MAT 444 H.

Barcelo Spring 2004

Homework 2 Solutions
Section 2.5 Question: 6. a) Prove that the relation x conjugate to y in a group G is an equivalence relation on G. Answer: a) Let x ~ y if and only if y = g x g 1 for some g G . It is straightforward to show that ~ is transitive, reflexive and symmetric. Question: b) Describe the elements a whose conjugacy class (= equivalence class) consists of the element a alone. Answer: b) If a conjugacy class contains only one element, say a, then for all g G , g a g 1 = a and ga = ag . This means that a commutes with all the element of G, thus a Z (G ) . Question: 10. Draw the fibres of the map from the (x, z)-plane to the y-axis defined by the map y = zx. Answer:

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Section 2.6 Question: 10. a) Prove that every subgroup of index 2 is normal. Answer: a) Let G be a group and H be a subgroup of index 2. H partitions G into 2 left cosets H and aH, and similarly H partitions G into 2 right cosets, H, Ha. If a H then aH = H = Ha since H is a subgroup of G. If a G H then aH = G H = Ha . Thus, aH = Ha for all a G , and H is normal in G. Question: b) Give an example of a subgroup of index 3 which is not normal.

Answer: b) Let G = S3 and H = {1, (12)} a subgroup of index 3. Then (123) H = {(123), (13)} and H (123) = {(123), (12)} , thus (123) H H (123) and H is not normal. Question: 11. Classify groups of order 6 by analyzing the following three cases. a) G contains an element of order 6. Answer: a.) If G = 6 and G contains an element g of order 6 then G = g . Question: b) G contains an element of order 3 but none of order 6. Answer: b) If G = 6 and G contains an element g of order 3 but no element of order 6, then
H = {1, g , g 2 } = g is a subgroup of G and thus partitions G into 2 right cosets, H

and Hb = {b, gb, g 2b} where b H . The order of b has to divide 6, the order of G. So b = 1, 2, or 3 . Since b H , b 1 , so b = 2 or 3 . If b = 3 then b 2 1 . Moreover, one sees that b 2 g , for if b 2 = g then (b 2 ) 2 = g 2 and b 4 = b3 b = g b = g , contradicting the assumption that b H . Equally, straightforward arguments yields that b 2 g 2 , b, gb, g 2b . Thus, b 3, and b = 2 . Next, since H has index 2 then Hb = bH , and {b, gb, g 2b} = {b, bg , bg 2 } . Again we look at the various cases
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If gb = bg , then ( gb) 2 = g 2b 2 = g 2 ; ( gb)3 = b . ( gb) 4 = g ; ( gb)5 = g 2b . Hence gb = 6 , which contradicts the assumption that there was only one element of order 6. So gb = bg 2 and we have that G = {1, g , g 2 , b, gb g 2b} with g = 3, b = 2 and gb = bg 2 ; Hence G S3 .
Question: c) All elements of G have order 1 or 2. Answer: c) If all elements have order 1 and 2, then G would be of the form {1, g1 , g 2 , g3 , g 4 , g5 } with gi2 = 1 for all 1 i 5 .

Let H = g1 = {1, g1} . Then {G : H ] = 6 / 2 = 3 . Thus we should have 3 distinct left cosets. But the 5 cosets: gi H = {gi , gi g1} for 1 i 5 are distinct for gi g j for all i j . Since H

partitions G and gi H g j H we must have gi H g j H = . But then

G = 6 2 = 12 , contradicting our hypothesis that G = 6 .

Section 2.7 Question: 3. a.) Let H and K be subgroups of a group G. Prove that the intersection xH yK of two cosets of H and K is either empty or else is a cost of the subgroup H K . Answer: a.) First note that since H and K are subgroups of G , H K is also a subgroup. If x H yK = , we are done. If not, let g xH K . Since g xH and yK we have that gH = xH and gK = yK . Thus xH yK = gH gK . It is then straightforward to show that g ( H K ) = gH gK . Question: b) Prove that H and K have finite index in G then H K also has finite index. Answer: b) From (a) we have that all left cosets g ( H K ) are simply intersections of left cosets of H and left cosets of K. Thus the total number of left cosets of H K is finite.

