor in an orbital sander
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The induction motor

All of the machines described so far have required some means of connecting the rotor to an external power supply (except for the case of the permanent magnet synchronous machine). These connections are by way of slip rings in a synchronous machine, and by commutator in DC and universal machines. Slip rings and commutators are expensive to build, and require on-going maintenance during the life of the machine. A motor that has no physical connection to the rotor is the induction motor, which you learnt about in Household appliances. Table 2 shows a concise summary of the types of motors we have considered.
Machine type Stator current Rotor current Shaft torque direction Torque produced Comments
Synchronous motor
AC supplied
DC supplied (or permanent magnet) DC supplied
Runs at fixed (synchronous) speed only. Variable speed.
DC motor
DC supplied (or permanent magnet) AC supplied
Torque produced
Universal motor Induction motor Table 2
AC supplied
Torque produced Torque produced
Variable speed.
AC supplied
Induced
No connection to rotor.
Summary of electrical motors
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Introduction to digital systems
The focus on the previous sections has been on applications of electrical power. In this section we are concerned with information, and the representation of information using electrical signals. We introduce the key concepts of analogue and digital signals, and of using binary signalling to represent both logical information (true/false) and arithmetic information (counting and numbers). The concepts all find significant application in modern transport systems; either on board vehicles or in information and control infrastructure.
Analogue signals
An analogue signal is one that is both continuous in amplitude and in time. A good example of an analogue signal is the ambient temperature. If we were to measure the temperature at midday, we might observe that it is, say, 28oC. If we had a more accurate thermometer, we find that the temperature is actually 28.3oC. A visiting scientist with some very expensive equipment might be adamant the temperature is 28.37 oC. The actual temperature need not correspond to an integer number of degrees Celsius. In fact, the temperature could be measured arbitrarily accurately (to any number of decimal points), assuming we have suitable equipment available. Furthermore, when the temperature changes, it does so in infinitesimal increments. That is, the temperature does not jump suddenly from 28oC to 27oC, but instead varies gradually. Temperature, then, is continuous in amplitude. The temperature is also continuous in time. We might measure the temperature once per day, or once per hour, or even every minute. In between our observations, however, there is still a temperature.
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Since the temperature is continuous in amplitude and time, we say that it is an analogue signal. Other examples of analogue signals include your own body weight, the speed of a car (although it may be zero for long periods) and the height of a tree. Can you think of any other analogue signals that is, variables that are continuous in amplitude and time?
Quantisation
In measuring temperature, we usually approximate the temperature to the nearest integer number of degrees. That is, we might say the temperature is 28oC even though it is in fact 28.3oC, which is generally close enough for most of us. We do not bother talking in fractions of a degree. Most measuring devices have an upper and lower bound on the range they can measure. A thermometer, for example, might read from -10 o C up to 50oC. It is important to note that the variable itself being measured is not bounded. The temperature may in fact rise to 200oC. However, our quantising thermometer will only report 50oC. When the variable exceeds the measurement range of the instrument, we say that the measurement has saturated.
Sampling
The term sampling refers to the frequency at which we take our measurements. If we measure the temperature every hour, we are said to be sampling at a frequency of 24 times per day. We might get very keen and sample 10 times per second. Then our sampling rate would be 10 Hz. The rate at which we take the measurements generally depends on how quickly we expect the variable to change. If we are measuring the ambient temperature, observations every hour are usually sufficient to capture the expected variations. If, on the other hand we measured the temperature once every three months we could not expect to be able to capture the inevitable daily variations. It is important to note that sampling does not imply quantisation. When we refer to sampling, we refer to the process of making measurements at regular time intervals. Each of the those measurements, however, can be arbitrarily accurate, and need not be quantised.
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Digital signals
A digital signal is one that has been quantised and sampled. That is, the original (usually analogue) signal has been sampled at regular intervals, with each measurement yielding a value from a finite set of possible values. A digital signal can thus be simply represented by a regular stream of symbols. A digital signal can, but need not, be restricted to two possible quantisation levels. A signal that is represented by only two possible levels is called a binary signal. Binary signals are used widely as the basis for binary computing machines, upon which much of modern technology is based. However, common (if technically incorrect) usage of the term digital has become synonymous with binary systems.
Boolean logic
The term logic is used to describe a set of formal relationships between input and output variables. Input variables are factors that determine whether a particular outcome will occur, or be true. The output variable describes the particular outcome that we are interested in. As a simple example, consider a switch controlling a lamp. The input in this case is the switch position it determines whether the lamp will be on or off. The output variable is the illumination of the lamp. The rules describing the relationship are simple: if the switch is in the on position, then the lamp is illuminated. (Here we have ignored all the other things that might go wrong, such as the lamp being blown or the power being off. Technically we should include all of these factors as additional inputs.) Boolean logic is named after George Boole, an Irish mathematician of the 1800s who undertook pioneering work in the study of logic. Consider the following scenario. You ask your parents if you can borrow the family car to drive to Perth. The answer given is No! From your perspective, your parents logic seems to be hard to follow.
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The main difficulty here is in the number of possible values that each input variable can take. In making their decision, your parents will have taken into account variables such as: How long will it take? How much school will you miss? How much will the petrol cost?
If the possible answers to each question were a simple yes or no, you might be able to understand the reasoning behind your parents decision. But when the variables can take on many possible values, the logic behind the decision is harder to understand. Boolean logic is a set of rules specifically relating to logical variables that can only take on two possible values. These values might be True False, Yes No, or 1-0. Suppose a particular Boolean expression has two inputs A and B. We can then consider all possible combinations of A and B (there are four of them), and evaluate the expression for each possible combination. The ability to consider all possible combinations is one of the key attractions of Boolean, or binary, logic. If there are M input variables in a Boolean expression, there are 2M possible combinations to consider. As long as M is fairly small say three or four then we can reasonably consider all possibilities.
Combinational logic circuits

A logic gate is an electrical circuit that is specifically designed to implement a particular Boolean logic function. There are literally thousands of different types of gates manufactured. We will restrict ourselves to just three of these: AND, OR and NOT. (Even then, we will look at generic properties only.) It can be shown that these three types of gates are sufficient to build any logic circuit that you can design. To do so, we use combinations of AND, OR and NOT gates to implement the various functions. These combinations of gates to implement logic functions gives rise to the term combinational logic. These hardware devices are the fundamental building blocks of all digital electronic equipment, including PCs, mobile phones and MP3 players.
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Common logic gates

The three logical operators we have considered are AND, OR and NOT. The operators can be represented symbolically as shown in figures 4.36 to 4.38. (It should be noted that the symbols shown in figures 4.36 to 4.38 are currently the most frequently used in engineering practice. However, new symbols are finding their way into some texts, and readers should be aware of these developments.) Figure 4.36 shows a digital logic circuit with a single AND gate, together with switches A and B to control the inputs, and a lamp Z that is illuminated when the output of the gate is true.
+Vcc (+5 Volts) [A]
(0 Volts) AND gate +Vcc (+5 Volts) [B] Lamp Z
(0 Volts)
Lamp Z comes on when switch A is on AND switch B is on. Figure 4.36 Logic circuit with AND gate
The AND gate is represented by the elongated D shape. By convention its inputs are on the left hand side, and its output is on the right hand side. Let us look more closely at the input. The switch on each gate input allows one of two possible voltages to be connected to that input of the AND gate. These voltages are +5 Volts to represent a True, and 0 Volts to represent. The symbols +Vcc and the three lines used to represent Ground or 0 Volts are the conventional electrical symbols for these same voltages. We can use the switches to represent whether or not the input statement (variable) is true.
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In drawing logic ciruits, we do not bother to show the return connections that allows the current to flow back to the source. We assume that such connections must always be present for the circuit to work, but do not bother to draw them so that the diagram does not get too cluttered. Figure 4.37 shows a circuit containing an OR gate. The circuit is arranged with switches and a lamp in the same way as figure 4.36.
+Vcc +Vcc [A] OR gate [B] Z
Lamp
Lamp Z comes on when switch A is on OR switch B is on. Figure 4.37 Logic circuit with OR gate.
The OR gate is represented by the shape shown. Its left hand side curves inwards, and the right hand side has a pronounced point. Figure 4.38 shows a NOT gate. In this case, there is only one input switch.
+Vcc [A] Z
Lamp
Lamp Z comes on when switch A is not on. Figure 4.38 Logic circuit with NOT gate
We look to see how these gates can be used to implement logic functions.
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Simple logic circuits

Let us revisit a previous example. How can we design a circuit to implement the logical expression: The bus can depart if the doors are closed and the passengers are seated. Figure 4.39 shows a logic circuit to implement this function.
+Vcc Doors are closed [A] AND gate +Vcc The bus can depart Passengers are seated [B] Z
Figure 4.39 Logic circuit to implement bus departure problem
The statement Doors are closed is associated with +Vcc (or +5V or true). If the statement is false, the switch should be moved to the lower (0V position). In practice, we would use a switch physically connected to the door to implement this part. Then if the doors were open, input A to the AND gate would be automatically connected to 0V. When the doors closed input A would be automatically connected to +Vcc. Input B (Passengers are seated) works the same way. (It is not clear how we might easily ensure all passengers were seated, but we will assume that such a circuit exists!) The output lamp Z will be illuminated when the bus is safe to depart. Let us look now at another problem: The driver should stop the car if the traffic light is red or if there is a pedestrian on the crossing or if the wheels fall off. This seems straightforward at first, but then we realise that we have three inputs to manage, while the OR gate in Figure 4.37 had only two inputs.
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Figure 4.40 shows a logic circuit that implements the driver stopping problem.
+Vcc Traffic light is red +Vcc Pedestrian on crossing +Vcc Wheels fallen off [C] C
[A] (A or B) Z [B] (A or B) or C Driver should stop
Figure 4.40 Logic circuit to implement the driver stopping problem
We can see from figure 4.40 that we have used two two-input OR gates to solve the problem. We have used the fact that (A OR B) OR C is the same as A OR B OR C. It can be shown using the laws of Boolean algebra that such an equality holds. Not only are AND, OR and NOT gates sufficient to build any logic circuit, but two-input AND and OR gates, together with one-input NOT gates, is sufficient! The heart of any microprocessor (the brain inside a computer) is a device called an arithmetic logic unit. This device, as the name suggests, is designed to carry out all of the arithmetic and logical processes required by the computer's software. Arithmetic logic units (or ALU's) are no more conceptually difficult than the design we have just completed. Yes, there are more gates in them, but it is really only repetition of the same concepts. You might like to try exercises 4.7 and 4.8 in the exercise section. Note these are optional exercises.
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Electrical systems in transport
This section now looks at applications of electrical systems in personal and public transport. This review is necessarily brief: almost every conceivable means of transport has some degree of electrical infrastructure. Perhaps the most simple means of transport is walking. On the other hand, the most sophisticated means of public transport is the modern aircraft. The term fly by wire has been coined to describe a flight control system that relies completely on electronics to function. That is, there is no mechanical connection between the pilot and the principle control surfaces (flaps, rudder, etc), but instead electronic signals are sent from the cockpit to servo mechanisms and motors in various parts of the aircraft. Electronics are also used for navigation, communications, and indeed for the autopilot. Of course, there is also a need to generate significant quantities of electrical power on board the aircraft to supply all of these systems. Power generators are duplicated and paralleled to give back-up systems in case of failures. In between these extremes are many, many applications of electrical systems. They are used in cars, trucks, buses, and boats. They are used for motive power (that is, propulsion), lighting, heating, entertainment, signalling and communications. We will not attempt to investigate or describe all of these systems. Instead, we will look at electrical systems in a small sample of transport vehicles. In each case, we will try to understand these systems in terms of the electrical concepts we have learned, and to categorise them according to some simple parameters. This approach will not only foster an appreciation of current technologies, but also enable us to understand new technologies as they are developed.
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Parameterising electrical systems in transport

There are many ways to parameterise electrical systems in transport. For this exercise, we will use the following: Is the system used for power/energy, or is it used for information/communication?
If power/energy: What is the source of energy used to provide the electrical power? Does the circuit use AC or DC voltages and currents? Is the power being consumed as it is generated, or is the power associated with some form of storage? What form of energy is the electrical power converted to? What quantities of power or energy are being used?
If information/communication: What is the source of the information? Is the signal analogue or digital? Is the main function of the system arithmetic or logical? Is the information represented in text or graphical form?
Electrical systems in bicycles

