Chapter 2 Chapter Content Objectives (CCO) BIOL 230 Fall 2009 INTRODUCTION 1.

Consider how atoms bond together in the body to form molecules. 2. Discover how atoms & molecules release or store energy in processes known as chemical reactions. 3. Discover how water is involved in nearly every chemical reaction. 4. Define matter & mass. HOW MATTER IS ORGANIZED Chemical Elements 4. Identify the principal chemical elements of the human body by their names & chemical symbols. Structure of Atoms 5. Describe each component of an atom in terms of its relative position, charge, & mass. Atomic Number & Mass Number 6. Explain how mass number is related to radioisotopes & atomic weight. 7. Give examples of some beneficial & harmful effects of radiation. Ions, Molecules, Free Radicals, & Compounds 8. Distinguish among ions, molecules, free radicals, & compounds. 9. Describe the effects of free radicals on health. CHEMICAL BONDS 10. Describe the significance of the valence shell electrons. 11. Explain the octet rule. Ionic Bonds

12. Explain why & how an atom can lose or gain electrons, & what the resulting balance between numbers of electrons & protons produces, as with sodium & chlorine. 13. Describe what happens to most ionic molecules when put into water. Covalent Bonds 14. Distinguish among single, double, & triple covalent bonds. 15. Describe what happens to the distribution of electrons & charge in a covalent bond when the atoms have slightly different attractions for the electrons, as with carbon & oxygen, or in water molecules (distinguish between nonpolar covalent & polar covalent bonds). Hydrogen Bonds 16. Describe the strength of the bond formed when a hydrogen atom covalently bound to one atom is also strongly attracted to an atom on a nearby molecule. 17. Explain how hydrogen bonds result in the cohesion of water molecules & how this cohesion creates a high surface tension which is very important to the body. CHEMICAL REACTIONS 18. Define a chemical reaction. 19. Explain the differences between substrates & products of a chemical reaction. Forms of Energy & Chemical Reactions 20. Define energy & distinguish between potential & kinetic energy. 21. Discuss chemical energy & explain the law of conservation of energy. Energy Transfer in Chemical Reactions 22. Compare & contrast exergonic & endergonic reactions. 23. Explain how activation energy is required to produce a chemical reaction & how concentration & temperature influence the rate of reaction.

24. Describe the role of catalysts in chemical reactions. Types of Chemical Reactions 25. Give an example of synthetic (anabolic) reactions that occur in the body & note that they usually require energy from a molecule called ATP. 26. Emphasize that Decomposition (catabolic) reactions are used to obtain energy from food that is stored in a molecule called ATP. 27. Describe what is meant by an exchange reaction. INORGANIC COMPOUNDS & SOLUTIONS 28. Distinguish between inorganic & organic compounds. Water 29. Explain the importance of water in living systems. 30. Explain the properties of water that make it an excellent solvent in a solution. 31. Explain the terms used to designate the constituents of a solution. 32. Distinguish between hydrolysis & dehydration synthesis. 33. Explain the reason for the high heat capacity of water. 34. Discuss the high heat of vaporization of water. 35. Describe the lubricating effects of water in the body. Solutions, Colloids, & Suspensions 36. Compare & contrast mixtures, solutions, colloids, & suspensions. 37. Describe how solutions are expressed by percent & in units of moles per liter. Inorganic Acids, Bases, & Salts 38. Indicate the general properties of acids, bases, & salts, as well as how they are related in chemical reactions.

Acid-Base Balance: The Concept of pH 39. Define pH in terms of hydrogen & base (hydroxide) ion concentration & be able to recognize acidic & alkaline solutions in terms of pH values. Maintaining pH: Buffer Systems 40. Define a buffer in terms of its ability to prevent large changes in [H+] due to strong acids & bases, in addition to the general mechanism. 41. Use carbonic acid as an example of the response of a buffer to the addition of H+ or base (OH-) to prevent changes of [H+] in solutions. ORGANIC COMPOUNDS Carbon & Its Functional Groups 50. List the properties of carbon that make it particularly useful to living organisms. 51. Describe the functional groups of organic compounds. 52. Discuss the fact that many organic molecules are macromolecules which are polymers formed by linking together monomers. Carbohydrates 53. List the major forms of carbohydrates (sugars, starches, glycogen, & cellulose), & describe their functions. 54. Discuss what is meant by a simple sugar. 55. Discuss how a disaccharide is formed. 56. Discuss the role of glycogen in the body. Lipids 57. Discuss the chemical makeup & properties of lipids. 58. Discuss the properties of saturate & unsaturated fatty acids

59. Describe the role of fatty acids in disease & health 60. Discuss the properties of triglycerides & their function. 61. Distinguish among saturated, monounsaturated, & polyunsaturated fats 62. Describe the structure, & role in the body, of phospholipids. Steroids 63. Describe the structure of steroids. 64. Discuss the role of cholesterol in the body. 65. Describe the structure & function of eicosanoids, prostaglandins & leukotrienes. Proteins 66. Describe the basic amino acid structure & how amino acids are joined to form polypeptides. 67. Describe how a chain of amino acids interacts with itself to produce the four levels of structural organization & provide examples of where these are seen in anatomy. 68. Discuss what happens to a proteins function when it is denatured. 69. Describe the properties of enzymes. 70. Describe the general operation of enzymes in terms of catalysis & the conditions needed to execute essential chemical reactions of metabolism. Nucleic Acids: Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) & Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) 71. Note the two general types of nucleic acids (DNA & RNA) & their role in heredity & protein production. 72. Discuss the technique of DNA fingerprinting. 73. Discuss the structural differences between DNA & RNA. Adenosine Triphosphate 74. Discuss the structure & function of ATP. Briefly discuss the phases of cellular respiration.