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Section 2.8 Question: 3. a) Prove that a finite cyclic group of order rs is isomorphic to the product of cyclic groups of orders r and s if and only if r and s have no common factor. Answer: a) Let Crs = {1, g , g 2 , , g rs 1} , Cr = {1, a, , a r 1} and C p = {1, b, , b s 1} . Define

: Crs Cr Cs ( g i ) = (a i , bi ) .

by

First you should show that is well defined, that is if g i = g j then ( g i ) = ( g j ) . Next, since (gi g j ) = (gi + j ) = ( a i + j , bi + j ) = (a i , bi ) (a j , b j ) = (g i ) (g j ) , we have that is an homorphism. Since C rs = Cr Cs it suffices to show that the ker = 1 gcd(r , s ) = 1 , for proving that is an isomorphism. Recall that ker = {g i ( g i ) = (a i , bi ) = (1, 1)} . Thus g i ker a i = 1 and bi = 1. i = mr and i = ns i = p cm (r , s ) If gcd(r , s ) = 1 then i = prs and g i = ( g rs ) p = (1) and ker = 1 . Conversely if ker = 1 then (a i , bi ) (1, 1) 1 i < rs , which means there are no integers < rs, that are a multiple of both r and p cm(r , s ) = rs gcd(r , s ) = 1 .
Question: 7. a.) Let H and K be subgroups of a group G. Show that the set of products HK = {hk h H , k K } is a subgroup if and only if HK = KH . Answer: a.) Assume HK is a subgroup of G, and let x HK . Then

x 1 = hk HK for some h H and k K . But x = ( x 1 ) 1 = k 1h 1 KH . Similarly one shows that if y KH then y HK , thus HK = KH .

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Next assume that HK = KH . We want to show that HK is a subgroup of G. Since H and K are subgroups 1 H and 1 K 1 HK . Let x, y HK then x = hk and y = hk for some h, h H and k , k K . Hence, since HK = KH , xy = hkhk = hh k k for some h H and k K . But then hh H and k k K xy HK . Lastly, if x HK , then x = hk and x 1 = k 1h 1 . But again since HK = KH , there exists h H and k K such that x 1 = h k HK .
Question: b) Give an example of a group G and two subgroups H, K such that HK is not a subgroup. Answer: b) Let G = S3 , H = {1, y} , K = {1, xy} , then HK = {1, xy, y, x 2 } with HK = 4 .

Thus HK is not a subgroup of S3 .

Question: 8. Let G be a group containing normal subgroups of orders 3 and 5 respectively. Prove that G contains an element of order 15. Answer: Let H be a normal subgroup of G with H = 3 and K be a normal subgroup of G with
K =5 .

Since 3 and 5 are prime integers then H = {1, h, h 2 } for some h G and K = {1, k , k 2 , k 3 , k 4 } for some k G . Since every element 1 of H has order 3 and every element 1 of K has order 5, H K = {1} . By proposition 8.6 HK is a subgroup of G, but HK = 15 and (3, 5) = 1 thus HK C15 , and has an element of order 15.
Question: 9. Let G be a finite group whose order is a product of two integers: n = ab. Let H, K be subgroups of G of orders a and b respectively. Assume that H K = {1} . Prove that HK = G . Is G isomorphic to the product group H K ? Answer: Since HK is a subgroup of G (proposition 8.6), to show that HK = G it suffices to show that all hi k j for 1 i a , 1 j k are distinct i.e. HK = a b .

Assume there exists hi k j = h km for some i {H K } = 1 hi = h and km = k j .

or j m or both. Then hi = h km k 1 j

and h 1hi = km k 1 = g for some g H and g K . But j

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G is not necessarily isomorphic to H K . Consider G = S3 , H = {1, x, x 2 } , K = {1, y} then HK = S3 but H K S3 since H K C6 S3 .

Section 2.9 Question: 5. Solve the congruence 2 x 5 (a) modulo 9 and (b) modulo 6. Answer: a) To solve 2 x 5 (mod 9) we need to find the multiplicative inverse of 2 modulo 9. This inverse exists, since gcd(2, 9) = 1, indeed 2 5 = 10 1(mod 9) . Thus (5.2) x 5.5 (mod 9) x 7 (mod 9) . Hence x = 7 + 9n n .

b) To solve 2 x 5 (mod 6), we need the multiplicative inverse of 2 modulo 6. But (2, 6) = 2 1 , thus there are no such inverse and there are no solutions to 2 x 5 (mod 6).
Question: 6. Determine the integers n for which the congruences x + y 2, 2 x 3 y 3 (modulo n) have a solution. Answer: Let

(1) (2)

x + y 2 (modulo n) and 2 x 3 y 3 (modulo n)

Multiply the first equation by 2 and obtain (1) 2 x + 2 y 4 (modulo n) then (1) (2) 5 y 1 (modulo n) * Multiply (1) by 3, to obtain (2) 3x + 3 y 6 (modulo n)

Then (2) + (2) 5 x 9 (modulo n) ** To solve simultaneously * and **, we must have that (5, n) = 1 , so (1) and (2) can be simultaneously solved (5, n) = 1 .

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