Bicycles are one of the most simple (and indeed efficient) modes of transport. Most commonly we find only a couple of electrical systems on board. These are : lighting speedometer/odometer.
Lighting
Is the system used for power/energy, or is it used for information/communication?
If we consider a bicycle in isolation, we would argue that lighting is a power application. That is, we are interested in the ability of the lighting system to illuminate the road ahead: the more lighting power we have, the better the system.
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If we considered a bicycle amongst other traffic in a built-up area with street-lighting, we could equally well argue that the lighting system is used as a means of signalling the bicycle's presence to other road users: that is, the lights are a source of information. For the purposes of this exercise, we will classify the lighting system as a power application. What is the source of energy used to provide the electrical power?
Historically, bicycle lighting systems were powered by small generators driven directly off the revolving tyre. In this case, the source of power was the rider's legs! More recently, bicycle lighting has been powered by rechargeable batteries. Figure 4.41 shows a typical battery powered headlamp for a bicycle. In this case, the batteries are re-charged using mains powered chargers.
Figure 4.41 Battery powered bicycle lamp.
Does the circuit use AC or DC voltages and currents?
The generator supplies AC power. The frequency of that power is proportional to the speed of the rotor, and hence to the speed of the bicycle. The batteries supply DC power. Is the power being consumed as it is generated, or is the power associated with some form of storage?
In the generator case, the power is consumed as it is generated. In the case of batteries, the power is being consumed from chemical energy stored in the battery. What form of energy is the electrical power converted to?
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In each case, the energy is converted to light, and heat. The heat component is undesirable and wasted. Ideally, there would be no heat generated. What quantities of power or energy are being used?
The lamps in bicycle headlights are of the order of 5 Watts at 6 Volts. This gives a current of 0.8 Amps. The batteries used in the lamps are usually AA-sized rechargeables. These batteries have a storage capacity of around 0.6 to 1 Amp hour.
Speedometer/Odometer
A bicycle speedometer/odometer unit is shown in figure 4.42. These devices are used to calculate and display distance travelled, and average and maximum speeds. The part on the upper left is known as the sender unit and is mounted on a spoke. The component on the right is mounted on the frame of the bicycle and detects the sender unit as it passes on each rotation of the wheel. Electrical pulses are carried by wire to the processor unit that is shown on the lower left.
Figure 4.42 Bicycle speedometer/odometer unit
What is the source of the information?
The information is generated by the receiver unit in response to rotation of the bicycle wheel. Is the signal analogue or digital?
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The information is considered to be digital, since either a pulse is sent, or it is not. There is no continuous range of signal. Is the main function of the system arithmetic or logical?
The function of the speedometer/odometer is to calculate distances and speeds from the pulses received, which are correlated with the unit's own internal clock. In this sense, the device is performing arithmetic functions. Is the information represented in text or graphical form?
The information provided to the user is in text format, as seen on the screen of the unit in figure 4.42.
Electrical systems in motorcycles

Figure 4.43 shows a typical road registered motorcycle. Motorcycles contain many electrical systems not found in bicycles. The types of electrical systems found on a typical motorcycle include: an alternator to generate electrical power (typical power outputs are of the order 200 to 300 Watts at 12 Volts) a battery to store energy for starting and for use when alternator output is too low (for example, while idling with lights on) a rectifier to convert the AC current from the alternator into DC current for storage in the battery a voltage regulator to limit the voltage supplied to the battery: batteries are designed to have a fixed voltage a spark ignition system to supply high voltage pulses to the sparkplugs to ignite the fuel-air mixture in the cylinders a starter motor to start the engine lights for illumination of the road ahead, for signalling to other traffic, and for instrumentation (such as warning lights to indicate low oil pressure) a horn to signal your presence to other road users and pedestrians.
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Figure 4.43 A road going motorcycle
Brake light system

The brake light system illuminates the rear brake lamp(s) when either the front brake (lever) or the rear brake (pedal) is activated. The either function here is identical to the OR logical function seen previously; in this case, the either is implemented by using two switches in parallel (one on the lever, one on the pedal) so that either switch closes the circuit between the battery and the brake lamp. Is the system used for power/energy, or is it used for information/communication?
This form of lighting is used to signal the rider's intention (to stop) to other road users behind the motorcycle. Therefore it is used for information/communication. What is the source of the information?
The information source is the switches on both lever and pedal that close the circuit to the stop lamp. Is the signal analogue or digital?
The stop lamp is either on or off. There is no proportional illumination of the lamp to indicate rate of stopping. Hence the signal is digital. Is the main function of the system arithmetic or logical?
The main function is logical. Is the information represented in text or graphical form?
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The information (that the bike is slowing or stopping) is presented in graphical form by illumination of the lamp (there are no words to read).
Starter motor
The starter motor system is used for power to turn the engine over sufficiently quickly to start it. What is the source of energy used to provide the electrical power?
The energy for the starter motor comes from the battery. The battery is in turn charged by the alternator that is driven off the engine. The original energy source is thus the petrol used to fuel the engine. Does the circuit use AC or DC voltages and currents?
The starter motor is a DC motor, chosen for its high starting torque, and for its ability to run directly off the battery without the need for additional electronics. The variable speed capability of the DC machine is not used. The high maintenance usually associated with a DC motor is generally not a problem with starter motors since they are used relatively infrequently, compared to say, an alternator (that runs when the engine is running). Is the power being consumed as it is generated, or is the power associated with some form of storage?
The starter motor must use stored energy from the battery, since the alternator is not being driven by the engine before it is started. What form of energy is the electrical power converted to?
The electrical power in the motor is converted to mechanical energy to spin the engine. Some heat is generated in resistive losses inside the DC motor. What quantities of power or energy are being used?
The starter motor is rated at around 700 Watts. (Note that the maximum output of the alternator is only around 250300 Watts.) Given that the battery voltage is 12 Volts, the current drawn by the starter motor is 700/12 = 58 Amps. The battery in a large motorcycle is rated at around 15 to 20 Amp hours. Given that we should not discharge a lead acid battery more than 50 per cent of its (theoretical) capacity, it is clear that we should not run the starter motor for too long.
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Antilock braking system

Antilock or antiskid braking systems are used to prevent either wheel on the motorcycle from locking during severe braking. It is important to prevent wheel lockup because the rotating wheels are the principal source of gyroscopic stability for the two-wheeled machine. The bike becomes much less stable if one wheel is locked. (The bike is almost impossible to control if both wheels lock.) Locking of the front wheel also severely degrades steering capability. The antilock system works by monitoring wheel rotation speed using a sensor in close proximity to a toothed wheel (usually cast into the wheel itself). The wheel speed sensing technique is not dissimilar to that seen in the bicycle speedometer/odometer, though in this case there are many more trigger pulses per revolution of the wheel. Figure 4.44 shows the toothed rotor on the front wheel of a motorcycle. The wires running from the sensor can just be made out to the right (behind) of the fork tube in line with the rotor teeth.
Figure 4.44 Toothed rotor on antilock braking system of a motorcycle
When the system detects that the wheel has stopped rotating under braking conditions (determined by activation of the brake light circuit), pressure in the hydraulic linkage between lever/pedal and the brake caliper is released momentarily to allow the wheel to resume rotating, thus avoiding wheel lockup. The hydraulic pressure is released by an electrically operated servo (effectively, an electromagnet that activates a piston in the hydraulic line). Is the system used for power/energy, or is it used for information/communication?
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The system is clearly reacting to information provided by the rotor sensor, but its action is one of applying a force to relieve the pressure in the hydraulic braking line. What is the source of energy used to provide the electrical power?
The electrical power to energise the pressure relief servo and to run the speed sensor is provided by the motorcycle's electrical system, which ultimately gets its energy from the fuel fed to the engine. Does the circuit use AC or DC voltages and currents?
The motorcycle's electrical system is direct current. Is the power being consumed as it is generated, or is the power associated with some form of storage?
Sufficient current is probably provided by the alternator while the engine is running to power the antilock braking system. However, the battery is an integral part of the electrical system, and can continue to provide electrical power even if the engine stalls. What form of energy is the electrical power converted to?
The electrical energy is converted into a linear force in the servo. This force acts on hydraulic valves to relieve pressure. What quantities of power or energy are being used?
There is some electronics involved in sensing wheel speed. This electronics would draw a few Watts. The servo would consume tens of Watts while it is activated.
Electrical systems in rail transport

We have seen that a motorcycle is significantly more complicated than a bicycle in terms of its electrical systems. Rail transport, and in particular the locomotives and power units in passenger trains are more complicated again. Furthermore, just as we observed that motorcycles are dependent on a much larger traffic infrastructure that itself has many electrical components, so too does a rail system. Instead of examining individual components of locomotives or the infrastructure and classifying them as power or information as we have previously for bicycles and motorcycles, in this section we look to understand a little about how electric passenger vehicle and diesel electric locomotives operate.
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Electric passenger trains

Figure 4.45 shows a V Set driver motor unit on an electrically powered passenger train. These trains are operated by Cityrail on the interurban network between Newcastle, Lithgow and Wollongong. The V sets were progressively introduced between 1970 and 1989, and have a maximum speed of 120 kph. We will consider the motive power aspects of these trains in terms of the parameters set out above.
Figure 4.45 V Set driver motor carriage operated by CityRail
The trains are used to provide power. (They do of course include many subsystems used for information/communication, but our focus here is on the motive power.) What is the source of energy used to provide the electrical power?
The trains are powered by the overhead electrical supply. This supply is in turn obtained from the mains grid. The rail authority operates its own distribution network along the rail corridors. Power is fed from the overhead conductors by a catenary system, with the return current path being provided by the steel rails on which the train runs. Figure 4.46 shows a closer view of the pantograph used to make contact with the overhead wiring. This pantograph is spring loaded so as to be able to maintain vertical pressure on the overhead wire to ensure continuity of supply.
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Figure 4.46 Pantograph used to connect electric trains to overhead catenary
Does the circuit use AC or DC voltages and currents?
The New South Wales electric train network was established in the 1920s, and was initially restricted to the Sydney suburban areas. Since then, the network has expanded to include rail corridors to Newcastle, Lithgow and Wollongong. The system operates on a voltage of 1500 Volts DC. At the time the network was established, this voltage was considered ideal for the DC motors that propelled trains with high starting torque and variable speed. More recent developments in motor control technology have made AC drives more cost efficient, but the substantial investment in the existing network prevents consideration of a change of system voltage. Is the power being consumed as it is generated, or is the power associated with some form of storage?
Power is obtained from the grid network, and hence is consumed as it is produced. During evening peak hour, when hydro plants are used to supplement coal-fired power stations, some energy is being obtained from hydro storage. It is interesting to note that electric trains can regenerate electricity. DC motors can also be used as DC generators.
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Trains motoring up the various grades in the network (such as over the Blue Mountains) use considerable energy to lift the train mass to higher elevations. (The typical mass of the unit shown in Figure 4.46 is around 60 tonnes. A complete train of four power cars plus four unpowered trailers has a mass of around 400 tonnes.) However, when the trains descend the same grades, the motors are used as generators, converting the mechanical energy from the train into electrical energy for use by other trains on the network. In essence, trains coming down the Blue Mountains are powering trains climbing the same section. This technique is called regenerative braking, and is much more energy efficient than dissipating the mechanical energy of the train into heat as is the case with conventional braking systems. What form of energy is the electrical power converted to?
The electrical power consumed by the train motors is converted to kinetic energy in the moving mass of the train. What quantities of power or energy are being used?
Each powered unit has four 150 kW motors, operating at 1500 Volts. Each motor thus draws 100 Amps on full load. A train of four power cars thus draws 2400 kW, and 1600 Amps, on full load.
Diesel electric locomotives

Figure 4.47 shows a New South Wales 81 Class diesel electric locomotive. This form of locomotive uses a diesel engine to drive an electrical generator to power electric motors geared to the wheels. These locomotives are typical of the principal form of motive power employed on railways all over the world. The 81 Class, introduced into NSW from 1982, were built by Clyde Engineering at Clyde's Kelso plant near Bathurst in Central West New South Wales. They are used for a variety of purposes, including intercapital freight and (until recently) passenger services, as well as for export coal and grain haulage. Early on, most of their time was on the southern line or the Hunter Valley, though this has now expanded.
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Figure 4.47 New South Wales 81 Class diesel electric locomotive
The principal purpose of the locomotives is to provide motive power. What is the source of energy used to provide the electrical power?
The source of the power is a turbo-charged 16 cylinder 169 litre four stroke diesel engine. (This is somewhat larger than a typical 8 cylinder five litre petrol engine used in large cars!) The diesel engine drives main and auxiliary alternators, and an auxiliary generator that converts mechanical thrust into electrical power. The engine idles at a speed of 300 rpm, and has a maximum speed of just 900 rpm. It consumes fuel at the rate of approximately 500 litres per 100 kms. Does the circuit use AC or DC voltages and currents?
The main alternator provides power for the six traction motors (one on each axle). Since the traction motors are DC, the alternator output has to be rectified (converted from AC to DC) before feeding the traction motors. An auxiliary alternator provides AC power for the large fans needed to cool the traction motors and main alternator (remember the resistive losses), the engine cooling radiators, and the dynamic brake. An auxiliary generator is used to provide DC power for other locomotive systems such as lighting, heating and instrumentation. Figure 4.48 shows the driver's seat of an 81 class locomotive. The extensive instrumentation to monitor the locomotive's various subsystems can be seen set out before the driver.
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Figure 4.48 Driver's view in an 81 class diesel electric locomotive
Is the power being consumed as it is generated, or is the power associated with some form of storage?
The power generated for traction, cooling and auxiliary systems is consumed instantaneously. Some degree of regeneration is possible and is used for dynamic braking. In this mode, the DC traction motors are used as generators. The electrical power so produced is dumped (wasted) in a large heating element situated on the roof of the locomotive. This provides braking force, but does not provide much usable power (the regenerated power can drive the main alternator, but the diesel fuel cannot be reconstituted!) What form of energy is the electrical power converted to?
The main traction alternator supplies high voltage AC to a power rectifier assembly which then delivers high voltage DC to the traction motors for locomotive pulling power. The companion alternating current generator furnishes power to the static exciter, various transductors, the three radiator cooling fans, and the inertial separator blower motor. The auxiliary generator charges the storage battery and supplies low voltage direct current for the control and lighting circuits. What quantities of power or energy are being used?
The diesel engine produces 2640 kW on full load. The main alternator has a nominal voltage of 600 Volts and can produce up to 7000 Amps for distribution to the six traction motors. The auxiliary alternator produces around 200 Volts AC, while the auxiliary generator produces 10 kW at 72 Volts DC.
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Each traction motor consumes over 400 kW of power, with currents of the order of 1000 Amps and voltages up to 600 Volts. (The voltage and current are not linearly related in a DC motor under load.). Figure 4.49 shows a traction motor on the axle of an 81 class locomotive. The four cables feeding the motor represent one pair each for the stator and rotor windings of the DC motor. Six such motors are used, with one being hung from each of the locomotive's axles. Battery capacity is of the order of 420 Amp hours at 72 Volts DC. This is used primarily for starting the diesel engine.
Figure 4.49 Traction motor on the axle of an 81 class diesel electric locomotive
One of the main instruments used by the driver of an 81 class locomotive to control the speed and load on the motors is the main alternator ammeter. This instrument shows the current being produced by the main alternator and being fed to the traction motors, and is an indicator of the efficiency at which the locomotive is being operated. The ammeter is the largest dial on the right of the four dials in figure 4.48. Turn to the exercise section and complete exercises 4.9 to 4.12.
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Exercises
Exercise 4.1 Describe the two main uses for electricity. Give three examples of devices that correspond to each usage. ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________
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Exercise 4.2 Complete the following table:

Type of Generator Example of Type Source of Energy Amount of Power Generated by Given Example 2640MW
Coal-fired power station Wind turbine Solar power Hydroelectric Diesel electric locomotive Motorcycle alternator Bicycle lighting battery
Bayswater
Coal
Exercise 4.3 Explain why three-phase systems are preferred over single-phase systems in most high power applications. __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________
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Exercise 4.4 a Explain why transmission towers use strings of porcelain discs to support electrical conductors. _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ b Explain why transmission lines use several small diameter conductors instead of one large diameter conductor for each phase. _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ Exercise 4.5 Why are DC motors relatively expensive to manufacture and maintain, particularly in comparison with induction machines. ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________
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Exercise 4.6 a What is a universal motor. _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ b Where are they used? _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ c Why are they used? _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ Exercise 4.7 optional extension exercise Design a combinational logic circuit to implement the following statement. The TV will turn on if the door is shut and the lights turned off. __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________
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Exercise 4.8 optional extension exercise Design a logic circuit to implement the following statement: 'A student will pass the subject if her examination mark is greater than 50 per cent, or if she completes all of the assessment tasks and submits them on time.' ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________
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Exercise 4.9 Evaluate the following three sub-systems found in a modern car according to the parameters described in the section on electrical systems in transport. a windscreen wiper motor _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ b tail lights _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ c car radio _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ Exercise 4.10 A V Class interurban train has a mass of 400 tonnes, and is capable of travelling at 120 kph. a How much kinetic energy does the train have a maximum speed? _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ b If the train's sixteen DC traction motors are capable of delivering 150 kW each, how long does it take for the train to accelerate from rest to its top speed at its maximum rate of acceleration? _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________
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What happens to the kinetic energy calculated in part (a) when the train slows to a halt at a station? _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________
Exercise 4.11 The New South Wales railway system has around ten 85 Class and thirty eight 86 Class electric locomotives currently in storage. Both classes of locomotive are rated at 2880 kW each, and designed to do the work of diesel electric locomotives in the electrified rail corridors between Newcastle, Lithgow and Wollongong. The forty eight locomotives are currently set aside in favour of diesel electric locomotives for use on electrified lines because under the current pricing structures for diesel and electricity, it is cheaper to run the diesel electric locomotives than it is to run the electric locomotives. Give reasons why this policy should be questioned. ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________
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Progress check
In this part you investigated applications of electricity/electronics in engineering. Take a few moments to reflect on your learning then tick the box which best represents your level of achievement.
I have learnt about: power generation/distribution electrical energy and power AC/DC circuits electric motors used in transport systems principles [and] applications control technology digital technology. I have learnt to: identify the electrical systems used in the transport industry investigate the principles and application of electric motors used in the transport indusrty analyse the basic principles of control technology as applied to the transport industry explain elementary digital logic.
In the next part you will develop your freehand sketching.
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Exercises 4.1 to 4.11 Name: _______________________________
Check!
Have you have completed the following exercises? Exercise 4.1 Exercise 4.2 Exercise 4.3 Exercise 4.4 Exercise 4.5 Exercise 4.6 Exercise 4.7 (optional) Exercise 4.8 (optional) Exercise 4.9 Exercise 4.10 Exercise 4.11 Locate and complete any outstanding exercises then attach your responses to this sheet. If you study Stage 6 Engineering Studies through a Distance Education Centre/School (DEC) you will need to return the exercise sheet and your responses as you complete each part of the module. If you study Stage 6 Engineering Studies through the OTEN Open Learning Program (OLP) refer to the Learners Guide to determine which exercises you need to return to your teacher along with the Mark Record Slip.
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Part 5: Transport systems communications
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Part 5 contents
Introduction ..........................................................................................2
What will you learn?...................................................................2
Orthogonal projection.........................................................................3
Preparing drawing sheet.............................................................5
Technical drawing, the universal language ....................................7

Symbols, AS 1100 101 1992....................................................8 Additional AS 1100 standards...................................................21
Exercises............................................................................................37 Progress check .................................................................................53 Exercise cover sheet........................................................................55
Introduction
In this part you will consolidate the communications content covered in previous modules from both the Preliminary Course and the HSC Course. You will further develop your freehand sketching, completing some pictorial drawings and designing solutions to orthogonal drawing problems. Some of the drawings will require you to use CAD. However, the option will be there to complete these drawings using instruments. You will learn to produce orthogonal drawings involving the use of AS 1100 standards, and be introduced to some new AS 1100 standards. You will learn how to represent compression springs, knurls, and how to indicate a flat surface on a cylindrical object. You will further your knowledge of AS 1100 standard dimensioning techniques, including the standards from AS 1100.101 1992 where symbols replace the written word for such features as countersink, counterbore, spotface, and spherical surfaces. You will complete activities in this part to give you more experience in orthogonal drawing.

You will learn about: freehand sketching, designs, pictorial, orthogonal Australian standard AS 1100 computer graphics, Computer Assisted Drawing applications solving problems.
You will learn to: produce orthogonal drawings applying appropriate AS 1100 produce quality graphics apply dimensing to AS 1100 standards.
Extract from Stage 6 Engineering Studies Syllabus Board of Studies, NSW, 1999. Refer to <http://www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au> for original and current documents.
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Orthogonal projection
In the Preliminary Course you covered many AS 1100 drawing standards. You were introduced to standard dimensioning methods, detail drawings and various methods of sectioning. You also were shown how to prepare a sheet by drawing a border and title block. All of these will be used in this section of work. In Module 1 of the HSC course you were shown some specialised techniques used in orthogonal drawing as applied to Civil structures. You learnt the method of representing webs when they are sectioned. You also learnt more about fastenings, standard and special sized nuts, and bolts, and their representation, using AS 1100 standards. Some of these techniques will be used again in this part.
References and research

The following notes and exercises were researched from a number of reference areas. Past Engineering Science examination papers were referred to for many of the drawings through the Board of Studies web site, <http://www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au>. Research was also conducted at Standards Australia, both at their information centre, referencing the relevant publications and through their web site. The address of Standards Australia is: 1 The Crescent Homebush NSW 2140 Sales: phone 1300 65 46 46, web site <www.sales@standards.com.au> Internet site <www.standards.com.au> The publication used were: AS 1100.101-1992 Technical Drawing, Part 101 General principles AS 1100.201-1992 Technical Drawing, Part 201 Mechanical engineering drawing.
The cost of these publication is high, currently $114.00 and $69.50 respectively. However, your local library, school library or distance education centre may have a reference copy. Alternatively, an abridged version is available, SAA/SNZ HB1: 1994 Technical drawing for students, the current student price is $17.60. This is not a replacement for AS 1100, but contains information that Standards Australia considers sufficient for technical drawing students, both secondary and tertiary. AS 1100 standards also contain three other parts but these are not considered to be included in the content of the syllabus. They are: AS 1100.3011985 Technical Drawing, Part 301 Architectural drawing, plus 1 supplement 1986 AS 1100.4011984 Technical Drawing, Part 401 Engineering survey drawing, plus 4 supplements 1984 AS 1100.5011985 Technical Drawing, Part 501 Structural engineering drawing, plus 1 supplement 1986.
Textbooks with current AS 1100 standards are not always available. Some of the standards used have been superseded by the 1992 publication. When using textbooks you must be aware that the standards may have changed. If unsure, refer to the notes in these modules of work, they are current. Some of the textbooks that contain drawing relevant to your course are:
Boundy, A .W. and Hass, I. L. 1992, Technical Drawing, An Australian Course in Graphics, McGaw Hill, Sydney. Mullins, R. K. and Cooper, D. A. 1977, Programmed Technical Drawing, Book 1, Book 2 and Book 3, Hutchinson, London. Park, A. Dodds, K. and Bland, S. 1989, Technical Drawing, Longman Cheshire, Melbourne. Rochford, J. 2000, Engineering Studies A Students Workbook, KJS Publications, Gosford.
Other publications, such as those used in Distance Education Centres and Schools, are good reference materials. Engineering Science 2 Unit Course Technical Drawing, Lobes 1, 2 and 3 are excellent TAFE Introduction to CAD Using AutoCAD. Many schools have developed their own resources and programs for teaching technical drawing and you may be able to access some of these.
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Preparing a drawing sheet

Borders, title blocks and materials lists
In the preliminary module on Landscape Products you were introduced to borders, title blocks and materials lists. You will need to refer to this section of work when you commence the drawing exercises. However, the title block will be modified to suit the HSC course and to cover the requirements of AS 1100 standards. From now on all of your drawing sheets must have a border and title block. The exercises you have to complete will be presented to you on sheets with a border and title block. For your engineering report, all drawings completed by you must also be presented with a border and title block, and, if necessary, a materials list. A convenient way to do this is to draw the border and title block using a CAD or Draw Program, and saving the drawing to disk. Whenever you need to complete a drawing exercise you can print off a copy of the prepared sheet using the computer, then use the sheet for your drawing. Exercise 5.1 will require you to prepare a sheet with a title block and border, using a CAD program, or alternatively, using technical drawing instruments. Copies of this prepared sheet can then be used each time you have to complete a drawing.
AS 1100.101 1992. Title block requirements

The title block featured in the communication section of Landscape products will now be developed. The new title block will include a logogram, that is, a symbol that indicate the angle of projection used to complete the orthogonal drawing. The preferred method is third angle projection, so you will learn to draw the third angle projection logogram. The title block also needs to include the size of the drawing sheet on which the original drawing was completed. This is required as measurements are sometimes scaled from the drawing. If the drawing has been reduced by photocopying, or printed to a reduced scale, the method of scaling from the drawing will produce an incorrect dimension. If the size of the original drawing sheet is given, this problem can be avoided. Another addition to the title block is the date that the drawing is completed. This is important in industry as often the drawings are modified and the date can be used to indicate which drawing is current.
These changes require the original sizes to be modified. The left hand column needs to be enlarged to 25 mm, the right hand column to 20mm, and the space for the Drawing Title reduced to 80 mm. All other sizes remain the same. The following figure shows the new sizes and modifications to be used in your HSC course.
DATE DRAWN THIRD ANGLE LOGO DRAWING NUMBER
DRAWING TITLE STUDENT NAME 50 SCALE USED 30
SHEET SIZE (A4)
25
20
12 - 2 - 01
SAMPLE HSC TITLE BLOCK DISTED STUDENT SCALE 1:1
WE 5.1 A4
Figure 5.1 Title block (not to scale)
Third angle projection logogram

There are no standard sizes given in the AS 1100 standards book for the third angle projection logogram. The sizes given in the drawing below will produce a logogram similar in proportion to the ones drawn in the standards book, and will give a logogram that will fit into the 10 mm x 25 mm space on the left hand side of the title block.
6 4 10 7 9 3
8 SCALE 2:1 Figure 5.2 Sizes for the third angle projection logogram
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Technical drawing, the universal language
Technical drawing is used to convey specific design, manufacturing and technical information quickly, accurately and without ambiguity so that the receiver understands fully the information supplied and items can be manufactured to fulfil their function. With the growth of electronic technology, and since 1989, the use of the World Wide Web, technical drawings can be transmitted almost instantaneously throughout the world. The drawings need to be read, interpreted and understood internationally. Technical drawings have been standardized, world wide, through the International Organisation for Standardisation, (ISO). Standards Australia is a member of, and active participant in this organization. Technical drawing is the only international and universal language, that is understood and used throughout the world. Symbols have been used extensively to replace written notes and words on drawings. Symbols are independent of language and therefore can be more easily understood. New symbols were introduced in the revised standard AS 1100.101 1992 to replace notes and abbreviations for; countersink, counterbore, spotface, depth of a hole, spherical diameter and spherical radius. You need to know and be able to interpret these symbols.
Symbols, AS 1100.101 1992

Shape of holes
The shape of a hole can be square or round. The shape is indicated by the symbol preceding the size of the hole. A square hole of size 15 mm is indicated as shown in the following diagram. Note that when no depth is given, the hole passes right through the component. This is a very important standard which must be interpreted correctly for the correct manufacture of a product.
SYMBOL 2x SIZE h 15
TOP VIEW
FRONT VIEW Figure 5.3 Indicating a square, through hole
The standard sizes, which must be used for the symbols, are given with reference to h, where h is the size of the dimensioning that is being used on the drawing. A round hole of diameter 15 mm is indicated as shown in the following diagram. Note that again no depth is indicated, so the hole passes right through the component.
SYMBOL 4x 15
SIZE
1.4 h
Figure 5.4 Indicating a round, through hole
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TOP VIEW FRONT VIEW
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Depth of holes
The depth of a hole is indicated by the depth symbol, followed by the required depth of the hole. As indicated in the Preliminary module on Braking systems, the depth of a round hole is always measured as the distance of the full diameter of the hole, and does not include the distance to the pointed end. A round hole of diameter 10 mm and depth 25 mm is indicated as shown in the following diagram.
SYMBOL 10 25
h h SIZE 0.6 h
drill TOP VIEW
FRONT VIEW Figure 5.5 Indicating a round hole of depth 25 mm
Countersink
The countersinking of a hole is used to widen the top of a drilled hole to provide a tapered seat that allows a countersunk screw to fit flush with, or just below the surface of a component. A tapered, countersink drill is used to countersink the drilled hole. The countersink is indicated by the countersink symbol, followed by the diameter of the top of the countersink, and the required angle of the tapered hole. The countersink details are given in conjunction with the size of the original hole and are written after the given size of the original hole as indicated in figure 5.6. Previous standards used the abbreviation Csink. You may still see this used in older textbooks and drawings. You should be able to appreciate why the ISO and Australian Standards prefer to use symbols for this universal language.
DEPTH
A round hole of diameter 8 mm, passing through the component, countersunk diameter 16 mm at an angle of 90 is shown in the following diagram.
SYMBOL 90 h SIZE 8 countersink drill TOP VIEW 16 x 90
FRONT VIEW Figure 5.6 Indicating a countersink on a round hole
Counterbore
The counterboring of a hole is used to widen the top of a drilled hole to provide a cylindrical seat that allows a socket head screw to fit flush with, or just below the surface of a component. A specialized, cylindrical, counterbore drill is used to counterbore the drilled hole. The counterbore is indicated by the counterbore symbol, followed by the diameter of the counterbore. The depth is then given, using the depth symbol followed by the required depth. Again, the counterbore details are given in conjunction with the size of the original hole and are written after the given size of the original hole as indicated in the diagram below. Previous standards used the abbreviation Cbore. Again, you may still see this used in older textbooks and drawings. A round hole of diameter 8 mm, passing through the component, counterbored diameter 16 mm to a depth of 6 mm is shown in the following diagram.
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SYMBOL h SIZE 2h TOP VIEW counterbore drill
16
FRONT VIEW Figure 5.7 Indicating a counterbore on a round hole
Turn to the exercise section and complete exercise 5.2
Spotface
Spotfacing is used to provide a flat surface on a rough or curved area to allow a nut or bolt to fit flush with the surface of a component. A specialised spotfacing drill is used to form the flat surface around the top of the previously drilled hole. The spotface is indicated by the spotface symbol, followed by the diameter of the spotface. The spotfacing operation produces a flat surface so depth is not required. Note that the spotface symbol is the same as the counterbore symbol, but that in the spotfacing operation no depth is indicated. Previous standards used the abbreviation Sface. Again, you may still see this used in older textbooks and drawings. A round hole, diameter 12 mm, passing through the component, spotface diameter 25 mm is shown in the following diagram.
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SYMBOL SIZE 2h
(no depth) h
TOP VIEW spotface tool 25
12 FRONT VIEW Figure 5.8 Indicating a spotface on a round hole
Spherical radius and spherical diameter

Spherical radius is indicated using the letters SR before the given size. Spherical diameter is indicated using the letters S followed by the diameter symbol, then the given size. Previous standards used the abbreviation Spher. Again, you may still see this used in older textbooks and drawings. A spherical radius of 20 mm and a spherical diameter of 40 mm are shown in figure 5.9.
SYMBOL SR SR 20 SYMBOL S S 40
Figure 5.9 Indicating a spherical radius and a spherical diameter
Dimensioning chamfers
Chamfers must be dimensioned so that the size and the angle of the chamfer are fully described. Various methods are shown in the standards book, you only need to be shown two methods, a normal size chamfer and a small chamfer.
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The method of dimensioning a small chamfer is used only when the drawing of the chamfer is too small for the conventional method to be used. The example shown below is for a 0.5 mm chamfer, drawn to a scale of 1:1, that is full size. You must be careful when a small chamfer is drawn using an enlarging scale. If the 0.5 mm chamfer was drawn to a scale of 10:1, that is ten times full size, the chamfer would no longer be considered as a small chamfer, and thus would be dimensioned using the conventional method.
10 x 45 0.5 x 45
LARGE CHAMFER Figure 5.10 Dimensioning chamfers
SMALL CHAMFER
Worked example 5.1 Worked example 5.1 is the first of five worked examples. It shows a drawing that incorporates the work that has been covered in the notes. In this example, the use of a border, the modified title block and the third angle projection logogram are shown. The worked examples will also be used to revise some of the AS 1100 standards and drawing methods that you used in previous communications exercises. In this example, a detail drawing of a lock nut is presented. The drawing sheet was prepared using a CAD program. Lock nut A lock nut is used to ensure that the assembled parts remain tightly secured and not become loose due to vibration. When assembled the lock nut and adjusting sleeve are screwed tightly together they are secured by friction acting between the two surfaces. Revised work in this example You will notice that the drawing of the lock nut uses much of the work covered in previous modules. Some of the work you should recall includes:
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detail drawing giving shape, size and material for the lock nut half-sectional front view used for symmetrical components sizes used for, and the method of drawing, the top view of an internal thread hatching the internal thread, and not hatching the drilled hole dimensioning technique for the thickness, diameter and the thread.
You should also recall that the detail drawing given is only one of a possible three accepted solutions. A part-section could have been used to show the threaded hole as visible outline, but this would not have given sufficient space to indicate the knurl. Alternatively, a single halfsectioned front view, with the dimensions of the thread and diameter shown on this view could have been used, but as you needed to revise the top view method of drawing an internal thread, the two view method was used. New work in this example The new work shown on the drawing of the lock nut, introduced during this section of the course, includes: the modified title block including date drawn, sheet size and the third angle projection logogram the straight knurl. Turn to the exercise section and complete exercise 5.3 and 5.4
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Details of an adjusting barrel, adjusting sleeve and a lock nut are given below in an exploded pictorial drawing. Draw, in third angle projection, using a scale of 5:1 a top view and a half-sectional front view of the lock nut. Fully dimension the lock nut. (Note that this is a detail drawing)
M6 x 1
10
TOP VIEW
HALF-SECTIONAL FRONT VIEW
LOCK NUT MATERIAL ALUMINIUM ALLOY DISTED STUDENT SCALE 5:1
WE 5.1 A4 15
Part 5: Personal and public transport - communications
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Worked example 5.2 Worked example 5.2 is the second of five worked examples. In this example, a detail drawing of an acorn nut is presented. The drawing sheet, with the border and the modified title block had previously been prepared using a CAD program. Acorn nut An acorn nut is used on bicycle brake assemblies in place of a standard hexagonal nut for both aesthetic and safety reasons. The spherical end gives a neat appearance and a safe rounded end to the nut. Revised work in this example The detail drawing of the acorn nut uses work covered in the Preliminary Course and in the notes for the HSC Course. The work you should recall includes: detail drawing, a half-sectional front view and an internal thread the shape and depth of the drilled hole the depth of the thread the end is shown by a thick dark line the use of the modified title block
New work in this example The new work shown on the drawing of the acorn nut, that was introduced during this section of the course, includes: dimensioning technique for the depth of the thread and of the drilled hole dimensioning technique for the spherical radius dimensioning technique for the distance across the flats dimensioning technique for the chamfer.
The fillet curves Where the chamfered surface meets the flat surfaces of the hexagonal shaped portion of the nut, curved edges are formed. These are shown in the external drawing of the nut, below the centreline. They are often referred to as fillet curves. The construction of fillet curves is not in the content of the syllabus, however they will often need to be represented in an orthogonal drawing.
Part 5: Public and personal transport communications
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The top of the curve is level with the top of the chamfer, and occurs at the centre of the flat surface. The bottom of the curve occurs at the bottom of the chamfer. Locate these top and bottom points then draw the fillet curves with a convenient size radius using your radius curves. The construction is shown on the drawing of the acorn nut. Turn to the exercise section and complete exercise 5.5 and 5.6.
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Shape and size details of an acorn nut are given below in a dimensioned pictorial drawing. A partly completed left side view and front view are given in third angle projection.
Complete in orthogonal projection, using a scale of 5:1, a half sectional front view of the acorn nut.
Complete the left side view.
Fully dimension the acorn nut.
8 AF
M5 x 1
4
45
SR 4
ACORN NUT DISTED STUDENT SCALE 5:1
WE 5.2 A4 19
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Additional AS 1100 standards

Compression spring
Compression springs are commonly used components in personal and public transport vehicles. They are used in cars, bicycles, trams, trains and monorails. The standard representation has changed dramatically over the years, and is now simplified to a line drawing. The lines used are thin dark lines, drawn at a convenient angle. The angle is not specified in AS 1100. The angle suggested for small springs is 75, and for longer springs, is 60 you do not want to take up too much time completing the drawing. The drawing must appear to be a spring, and must be able to be interpreted as such.
75 TO HORIZONTAL SMALL SPRING LARGE SPRING 60 TO HORIZONTAL
Figure 5.11 Indicating compression springs
Knurls
A knurl is a raised area on the surface of a cylindrical shaped component, usually on a fastener, that provides a gripping area to hold when turning the component. A knurl is usually formed on a lathe using a knurling tool. Alternatively, it may be formed during injection moulding on a polymer component. The two types that are covered by AS 1100 are a straight knurl and a diamond knurl. The straight knurl is drawn in a convenient position, using five thin dark parallel lines on the knurled area. The diamond knurl is drawn in a convenient position, using crossed thin dark 30 lines on the knurled area.
STRAIGHT KNURL
DIAMOND KNURL
Figure 5.12 Indicating a straight and a diamond knurl
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A flat surface on a cylindrical component

Flat surfaces are frequently formed on cylindrical components. When drawing a view in orthogonal projection it is often difficult to differentiate between the flat and the cylindrical surface. To indicate that part of the cylindrical component is a flat surface, thin dark diagonal lines are drawn on the view of the flat surface.
FLAT SURFACE
LEFT SIDE VIEW Figure 5.13 Indicating a flat surface
FRONT VIEW
Breaks
When drawing cylindrical shaped bars it is often more convenient to show only a portion of the length of the bar. Similarly, rectangular bars and cylindrical tubes are often shortened in drawings. The AS 1100 standard break for rectangular shaped components is different for a long break, used in large drawings, and for a short break, used in smaller drawings. However, the standard does not define the difference between a long and short break; you have to use your judgement. AS 1100 indicates a standard for these breaks.
CYLINDER
PIPE
SECTIONED PIPE
SMALL LARGE RECTANGULAR RECTANGULAR
Figure 5.14 Indicating breaks for cylinders, pipes and rectangular bars
Assembly drawing
An assembly drawing is a drawing involving two or more components which are part of an assembly or sub-assembly. It is important to understand how the parts fit together, and how the assembled parts function when fitted together.
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You will be shown two assembly drawings as worked examples. For each drawing the specific function of the components will be explained. You must gain experience in understanding assembled components in the various areas of study. A good start is to look at a bicycle and see how various assemblies and sub-assemblies work.
Differentiation of adjacent parts

Assembly drawings usually involve a number of sectioned components. Where two or more sectioned components touch, you must indicate that the components are different. Differentiating the touching parts can be done using one of the following methods: by changing the direction or angle of the hatching by changing the spacing of the hatching.
Standard washers
The AS 1100 standards do not include details and sizes for drawing standard washers, and as such you should always be given the size of any washer that you would be expected to draw. However, you will encounter standard washers in some textbooks and even in past examination questions. For these reasons you will need to know how to represent a standard washer. The washer is drawn as a rectangular shape, diameter equal to 2D and thickness equal to D divided by 20, plus 1 mm, where D is the nominal size of the threaded component. The following diagram shows a standard washer to fit an M20 bolt.
M20 WASHER Figure 5.15 Drawing a standard washer
2D D + 1 mm 20
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Worked example 5.3 Worked example 5.3 is the third of five worked examples. In this example, an assembly drawing of an equalization mechanism is presented. Equalization mechanism Equalization mechanisms were used on handbrake assemblies on cars, trucks and buses prior to the use of disc brakes on all wheels. They equalized the force applied to the brakes when the handbrake lever was operated. Revised work in this example The assembly drawing of the equalization mechanism uses work covered in the Preliminary Course and in the notes for the HSC Course. The work you should recall includes: the standard representation of an external thread the auxiliary view method of drawing a special size hexagonal nut, given the distance across the flats. New work in this example The new work shown on the drawing of the equalization mechanism, that was introduced during this section of the course, includes: representation of a compression spring, using thin dark lines representation of a flat surface on a cylindrical shaped component, using thin dark diagonal lines a standard size washer a break on the end of the cable assembly of the components. The assembly of the components The components are drawn in the exploded isometric drawing in such a position as to indicate the way they are to be assembled. The washer fits onto the threaded cable end, hard up against the square portion. The spring then fits hard up against the washer, the balance shaft fits against the spring and the adjusting nut is screwed onto the threaded cable end, hard up against the flat portion of the balance shaft. The position of the adjusting nut is given; the threaded cable end is to protrude 11 mm through the adjusting nut. If you were to draw this assembly, you would commence by lightly drawing the threaded cable end, then positioning the adjusting nut and the washer, and finally drawing the balance shaft then the compression spring.
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Shape and size details of a hand-brake force equalisation mechanism are given below in an exploded pictorial drawing. Draw, in orthogonal projection using a scale of 2:1, a front view of the assembled mechanism. When assembled, the threaded cable end is to protrude 11 mm through the adjusting nut. Note do not show hidden detail.
CABLE END FRONT VIEW
AUXILIARY VIEW
BRAKE EQUAL ISATION MECHANISM DISTED STUDENT SCALE 2:1
WE 5.3 A4 25
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Threads and fasteners

The representation of threads has also changed dramatically in the past thirty years. The current AS 1100 standards were covered in the Preliminary course. You should revise the methods before proceeding with the exercises. Similarly, the drawing of standard machine nuts and bolts was covered in the Civil Structures, and should be revised. The auxiliary view method was used to determine the sizes when drawing the non standard, special hexagonal nuts and bolts, in which the distance across the flats was given. The auxiliary view method of determining sizes for drawings has a wider application. You will now be shown two applications that are relevant to this course.
Auxiliary view constructions

The shape and size of a flat surface
You have been shown how to indicate a flat surface on a cylindrical surface, using thin dark diagonal lines. Sometimes, when only a single orthogonal view of a component is drawn, a method has to be used to determine the shape and position of the flat surface. The auxiliary view method is used. The drawing below shows how an auxiliary end view is constructed to determine the shape and position of the flat surface on the bicycle axle.
3 1 P1 5 P3 P2 FLAT SURFACE AUXILIARY VIEW CURVE OF INTERSECTION FRONT VIEW 4
Figure 5.16 Using an auxiliary view to determine flat surface
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Method The following steps are used to determine the shape and position of the flat surface: the outline for the front view of the axle is commenced, and the thread and cylindrical break completed an auxiliary end view is drawn showing the position of the flat surface cutting the circle at points P1 and P2 project points P1 and P2, where the flat surface cuts the circle in the auxiliary view, to the position in the front view as the flat surface cuts the fillet, the right side of the flat surface will be curved. The top point on this curve is numbered P3 in the auxiliary view to find point P3 in the front view: rotate point P3 onto the vertical centreline in the auxiliary view (1, 2) project from this rotated position (3) project to the fillet in the front view (4) draw a vertical line from this position on the fillet to locate the top point of the curved surface on the centreline of the front view (5) using radius curves draw a curve through the three located points.
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The shape and size of a hole drilled through a cylindrical shape

When a circular hole is drilled through a cylindrical bar or shaft, a line of intersection is formed between the hole and the cylindrical surface. When a single orthogonal view of the component is drawn, a method has to be used to determine the shape and position of this line of intersection. The auxiliary view method is again used. The drawing below shows how an auxiliary end view is constructed to determine the shape and position of the line of intersection on the bicycle brake special bolt.
LINE OF INTERSECTION
P2 P1 P3 AUXILIARY VIEW P1
P2 P3 FRONT VIEW
Figure 5.17 Using an auxiliary view to determine the line of intersection
Method The following steps are used to determine the shape and position of the line of intersection: the outline for the front view of the special bolt is commenced, and the head, shank, thread and cylindrical break completed draw the position of the drilled hole in the front view, using hidden outline technique an auxiliary end view is drawn showing the end view of the head and the position of the drilled hole points P1, P2 and P3 are numbered on the auxiliary view project point P2, where the drilled hole cuts the circle in the auxiliary view, to the centreline position of the drilled hole in the front view locate points P1 and P3 in the front view using radius curves draw a curve through the three located points P1, P2 and P3 in the front view repeat this method to locate the line of intersection at the top of the hole.
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Worked example 5.4 Worked example 5.4 is the fourth of five worked examples. In this example, a front view of a hub skewer is presented. Hub screw Hub skewers are used on quick-release mechanisms for bicycle wheels. They allow the wheel to be released and removed quickly from the fork of the frames. Revised work in this example The work you should recall includes: the standard representation and dimensioning of an external thread the standard representation and dimensioning of a chamfer the standard representation of a break in a shaft.
New work in this example The new work shown on the drawing of the hub skewer, that was introduced during this section of the course, includes: the plotting of the shape and size of a hole drilled through a cylindrical shape using an auxiliary view method. Turn to the exercise section and complete exercise 5.7 and 5.8.
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Shape and size details of a hub skewer from a quick-release mechanism of a bicycle wheel are shown below. Draw, in orthogonal projection, using a scale of 2:1, a front view of the hub skewer. A standard break is to be used in the 30 mm shank so that only portion of the unthreaded 105 mm length is shown in the drawing.
Fully dimension the skewer head and the thread.
1 x 45
6 25
12
M5 x 1 8 13 FRONT VIEW
AUXILIARY VIEW
BICYCLE HUB SKEWER DISTED STUDENT SCALE 2:1
WE 5.4 A4 31
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Worked example 5.5 Worked example 5.5 is the last of the five worked examples. In this example, a front view of a pedal crank axle is presented. Pedal crank axle Pedal crank axles are used to secure the pedals to the pedal cranks of a bicycle. Revised work in this example The work you should recall includes: the standard representation of an external thread the standard representation a chamfer the standard representation of a break in a shaft the standard representation of a flat surface how to draw a fillet the standard representation of a part-section the use of an auxiliary view to plot the size of a hexagonal shape.
New work in this example The new work that is shown on the drawing of the pedal crank axles, that was introduced during this section of the course, includes: the plotting of the shape and size of the flat surface on a cylindrical shape using an auxiliary view method the hatching of the external thread when sectioned.
Plotting of the shape and size of the flat surface

Commence the drawing of the front view, and mark in the position of the flat surface. The steps used to draw the size and shape of the flat surface are listed below: lightly draw an auxiliary end view of the axle, commencing with the circle of diameter 20 mm; note that you are using a scale of 2:1, so the size is doubled to 40 mm. using the scale of 2:1, measure 20 mm on either side of the centerline and draw vertical lines to cut the circle project across to the front view of the flat surface where these vertical lines cut the circle
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outline the flat surface draw the circle of diameter 18 mm to represent the chamfer repeat the construction to determine where the flat surface cuts the chamfer.
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Shape and size details of a pedal crank axle and crank from a bicycle are shown below. Draw, in orthogonal projection, using a scale of 2:1, a front view of the pedal crank. A part-section is to be used to show the hexagonal hole as visible outline. Show full details of the construction method used to determine the size of the hole and the flat surface.
BICYCLE PEDAL CRANK AXLE DISTED STUDENT SCALE 2:1
WE 5.5 A4 35
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Exercises
Exercise 5.1 Use a CAD program or a draw program to prepare a drawing sheet showing a border and modified HSC title block. The sizes must conform to those given in this part. Save the drawing sheet to disk and use a copy when you are presenting any drawings for your engineering reports. Include in the title block, your name, the word scale and the sheet size A4.
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A freehand pictorial drawing, using isometric projection, is given below. It shows a sectioned view of a through drilled hole that has been counterdrilled. A dimensioned top and front view of the counterdrilled hole is also given.
Draw freehand, similar sketches to show details of a counterbored hole.
FREEHAND DRAWING DISTED STUDENT SCALE NA
EX 5.2 A4 39
Part 5: Personal and public transport communications
Shape and size details of an adjusting sleeve are given below in a dimensioned pictorial drawing. Draw, in orthogonal projection, using a scale of 5:1, a sectional front view of the adjusting sleeve.
You are required to do this drawing using a CAD or Draw program. Do the drawing on a copy of the prepared sheet from Exercise 5.1. Be careful to retain the original drawing from Exercise 5.1.
If you do not have access to a computer program, you may complete the drawing using drawing instruments.
ADJUSTING SLEEVE DISTED STUDENT SCALE 5:1
EX 5.3 A4 41
Freehand drawing
Details of a needle lock nut from the valve of a bicycle tube are given below in a pictorial drawing of the needle lock nut. Draw a half-sectioned front view and a right side view. The drawing should be fully dimensioned. The material is aluminium alloy.
Use freehand drawing techniques.
State the scale at which you have drawn the nut.
NEEDLE LOCK NUT
EX 5.4 A4 43
Shape and size details of a brake cable clamping screw are given below in a dimensioned pictorial drawing. Draw, in orthogonal projection, using a scale of 5:1, a front view of the clamping screw. Project, using third angle projection, a left side view of the clamping screw.
Dimension the spherical radius, the thread, the hole and the 8 mm diameter.
LEFT SIDE VIEW
FRONT VIEW
BRAKE CABLE CLAMPING SCREW DISTED STUDENT SCALE 5:1
EX 5.5 A4 45
Freehand drawing
Details of an adjusting barrel are given below in a pictorial drawing. Draw freehand, in orthogonal projection, using a scale of 5:1, a detail drawing of the adjusting barrel. Note that it would be sufficient to draw a single, half-sectional front view, fully dimensioned to indicate the shape and size of the adjusting barrel. The material used is aluminium alloy.
ADJUSTING BARREL SCALE 5:1
EX 5.6 A4 47
Instrument drawing
Shape and size details of a bicycle valve cap are given below in an exploded pictorial drawing. Draw, in orthogonal projection, using a scale of 5:1, a half-sectional front view of the assembled parts when viewed from the direction of the arrow.
BICYCLE VALVE CAP SCALE 5:1
EX 5.7 A4 49
A disc brake rotor is shown below. In the space provided make an isometric andan oblique sketch of the rotor. (Use an appropriate scale.)
4 x 12 EVENLY SPACED
300
200
15
50
100
25
DISC BRAKE ROTOR SCALE 1:5
EX 5.8 A4 51
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Progress check
In this part you developed your freehand sketching skills, completing pictorial drawings and designing solutions to orthogonal drawing problems applying AS 1100. Take a few moments to reflect on your learning then tick the box which best represents your level of achievement.
I have learnt about: freehand sketching, designs, pictorial, orthogonal Australian standard AS 1100 computer graphics, Computer Assisted Drawing applications solving problems.
I have learnt to: produce orthogonal drawings applying appropriate AS 1100 produce quality graphics apply dimensing to AS 1100 standards.
In the next part you complete an engineering report based on the analysis of a transport system.
Part 5: Public and personal transport - communications
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Name: _________________________________
Check!
Have you have completed the following exercises? Exercise 5.1 Exercise 5.2 Exercise 5.3 Exercise 5.4 Exercise 5.5 Exercise 5.6 Exercise 5.7 Exercise 5.8 Locate and complete any outstanding exercises then attach your responses to this sheet. If you study Stage 6 Engineering Studies through a Distance Education Centre/School(DEC) you will need to return the exercise sheet and your responses as you complete each part of the module. If you study Stage 6 Engineering Studies through the OTEN Open Learning Program (OLP) refer to the Learners Guide to determine which exercises you need to return to your teacher along with the Mark Record Slip.
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Part 6: Transport systems engineering report
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Part 6 contents
Introduction..........................................................................................2
What you will learn?................................................................... 2
An engineering report .......................................................................3

Structure of an engineering report............................................... 3 Sample engineering report ......................................................... 5
Exercises ...........................................................................................35 Exercise cover sheet........................................................................37 Progress check .................................................................................39 Bibliography.......................................................................................41 Module evaluation ............................................................................45
Part 6: Transport systems engineering 1
Introduction
This part contains four sections. The first section describes the components of an engineering report, and explains what you will be asked to research for this part of the module. The second section analyses a transport system (petrol engine vehicles) being used to transport workers to and from a work place. The third section provides background information before you commence your report on an alternative electric vehicle system. The fourth section is the student exercise and requires you to analyse an electric vehicle and determine several design specifications.

You will learn about: research methods including the internet, CD-ROM and libraries [working] collaboratively when appropriate engineering report writing.
You will learn to: work with others and appreciate the value of collaborative working complete an engineering report based on the analysis and synthesis of an aspect of personal and public transport.
Extract from Stage 6 Engineering Studies Syllabus, Board of Studies, NSW, 1999. Refer to <http://www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au> original and current documents.
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An engineering report
An engineering report requires analysis of a situation, product or component. The report is a formal document and needs to be constructed in a logical and sequenced format. The required components of the report are described in the following text. This modules student engineering report exercise is structured differently from previous engineering report exercise. You have previously been presented with a situation and then asked to analyse the alternatives. A sample report has been provided that analyses a similar engineering situation. In this exercise you are to analyse a proposed electric alternative vehicle. You will be given guidelines to structure your report, but you will need to make decisions on the most appropriate design features of the electric vehicle based on calculations and interpretation of data.
The structure of this engineering report

The student engineering report should be written under the following headings: title page abstract introduction analysis result summary conclusions and recommendations acknowledgments bibliography appendices.
Title page
The title page gives the title of the report, identifies its writer or writers and the date when the report was completed. You might add a drawing of the object on the title page.
Abstract
The abstract is a concise summary of the report. The purpose of the abstract is to allow a reader to decide if the report contains information about which they are researching. The abstract should be no more than two or three paragraphs of text, and shorter if possible. It should cover the scope of the report (what it is about), and the approach or approaches used to complete the analysis (how the information was assembled).
Introduction and the purpose of the report

Outlines the subject, purpose and scope of the report. It may contain background information regarding the topic. A brief description of each section of the report should be made.
Analysis
This is the body of the report and should show evidence of research and experimentation. Information about materials and the mechanics of products should be collected or calculated for all engineering reports. This section must contain information required to satisfy the aim and purpose of the report. Tables and graphs are common features.
Result summary
This section presents the results concisely. The results will be used to justify your conclusions and recommendations.
Conclusions and or recommendations

This section requires the writer to draw conclusions based on data collected. If the purpose of the report was to select the best solution.., then the selection is now stated and the reason for the selection is explained.
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Acknowledgments
The acknowledgment section provides the opportunity to credit other peoples work that has contributed to the report.
Bibliography
You must demonstrate that the report is well researched. Standards for bibliography entries must follow the strict guidelines. All references must be included.
Appendices
This section contains information that has been separated from the main body of the report because it is not essential that every reader look at this information. It is information that enhances the other data. Examples would be the comparison engineering drawings. During the engineering course this section will always contain a technical drawing.
Sample engineering report

The following section contains a sample engineering report which addresses each of the sections and indicates breadth and depth of information required. The engineering report analyses a transport system (petrol engine vehicles) to convey workers to and from a workplace.
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Title: Author/s: Date: Transport investigation Johnny Diesel January 2000
Abstract
Analysis of pollution, and energy cost, of a transport system that uses petrol internal combustion engines.
Introduction
An isolated company town is analysing the effect of transporting its work force from home to the work place using internal combustion engine vehicles. The main mode of transport operating between the town and the industrial centre is by private vehicle; this report is an analysis of that transport system. The purpose of this engineering report is to provide data from which a comparison can be made between the pollution and cost of the present vehicle and a proposed electric vehicle. The long term objective of the town community is to develop a transport system based on an underlying philosophy of being clean and green. This report will provide details of energy costs and pollution created by the transport system that relies on personal vehicles that are petrol engine powered. Several tables of data that describe the pollution caused by this type of system are shown. A summary of the data is made and several conclusions are presented. The research for this project has been based on establishing the major pollutants in the environment that are created by transport vehicle emissions. The source of this data has been Internet web-sites such as the New South Wales Governments Environmental Protection Authority (NSWEPA) and the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO). The web sites for these institutions are <www.epa.nsw.gov.au> and <www.csiro.au>. The data provided in the NSWEPA web site is based on research carried out on transport emissions in the Sydney Region in 1992. This data along with other data from research into transport in London has been used as the basis for this report.
Analysis
This analysis of transport between the Industrial Centre and the town is based on the following criteria: the round trip distance is 20kms, comprising 10kms in the morning and 10kms eight hours later at the end of a working shift each shift sees a total turnover of workers of 100 between the town and industrial area each vehicle transports 1 worker the cost of petrol is $1 per litre each vehicle has a fuel consumption rate of 1 litre per 10 km.
An illustrated overview of the transport system analysed in this report is shown in the appendix figure 6.1.
Pollutants
The atmosphere is never completely free from impurities. It always contains materials from sources such as dust, fire smoke and sea salt particles. Pollutants exist as primary or secondary pollutants. Primary pollutants: oxides of sulphur, nitrogen and carbon related compounds organic compounds such as hydrocarbons (fuel vapour and solvents) acid gases including sulphuric acid and hydrochloric acid particulate matter such as smoke and dust metal oxides and related compounds including those of lead, cadmium, copper and iron fluorides toxic and non-toxic odours radioactive substances.
Secondary pollutants include: ozone, nitrogen dioxide, and other components of photochemical smog.
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Pollutants that are the product of motor vehicles or engine emissions include lead, oxides of nitrogen and carbon monoxide. Oxides of nitrogen, Nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2 ) are mainly produced from fuel combustion in motor vehicles. Oxides of nitrogen remain in the atmosphere for several days before they are oxidised to nitric acid and to particulate nitrates and nitrides, which settle and are washed out by rain. In the presence of sunlight they undergo complex chemical reactions with hydrocarbons and oxygen to produce photochemical smog. NO2 is a respiratory irritant which may contribute to bronchitis in infants, children and older people.
Sector Motor vehicle Power generation Basic metal processing Non-metallicmineral processing Petroleum refining Coal mining Rail transport Commercial shipping Chemical manufacturing
Kilograms per day 269 000 229 150 32 850 25 520 16 920 21 850 11 120 9 640 8 230
Carbon monoxide (CO) is an odourless, colourless gas which has as its natural source, the oxidation in the atmosphere of methane. Motor vehicle engines are by far the greatest source of this gas. Ninety percent of the lead in urban air comes from motor vehicle exhausts. Lead is an extremely toxic chemical, which can cause damage to human health when ingested or inhaled. Research has indicated that there are high blood lead levels in children 04 years when they are surrounded by high lead levels in the atmosphere. Lead is known to cause neurological malfunction and learning disabilities, and to retard mental development in children. Studies have shown that 10 micrograms per decilitre increase in blood-lead concentrations is associated with a decrease of between 2 and 8 intelligence points (IQ) in young children.
Volatile organic compounds (VOC) is a name given to hydrocarbons, as well as alcohols, aldehydes and others. They occur in air mainly due to automotive fuels and industrial solvents. Chemical reactions between sunlight, VOCs and oxides of nitrogen form ozone which is a gas that is harmful to humans, animals and plants. Ironically, ozone in the stratosphere is essential to life as we know it, protecting the earth from harmful ultraviolet light. Acid rain: Pure rain water is slightly acidic with a pH of from 6 to 5. It can become more acidic due to fuel combustion and industrial processes which release compounds containing oxides of sulphur or nitrogen. These compounds can reach the ground in wet or dry form, both of which are harmful to soil, lakes, plants, buildings and people. Acidic pollutants can travel thousands of kilometres in the air before they are deposited. This means that a country or an area may have a clean environment but suffer the effects of pollution from other areas. The problem of acid rain is being attacked in two ways. Firstly, authorities throughout the world such as Governments are setting standards that reduce pollution emissions from car exhausts. Since 1986, new cars in Australia have had to have catalytic converters installed in their exhaust systems. Secondly, neutralising agents such as lime are being added to lakes and soil to reduce acidity. Table 2 shows the tighter design rules (ADR 37/00 and ADR 37/01) for car exhaust that will be applied to passenger vehicles. ADR 37/00 will apply from 1997 for new models and ADR 3701 from 1999 for all existing passenger vehicles. (The terms used in Table 2 are: HC hydrocarbons, CO carbon monoxide, NOx nitrogen oxides all in grams per kilometre and EVAP HC refers to evaporated hydrocarbons from a measured test). HC (g/km) ADR 37/00 1997 ADR 37/01 1999 0.93 0.25 CO (g/km) 9.3 2.1 NOx (g/km) 1.93 0.61 EVAP HC (g/test) 2.0 2.0
Table 2 Design rules
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Table 3 gives a summary of the major pollutants in the air, their major sources and effects on health. Pollutant Carbon monoxide Sources Health effects
Car exhausts, burning Carbon monoxide is absorbed fossil fuels. by the blood more readily than oxygen, thus reducing the amount of oxygen being carried through the body. It can produce tiredness and headaches. Coal and oil burning Attacks the throat and lungs. power stations, mineral ore processing and chemical manufacture. Burning of fossil fuels. Affects the throat and lungs.
Sulphur dioxide
Nitrogen dioxide Ozone
Formed from nitrogen Ozone attacks the tissue of the oxides and hydrocarbons throat and lungs and irritates in sunny conditions the eyes. which are released by motor vehicles and industry. Exhaust gases from motor vehicles which use leaded petrol, smelters. Particles containing lead in the air can enter the lungs. The lead can then be absorbed into the bloodstream. Over a period lead can affect the nervous system and the bodys ability to produce blood.
Lead
Particles
Motor vehicles, burning M a y cause breathing of plant materials, difficulties and worsen bushfires. respiratory diseases. Some particles contain cancerproducing materials.
Table 3 Major air pollutants
Table 4, from the NSW Environmental Protection Authority based on research undertaken in 1992 in the Sydney Region gives the annual emission of pollutants from various sources in cities and major centres across Australia is extensive. All values are in tonnes. Source category Mobile (transport) sources VOCS 83 820 NO x 83 480 CO 729 760 SO2 2 780
Domestic/commercial activity Industrial/commercial activity Annual Total (tonnes)
70 020
4 810
58 210
4 310
16 820
13 440
13 510
12 700
170 660
101 730
801 410
19 790
Table 4 Annual emission of pollutants from various sources in cities and major centres CO 2 Car Large Bus Average Bus Minibus Taxi Motorcycle 237 1035 670 944 330 119 CO 18.5 17.5 18.8 17.5 2.0 9.2 VOC 2.2 4.7 2.8 4.7 0.4 1.1 NO x 2.0 14.6 8.7 14.7 1.6 1.0 SOx 0.11 1.22 0.91 1.22 0.43 0.06
Table 5 Emission rates for passenger vehicles (in grams per vehicle perkilometre) The figures given above are from a research project carried out on London's transport system by Wood in 1995 (1996). A copy of the article is also available at <www.gda.50.dial.pipex.com/fuels.htm>.
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Calculations
Pollution: Emission per vehicle equals 260 grams/kilometre travelled. Each vehicle travels 20 kilometres/day, which is 100 kilometres/week or 5 200 kilometres/year. The annual pollution therefore is: 5 200 x 0.260 = 1 352 kilograms/vehicle With 100 cars, the annual pollution is: 135 tonnes Fuel Costs: Each car travels 5 200 kilometres/year At a fuel economy rate of 1 litre per 10 kilometres, and with 1 litre of fuel costing $1 The annual cost of fuel is: 100 cars = 520 000 kilometres 520 000/10 = 52 000 litres at $1/litre = $52 000 per year.
Summary
From the data in the table it is evident that pollutants caused by vehicle emissions are all harmful to the health of humans and to the environment in which they live. The current transport vehicles are producing an excessive amount of pollutants as can be seen from the total emissions given at the bottom of the calculations section above. In gross figures based on these estimates, transport between the town and the industrial centre is generating approximately 135 tonnes of pollution at an annual cost to workers of $52 000 in fuel costs. It would appear from these estimates and the community philosophy of attempting to become clean and green, that there are alternative transport systems that are more appropriate.
Conclusions and recommendations

The data indicates the current transport system using the internal combustion engine vehicle is producing a high level of pollution. It is recommended that an alternative transport vehicle be developed. This design should take advantage of alternative power sources such as electricity. A vehicle such as this should reduce localised pollution and be less expensive to run.
Glossary
acid rain acidic rainfall caused by the release into the atmosphere of sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen any group of organic chemical compounds prepared by oxidation of primary alcohols device fitted to the exhaust system of a motor vehicle in order to reduce toxic emissions from the engine the basic molecules of fossil fuels, made up of hydrogen and carbon atoms damage to the brain O3 a form of oxygen with an extra atom caused by ultraviolet radiation or electrical discharge. Forms a thin layer that protects the earth from ultraviolet rays small particles that may not be visible, but are suspended in a medium and may settle over time a measure of acidity from 1 to 7 that part of the atmosphere 10 40 km above the earths surface toxic gases emitted form the exhaust of cars a name given to hydrocarbons, as well as alcohols and aldehydes that occur mainly due to automotive fuels and industrial solvents
aldehydes
catalytic converter
hydrocarbon
neurological malfunction ozone
particulate matter
pH stratosphere
vehicle emission volatile organic compounds
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Appendices
90 80 70 70 80
Industrial area Residential area
80 90
70
70
80
90
100
90
80
70
60
70
80
90
100
Roadway
Train track
0
Kilometres
0.5 1
Figure 6.1 Transport system
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Preparation for your report

Alternative power vehicles
The community has decided to research a pollution-free strategy to move people to and from their work place. Due to costs, the current infrastructure (the road) will need to be the used with greener vehicles. To power these vehicles a suitable source of pollution free energy will need to be identified. Often the term pollution free is synonymous with alternative, sustainable or green energy.
Energy and power

The terms energy and power are often used interchangeably. We should be aware that power is the rate at which work can be done and is measured in Watts. Energy is the total amount of work done and is measured in Joules. Energy is the product of power and time. Alternately, power is the rate of delivery of energy. Example: a person who runs 10 kms uses the same energy as a person who walks 10 kms. The difference is the time, not the energy. In most cases we understand what is meant when we use both energy and power in general conversation. However, we must be sure we know exactly what we are referring to when it comes to calculations!
Pollution free power

The term alternative energy indicates that the source of energy is other than the most commonly used. In New South Wales the majority of power is generated in coal-fired power stations. The other sources of power hydro systems in the Snowy Mountains, wind power from Kooragang Island near Newcastle, solar power from farms such as that near Singleton and land fill gas derived plants such as at Lucas Heights are all alternatives to coal-fired plants. If you have access to the internet you may like to visit the following sites for further information on alternate sources of energy: <http://www.eneergy.com.au/ >(accessed 01/08/03). Sustainable energy generally refers to the impact of a given technology on the environment. While we have vast reserves of coal in New South Wales quite enough to provide power for many years to come the effects of burning that coal may not be sustainable. The combustion process generates substantial quantities of carbon dioxide that can have
Part 6: Transport systems engineering
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harmful effects on the atmosphere. In that sense, coal fired power stations might be considered not sustainable. Green energy is another term for the same technologies, and often used by the popular media to describe alternative or sustainable energy sources. List examples of four types of sustainable energy as used in Australia. State where the plant is, how much power is generated, and how the power is used. 1 2 3 4 _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________
Did you answer? 1 Solar energy Newcastle foreshore, 80 silicone solar cells. 6 500 watts. 2 Wind turbine Kooragang Island, Vestas V44 turbine, 3 blades, 22 metres, 66 kW. 3 Hydro power Glenbawn Dam, 2 turbines, 1 generator, 5.5 MW. 4 Bio-mass Bare Creek Sydney, methane gas from landfill, 4 MW.
Sources: <www.energy.com.au/environment/pureenergy.asap>
A prototype electric vehicle

The company has agreed to purchase one prototype electric vehicle to allow us to experiment. This vehicle has a single 12 Volt electric motor rated at 18 kW already fitted to a suitable transmission. The vehicle also has a total payload capacity of 1200 kgs. The payload is the amount of weight the vehicle can carry in addition to the weight of the vehicle itself. This payload is to include a driver, passengers and the energy source. Let us assume that the driver and passengers have an average weight of 70 kgs. This means, for example, that the vehicle could carry a total of: 1200 kg divided by 70 kg/passenger = 17.1 passengers (We'd better call that 17 passengers, since finding 0.1 passengers to make up the difference could be difficult!) However, this number of passengers does not make allowance for an energy source to power the vehicle! There will be less passengers once we include the energy source into the total weight calculation.
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Which is the best source of power for the electric vehicle? There are many sources of alternative or sustainable energy. Tidal, wind, solar and hydro generation are all used or under development in Australia. Each has its own benefits in particular situations. Of these types of sustainable energy, solar power is probably the best suited to mounting on a vehicle. There are already many solar powered vehicles in development and in use today. The Australian Electric Vehicle Association has its own web site at: <http://www.aeva.asn.au/>(accessed 01.08.03). Explain why you think solar power is the most appropriate for use in an electric vehicle. __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________
Did you answer? Solar panels have no moving parts, therefore are low maintenance and sunlight is available most days. However, tidal/hydro need to be near water and wind requires appropriate geographical position.
Consider fitting our electric vehicle with direct solar power: that is, with solar panels connected to the motor via a speed controller.
Power from solar energy

The key component in a solar powered system is the photovoltaic cell. Photovoltaic cells convert solar energy (from the sun) directly into electricity. Strictly speaking, the term 'photovoltaic cells' refers to the thin semiconductor wafers that do the actual energy conversion. The cells are blue/black in colour. In practice, these structures are very brittle and need to be mounted in something more solid for use in normal applications. Consequently, the cells are mounted in aluminum frames (for lightness) and covered in glass for protection. The photovoltaic cell mounted in its frame is often called a solar panel or solar cell.
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You will probably have seen solar panels in use. They are found attached to cars and boats, street lighting, on roofs of houses and other buildings, or even at solar energy farms, usually aligned to face the strongest sunlight. a b c Identify a particular application of solar electrical generation near you. _______________________________________________________ Describe how the photovoltaic cells are mounted. _______________________________________________________ Indicate what the electricity generated is used for. _______________________________________________________ There is also quite a deal of research being conducted into the development of photovoltaic cells, and particularly into making them more efficient. Typical photovoltaic cells have maximum efficiencies of only about 20 percent that is, only 20 percent of the solar energy that illuminates the cell is available as electrical energy. The efficiency is dependent on factors such as: operating temperature (the cooler the better) intensity of solar illuminance cleanliness of the solar panel.
State the maximum efficiency obtained from photovoltaic cells. __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________
Did you answer? The maximum efficiency of solar cells is about 20%.
The most efficient cells in the world are made in Australia! Much ground breaking work has been undertaken by researchers at the University of New South Wales where they have developed solar cells that are 24.7% efficient. How much solar power is required?
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Getting back to our electric vehicle: can you calculate how many solar cells are needed to power our motor? Table 1 shows various parameters relating to a range of commercial solar panels available in Australia.
Model Number SX85 SX80 SX75 SX65 SX60 SX55 SX50 SX40 SX30 SX20 SX10 SX5 Current (Amps) 4.97 4.75 4.54 3.77 3.56 3.33 2.97 2.37 1.78 1.19 0.59 0.27 Power (Watts) 85 80 75 65 60 55 50 40 30 20 10 5 Length mm 1456 1456 1456 1110 1110 1110 939 767 594 424 421 250 Width mm 502 502 502 502 502 502 502 502 502 502 269 269 Weight kg 9.50 9.50 9.50 7.20 7.20 7.20 5.70 4.90 3.50 2.50 1.50 0.80
Table 1 Solar panel characteristics
Determine the approximate power developed per square metre of solar panel using the data in Table 1 model number SX80. __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________
Did you answer? Using SX80 with a power of 80W and area = 1.456 m x 0.502 m = 0.73 m2 Power per square metre of panel =
80 0.73
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110 Watts/m2
Recall that the motor we want to supply is rated at 18 kW. We can now calculate how many square metres of solar panels are required to supply the necessary power to drive our motor. Determine how many solar panels are required to supply 18kW using the SX80 panel and the information derived in the previous exercise. __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ Don't be surprised if the number you obtain seems unrealistic!
Assume that the electric vehicle made available to us is the size of a small mini-bus. Sketch the electric vehicle with the required area of solar cells attached. Remember that the panels should be oriented towards the sun for maximum efficiency.
Did you answer? The SX80 model provides 110/m 2 Total area required = 18000 110
= 164 m2 if each panel has an area of 0.73 m2 then the number of panels = = 164 0.73 225 panels
Note: panels could not be inclined to the direction of sunlight.
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16.4 m
5m Figure 6.2
Outline why you think this vehicle is not a feasible proposition. __________________________________________________________
Did you answer? The panel area is too large.
How many passengers? Lets continue with the concept of the solar powered vehicle for a moment longer. Now that you have figured out how many solar panels you will need, you can calculate the total weight of the solar panels, and therefore how much weight carrying capacity is left for the passengers. (Remember the total payload of driver plus passengers plus energy source is 1200 kgs.) a State the total weight of the solar panels that you have decided will need to be used. _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ b Indicate the number of passengers the vehicle can carry without exceeding the 1200 kg capacity. _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________
Did you answer? a SX80 No of panels Weight per panel Total weight = = = 0.73 = 225 9.5 kg 2138 kg
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Nil 2138 kg is greater than the capacity of 1200 kg
Again, don't be alarmed if the outcome seems unworkable. We now have a couple of reasons to explore other approaches!
Concentrating the energy into a smaller space

You probably discovered that the total weight of solar panels required exceeds the payload of the vehicle! And that is even without carrying any passengers! There is also the problem of powering the vehicle on cloudy days, or even at night! There must be a better way! Mounting the solar panels directly onto the vehicle means that the panels have to generate the electrical power at the same instant and same rate that it is consumed. If there was a way in which we could generate energy, store that energy until it is needed, and then use it later, we might be able to make the system work! Furthermore, we might not have to generate the energy at the rate we use it, because we could save up energy over a long period, then use it up in a shorter period. That might lead to weight or space savings on our vehicle! You have probably already thought of a way to store electrical energy: batteries.
Storing electrical energy in batteries

Strictly speaking, batteries do not store electrical energy. Instead, the energy is converted from electrical energy into chemical energy as the battery is being charged. The chemical energy is stored in various forms in different types of batteries lead/acid, lithium, nickel/cadmium and so on. The energy is converted back from chemical to electrical energy when the battery is discharged. There is also much work being done to develop new battery technologies for electric vehicles. If you have access to the Internet visit the following site for further information on the many applications of batteries: <http://www.batteryallsorts.com.au> (accessed 01.08.03).
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State the aspects of battery construction and performance are being investigated for use in electric vehicles. __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________
Did you answer? reliability life cycle maintenance free increased battery energy efficient battery plates faster battery recharging.
Lead acid batteries Of all the technologies currently available, lead/acid batteries are the most economical due to the mass production techniques used in their manufacture. (This will almost certainly change as new battery technologies are proven and adopted.) Let us focus on these types for our electric vehicle. There are several types of lead/acid batteries available to us: automotive, marine, deep cycle, industrial. All of these use the same basic construction and chemical process to store energy. The differences in them reflect the different applications in which they are used. A car battery, for example, is required to provide large amounts of power for relatively short durations (that is, when the starter motor is being used to start the car). On the other hand, a car battery can be significantly degraded if it is allowed to run flat. This is not normally a problem though, as most cars have good charging systems to put the energy back into the battery as soon as the engine is running. A deep cycle battery has a slightly different internal construction (thicker lead plates) which allows it to give up more of its stored energy without being damaged. The downside is that these types of batteries cannot produce the same amount of short term power as a comparable car battery. Deep cycle batteries are designed for use where the battery has to supply power for extended periods between charging.
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Explain why you think a car battery or a deep cycle battery would be best for our electric vehicle application. __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________
Did you answer? A deep cycle battery would be best because of the constant power over longer periods and no high peak starting requirements.
Measuring battery capacities

Batteries come in many different sizes. What sized battery do we need for your electric vehicle? How many batteries will you need? Before you can answer these questions, you need to understand how battery sizes are measured. Obviously all batteries have physical dimensions length, width, height and weight. Batteries are also measured in terms of their electrical storage capacity. Because car batteries and deep cycle batteries are used in different applications, their electrical storage capacities are stated in different ways. Car batteries are measured in terms of the cranking current (CA) or cold cranking current (CCA). This is a measure of how much current they can deliver for a short period of time. The distinction between CA and CCA is the temperature at which the test is done. Batteries perform better at lower temperatures, and the CCA is invariably higher than the CA figure. Deep cycle batteries are measured in terms of their ampere hour capacities. This is a measure of the product of current and time. For example, a capacity of 100 ampere hours means that the battery can (theoretically) deliver 100 amperes for 1 hour, or 10 amperes for 10 hours, or 1 ampere for 100 hours. There are of course limits, it is unlikely that a 100 ampere hour battery will be able to deliver 1000 amperes for 0.1 hours. The most common figure used to determine the capacity of deep cycle batteries is the ampere hours delivered over a 20 hour period. This is often referred to as the C20HR rating. Other figures sometimes quoted are the C5HR or C2HR ratings these are the battery ampere hour capacities delivered over a five hour or two hour period respectively.
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Indicate the measure of battery capacity most appropriate for determining its suitability for our electric vehicle application. __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________
Did you answer? Amp hours this tells us how long the battery will provide power current while ranking current only indicates the maximum power.
If you know how long you want the vehicle to run for between rechargings, you can work out what battery capacity you need. In your calculations you will assume that the electric motor is running at full power all of the time. Will this assumption give you the minimum or maximum ampere hours that will be drawn from the battery. __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________
Did you answer? If we assume the vehicle is running at maximum power, this information will give us the maximum amp hours. Note: more time will be available if the battery is not used at full power.
Calculating the number and size of batteries required

The motor power is 18 kW. The motor voltage is 12 V. Indicate the corresponding motor current. __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________
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Did you answer? Current = Power Voltage 18000 12 1 500 amps
= =
How many hours do you expect the vehicle to run for between charges? Note there is no right or wrong answer here - it is simply your own opinion of how long the vehicle should be able to run without having to stop to charge the batteries. Using the motor current calculated above, together with the number of hours you expect the vehicle to run between charges, calculate the ampere hour rating of the battery (or batteries) you will require for the vehicle (allow an outward journey of 45 mins and a return journey of 45 mins). __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________
Did you answer? Total running time = 45 min + 45 min = 90 min = 1.5 hr Amp hour rating = Battery current x hours in use = 1 500 x 1.5 hours = 2 250 amp hours
Often it is impractical to use a single battery for large loads. In such cases it is more convenient to use a number of smaller batteries. Determine how many batteries you will require, and what type they are using the data from the following web page. Also note the weight of each battery. Don't forget you need 12 V batteries.
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CODE SSB6/1 SSB6/2 SSB12/1 SSB12/2 SSB12/3 SSB24/1 SSB224/2
VOLTAGE 6 6 12 12 12 24 24
Amps C5Hr 80 100 30 115 150 160 200
Amps C2Hr 70 83 26 100 130 120 187
LENGTH 215 304 213 237 237 450 435
WIDTH 202 173 195 210 230 230 250
WEIGHT 15.9 24 22 26 28 43 44
Figure 6.3 Web page
Remember that the total payload for the vehicle is 1200 kgs. ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________ Did you answer? Choosing a SSB12/3 gives the greatest amps Hours/kilograms Need 2 250 amp hours 2 250 \ = = = 130a amp / hours / battery 17.3 batteries 18 batteries
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State how many passengers can the vehicle carry given the total battery weight calculated above. Don't forget about the driver! __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________
Did you answer? 18 batteries Each weighs 28 kg \ total = 18 x 28 = 504 kg Maximum payload battery weight = 1 200 504 = 696 kg Passangers = 696 = 10 passangers (9 + driver) 70
Sometimes you don't always make the best judgements first time. In these cases you have to go back to some assumptions you made, change them, and recalculate the answer. (This is often the case where there is no singular correct solution, and many possible options have to be explored.)
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Recalculating battery requirements

Suppose you are told that the vehicle must carry at least five people (driver plus four passengers). Using the available remaining payload capacity for the batteries, calculate the maximum range in hours of running you can obtain using the same, or different, batteries to those used previously. __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ If the motor is not at full power all of the time, will the maximum range actually be greater or less than the figure you have just calculated? __________________________________________________________
Did you answer? Greater.
Recharging the batteries

Obviously we will have to recharge the vehicle batteries at some stage. How much will it cost? We have already calculated the required energy storage capacity of the battery in ampere hours. Because we know that the battery operates at 12 volts, we can work out the total energy required to recharge the batteries. 1 How many Watt hours are required to recharge the batteries? Hint: remember Watts are the product of volts and amperes. _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________
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How many Joules are required to recharge the batteries? Hint: remember that Joules are equivalent to Watt seconds, and that there are 3600 seconds in an hour. _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________
Did you answer? 1 Battery capacity Battery voltage = 18 x 130 = 2 340 amp hours =12 V Total energy to recharge =2 340 x 12 = 28 080 amp volt hours =28 080 watt hours =28 kW hours 2 Energy required =28 080 watt hours = 28 080 watt hours x 60 minutes/hour = 1 684 800 watt minutes x 60 seconds/minutes = 1.01 x 108 watt seconds = 1.01 x 108 Joules = 101 MJ
In physics, Joules is often the measurement for energy. Sometimes, in applications involving electrical energy, you use Watt hours, or kiloWatt hours (abbreviated as kWhrs).
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Find a copy of your household electricity bill. Does it measure energy consumption in Joules or kWhrs? How much are you charged per unit of energy? _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________
If you had to charge the batteries in the electric vehicle from your domestic supply, how much would it cost for one full charge? _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________
Did you answer? 1 kWhrs Total charge 2 Energy Cost/kWhr = 10.15 cents/kWhr = = = Cost of recharge = 28 080 watt hours 28 kWhr 10.15 cents $2.85 cents
You have read the engineering report analysing the transport system based on private vehicles using petrol engines. You have also worked through the notes on the use of solar energy and electric vehicles. It is now time to begin your report.
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Exercises
Exercise 6.1
A company has decided to sponsor a solar electric transport system using an electric powered minibus with batteries charged by solar energy. During the trial period, the vehicle is expected to run the 20 km round trip four times per day, at an average speed of 40 kph. Two runs will be made before 8:00 am and two runs after 4:00 pm. The minibus is based on a 12 volt 18 kW motor and has an available payload of 2 400 kg (twice that available in the previous work).In your report you should identify: number and type of batteries required on board the bus to meet the expected running times number of passengers that can be carried on each trip (assume an average weight of 75 kgs per passenger, and dont forget to include a driver) number, size and power rating of the solar panels required to charge the batteries during the day or during the night. total amount of electrical energy used in one year to power the electric vehicle an estimate of the amount of pollution avoided through not using petrol powered vehicles and how many journeys those vehicles would have made.
Your report should include: calculations used to design the vehicles energy system, the data used for those calculations and the source of that data sketches of the electrically powered bus showing relative space available for driver, passengers and batteries (you will need to note the dimensions of the batteries used) the usual headings employed in an engineering report, including an introduction, conclusion, abstract and references.
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Present your report following the structure of the sample engineering report.
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Exercises 6.1
Name: _________________________________
Check!
Have you have completed the following exercise? Exercise 6. 1 title abstract introduction analysis result summary conclusions acknowledgments bibliography appendices.
Locate and complete any outstanding exercises then attach your responses to this sheet. If you study Stage 6 Engineering Studies through a Distance Education Centre/School (DEC) you will need to return the exercise sheet and your responses as you complete each part of the module. If you study Stage 6 Engineering Studies through the OTEN Open Learning Program (OLP) refer to the Learners Guide to determine which exercises you need to return to your teacher along with the Mark Record Slip.
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Progress check
In this part, you have gained more practice in writing and researching for an engineering report. You have also learned about how to analyse a transport system. Take a few moments to reflect on your learning then tick the box which best represents your level of achievement.
I have learnt about: research methods including the internet, CD-ROM and libraries [working] collaboratively when appropriate engineering report writing.
I have learnt to: work with others and appreciate the value of collaborative working complete an engineering report based on the analysis and synthesis of an aspect of personal and public transport using appropriate software and computer assisted drawing.
Congratulations! You have completed Personal and public transport.
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Bibliography
Amp D1 Brake System, http://amp-research.com Australian Concept Car Project, The Australian automotive industry history of innovation , http://www.austemb.org.cn/news/m39.htm Australian Concept Car Project, The Australian automotive industry history of innovation , http://www.austemb.org.cn/news/m39.htm Australian Rail Maps, Australian passenger rail service developments, http://people.enternet.com.au/~cbrnbill/maps / Australian Transport Safety Bureau, Road fatalities time series statistics, http://www.atsb.gov.au/road/stats/timefatl.cfm Avner, S.A. 1974, Introduction to Physical Metallurgy, McGraw-Hill, Singapore. Ballantine, R. and Grant. R, 1992, Richards ultimate bicycle book, R D Press, Sydney. Basford, L. and Kogan, P. 1966, Engineering Technology, Sampson Low, Marston and Co, London. Bicycle Wheel Manufacturing and Composition, <http://www.egr.msu.edu/MSM/dept/KWON/wheel.html> Board of Studies. 1999, Stage 6 Engineering Stuidies Examination, Assessment and Reporting, Board of Studies NSW, Sydney. Board of Studies. 1999, Stage 6 Engineering Stuidies Support Document, Board of Studies NSW, Sydney. Board of Studies. 1999, Stage 6 Engineering Stuidies Syllabus, Board of Studies NSW, Sydney. Busel, J.P. and Barno, D. 1996, Composites Extend the Life of Concrete Structures , SPI Composites Institute. City Rail NSW, Parramatta rail link, http://www.cityrail.nsw.gov.au/projects/parramatta_raillink.htm Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Transistways, http://www.dbce.csiro.au/inno-web/1099/transistways.htm Construction Methods, www.wittbicycles.com/constructionmethods.html
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Corrosion in Concrete, http://corrosion.ksa.nasa.govt. Cranks and Chain Rings Aardvark Cycles, http://www.aardvarkcycles.com Davis, Troxell and Wiskocil, 1964, The Testing and Inspection of Engineering Materials , McGraw-Hill, Tokyo. DeGarmo, E.P. 1966, Materials and Processes in Manufacturing, Macmillan, New York. Desh, H.E. 1974, Timber: Its Structure and Properties, MacMillan, London. GE Plastics Product Portfolio, http://geplastics.com Geotex Geotextiles, Roadway Construction , http://www.fixsoil.com, Geotextile Applications, http://www.nilex.com, Guy, A.G. 1972, Introduction to Materials Science, McGraw-Hill, Tokyo. Harding, D.W. & Griffiths, L. 1970, Materials, Longman, London. Hewitt, T. 1992, Motor vehicle studies, CollinsEducational, London. Hibbler, R.C. 1989, Engineering Mechanics Statics, Macmillan. Higgins, R.A. 1987, Materials for the Engineering Technician, Edward Arnold, London. Higgins, R.A. 1992, Properties of Engineering Materials, Edward Arnold, London. High Speed Trains, http://www.didyouknow.com/whatsnew.htm Holden, R. 1991, A Guide to Engineering Mechanics, Science Press. How High-Speed Trains Make Tracks, http://www.sciam.com How Stuff Works, How bicycles work, http://www.howstuffworks.com/bicycle.htm Hubbard, P. and Gray, B.E. 1937, Asphalt Pocket Reference for Highway Engineers, The Asphalt Institute. Hydroweave The fabric designed with cool in mind, http://hydroweave.com Jackson, D. 1969, The Wonderful World of Engineering, Macdonald, London. John,V.B. 1985, Introduction to Engineering Materials, MacMillan, London.
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Lafferty, P. and Jefferis, D. 1990, Pedal power The story of the bicycle, Franklin Watts, London. London Transport, Light rail, http://www.londontransport.co.uk/lt/fact_21.htm Materials, www.wittbicycles.com/materials.html MatWeb, The Online Materials Information Resource, http://www.matweb.com Mullins, R.K. 1983, Engineering Mechanics, Longman, UK. National Centre for Excellence in Metalworking Technology, Material Standards for Powder Metallurgy Alloys, http://www.ncemt.ctc.com Office of Transportation Technologies, Hybrid electric vehicle program, http://www.ott.doe.gov/hev/ NSW Government, 2000, Occupational Health and Safety Act 200 No 4, Government Printers, NSW. Olympic Co-ordination Authority, Olympic Park station and rail link, http://www.oca.nsw.gov.au/HBB_Trans_Olympicstation.htm Pedaling History, A quick history of bicycles, http://www.pedalinghistory.com/Phbikbio.htm Railway Technology, Sydney light rail , http://www.railwaytechnology.com/projects/sydney/ Repco, 1977, Big wheels Roads & Traffic Authority, 1989, The Story of the Sydney Harbour Bridge, RTA, Sydney. Roads and Traffic Authority NSW, 1999, Action for bikes BikePlan 2010 NSW, RTA, Sydney Rochford, J. 2000, Engineering Studies Students Handbook, KJS Publications, Gosford. Schlenker, B. 1990, Introduction to Materials Science, Jacaranda Press, Sydney. Schlenker, B. and McKern, D. 1983, Introduction to Engineering Mechanics, Jacaranda Press, Sydney. Schlenker, B.R. 1974, Introduction to Materials Science, Wiley, Sydney. Science of Cycling, http://www.exploratorium.edu Scientific American, Hybrid electric vehicles, http://www.sciam.com/1197issue/1097wouk.html Scientific American, The case for electric vehicles, http://www.sciam.com/1196sperling.html Shimano, http://www.shimano.com
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Siemens High Speed Trains, http://www.siemens.com Sydney Morning Herald, Light rail for inner west , http://www.smh.com.au/news/9811/10/pageone/pageone6.html Synthetic Industries - Performance Fabric Division, http://www.synthetic.thomasregister.com Taylor, A .and Barry, O. 1975, Fundamentals of Engineering Mechanics, Cheshire The Carbon Fibre Revolution, http://calfeedesign.com The Correspondence School, 1993, Engineering Science 2 Unit Course, Learning Materials Production Centre, Redfern. Trek - American Cycle Technology, 1999, Product Catalogue, Trek Bicycle Corporation, Waterloo Wisconsin, http://www.trekbikes.com Twite, M. 1973, The age of cars, Hamlyn Publishing Group, London. Union Carbide, http://unioncarbide.com, 1997 Van Vlack, L.H. 1973, A Textbook of Materials Technology, Addison-Wesley, Massachusetts. Walker, E. and Morgan, S. Construction Science Books 1 & 3, Hutchinson, London, 1975. Ward-Harvey, K. 1984, Fundamental Building Materials, Sakoga, Sydney. Watson, R. Gray, M. 1978, The penguin book of the bicycle, Penguin Books Ltd, Middlesex. XPT Design and Construction, http://www.railpage.org.au
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ES/S6 - HSC 41092

Gill Sans bold Acknowledgments

Engineering Studies Preliminary Course

HSC Engineering Studies modules

Figure 0.2 Preliminary pages

Figure 0.3 Teaching/learning section

Figure 0.4 Additional materials

20% 20% 20% 20% 20%

Approximate number of hours 24 hr 24 hr 24 hr 24 hr 24 hr

20% 20% 20% 20% 20%

cadence carbon fibre carburising casting catenary

cementite chrome molybdenum

coefficient of friction cold working counterbore

derailleur gear system

die casting drop down handle bars

energy fatigue failure ferrite

ferrous metal fillers

generic greenhouse gas

hybrid-electric indicated power joule kevlar

kinetic kinetic energy knurl

limiting friction logogram

parameterise passive safety features

pneumatic tyre polymer potential energy power precipitation hardening

rail trails random breath testing

recovery regenerative braking system

safety bicycles sand casting selective hardening spherical

stainless steel static strain energy

TIG welded torque transport system

triathlon turbine ultraviolet radiation

watt white cast iron work work hardening

Personal and public transport

Part 1: Transport systems developments

Exercises ...........................................................................................33 Exercise cover sheet........................................................................47 Progress check .................................................................................49

Part 1: Transport systems developments

What will you learn?

You will learn to:

Personal and public transport

Part 1: Transport systems developments

Figure 1.1 Motor cars are a common form of personal transport

Personal and public transport

Part 1: Transport systems developments

Personal and public transport

Historical development of bicycles

1791 just the beginning

Figure 1.2 The Count de Sivracs two wheeled toy

1817 steering is added

Part 1: Transport systems developments

Figure 1.3 The Draisienne made by the Baron von Drais

1840 pedal power

Figure 1.4 The first pedal powered bicycle

Personal and public transport

1861 the first true bicycle?

Figure 1.5 The velocipede

1870 now to go faster

Part 1: Transport systems developments

Figure 1.6 The ordinary or penny-farthing bicycle

1884 the birth of the modern bicycle

Personal and public transport

Figure 1.7 A Humber safety bicycle from 1890

Part 1: Transport systems developments

1900 to 1950 a period of decline