Grammar translation method: No theory; skills reading, writing, speaking not necessary; translation (from L1 to L2 and from L2 to L1),

), grammar (deductive 1st rule, 2nd examples), vocabulary taught through translation) MT L1 is used to teach L2 Reading/translation texts, grammar exercises (translating sent. L1 L2) Teacher dominating in class, decide about tasks, texts, students dont initiate any tasks just to listen (extensive use of L1 in class) Accuracy correctness important T provides correct answer; Literacy texts reading & translating The Direct Method: Oral communication skills (speaking/listening), ss are taught to think in L2; vocabulary important, grammar in not taught, no rules No MT -> without translating, pronunciation important Interaction: T-S, S-T, S-S -> all in L2 (also ss can take initiative to ask questions to T, if they dont understand sth in L2) Inductive method (examples -> then rule but not always is formulated) Question-and-answer technique; Self-correction -> T correct ss or they could correct themselves how they feel it, because they dont know any rule Lg used in everyday life situations texts, on the L2 culture, also ss are tought about L2 country, history Used to more talented learners (eg. in Eng private schools) The Audio-lingual Method: Listening/ speaking skills, pronunciation (learnt by listening & repeating) Structural linguistic analysing structures, patterns in list Behaviourist psychology training sb to behave in certain ways to respond quickly, without hesitation, automatically (used in teaching army soldiers during WWII) patterns taught through mechanical repetition & practising Reinforcement if s responds correctly reward, if wrong punishment (like in training animals) -> learning by heart, memorising Inductive grammar teaching no rules but pattern, ss memorize a sequence of words without understanding how it works they cannot explain the rule but can develop & use the pattern knowledge of rules is subconscious MT is not allowed (to make using L2 as a habit) Memorising dialogues, oral drilling; T = model, controller, corrector of errors (T control ss behaviour) Errors are avoided or immediately corrected.

The Cognitive Approach: Cognitive psychology opposition to behaviourism psychology, you cannot learn mechanically, just by memorising but you need to understand how language function; Linguistic Chomsky claimed that people had to learn the limited numbers of rules to create unlimited numbers of sentences & utterances; Explicit grammar rules ss are conscious of rules; Grammar became important to learn taught in schools; Discovery techniques teacher provide examples & children discover the rule inductive method; L1 is used when grammar is being explained (grammatical terminology); Teacher = facilitator, help ss discover knowledge, more active pole; Errors not sth negative but normal, expected, learning by making errors ss apply rule by themselves which not always is successful many experiments in language & practise. The Communicative Approach: New trend in linguistic = functional linguistic not concern in grammar so much but more in communicative functions Learning by doing = learning by communication, practising, exchanging inf. asking questions Ability to use long, appopriately & effectively. Most important is communication grammar has not to be perfect; effectiveness is important in asking questions & getting answers Using the right form appropriately to the situation, to the certain person, distinction between formal & informal (due to context) All four skills are taught each unit of lesson concentrate on sth else Understandable pronunciation not perfect MT can be used if necessary nut L2 should be used for communication as much as possible even in communication between T&S Meaningful tasks involving real communication eg. role plays [ss play roles, performing situation, dialogue to use new structure] Teacher = organiser/monitor his role is limited he introduces new lg context, he observes ss interactions they work in pairs/groups T explains the roles which ss have to play [simulations of real life situations] sometimes ss use broken language during interaction Fluency is more important than accuracy errors are tolerated if they dont interfere with communication Authentic materials are used

The Humanistic Approach: The T follows the ss, ss decide what to learn We need a monolingual class (one L1) Students usually sit in the cycle they choose the topic of the conversation, T stands outside the cycle, ss talk to each other, the s creates a sentence in L1, the T translate it into L2, then the s repeats it in L2, after 15 minutes ss recalled what they say in L2 -> then they work with this record they record their own material, the T doesnt control the conversation The T stands behind the students (T is not an authority) The ss control the situation students can ask teacher the questions when they have some problems When students make mistake teacher repeats it in correct way, but without any comment, students must notice the difference eg. between their pronunciation and T pron. Feedback session ss talk about how they felt during the lesson, what are their opinions and feelings about learning Community = ss, & their opinions are important (to build the community spirit), ss should feel comfortable The human computer technique s decides when to switch it on or off s tells the word to repeats correctly, s tells another time if he wants and so on Learning is like growing up students need less and less help from T in the process of learning/teaching Community Language Learning: Psychoteraphy (counselling) Mt is used; No textbooks topics are suggested by ss Recording of ss in conversations, transcription & analysis feedback sessions T=parent- s=child/ T=counsellor-s=client/ ss=members of community Non threating way of error correction -> T just say a correct sentence not interrupt ss, not ashamed them sometimes ss may not notice the difference Method is better for older ss really interested in learning The Silent Way: Ss active discoverers, not passive recipients of knowledge; Learning = solving problems by trial & errors silence in class; Developing learner autonomy -> learning how to learn independently of teacher; Ss can use knowledge of MT as a basis for solving problems; Visual aids: coloured wooden rods, colour coded pronunciation charts; T uses elicitation [ss are expected to figure out the rule without examples] very little modelling [silence]; Ss are given problems to solve with little help from teacher; T refrains from helping ss, they have to co-operate (learn from another); Self-correction/ peer correction [s corrects mistakes by himself - must think about it], [correction by other ss]

Sugestopedia : Factors facilitating learning: * pseudo-passive state of mind half-sleeping * learning environment = armchairs, carpet, curtains (like in living room) * relaxing music especially classic * use of suggestion * infantilisation * adopting a new identity (which is less stressful) * MT is used in translations [ss compare two versions] Communicative skills, memorisation of large amounts of vocabulary (about 100 words in day) Long texts with emotional content Wall charts, posters on walls , grammatical inf. patterns, formulas Listening to T reading a text twice, while music is on, play-like activities role-plays; T-S = parent child (ss feel relaxed, comfortable, T is trained to read slowly with music, be patient) T is tolerant of ss errors = very gentle correction [T just repeat the correct form & ss dont repeat the correct form we dont know if s noticed it] The Natural Approach : Lg = to communicate meanings, meaning is more important than form [Lexical items carry more meaning than grammatical structures]; Teaching listening & reading, speaking should emerge naturally; Focus on teaching vocabulary, grammar is acquired subconsciously; No MT is used by teacher , ss are allowed to respond in MT; T presents input & checks comprehension (eg. asking questions or giving commands); T=provider of comprehensive input (T talks); Gentle correction (ss acquire grammar rules subconsciously, when ready); Lg input: spoken (T) & written (interesting reading materials); Visual aids The Total Physical Response Method: 1. Comprehension should precede production (cf. L1 acquisition); movement and reduction of stress 2. Listening comprehension > speaking when ready; concrete vocabulary, action verbs, the imperative 3.MT not necessary 3. Action-based drills: verbal stimulus > non-verbal response (physical action) 4. T=director, conductor, ss =actors (performers) 5. T tolerant of errors (avoid stress) 6. No materials necessary; some realia/pictures

The Lexical Approach : 1. Lg = lexis/ lexical items: single words (vocabulary) collocations (word partnership) expressions (fixed and semi-fixed) We do not construct each utterance word by word (applying grammar rules); we compose them from prefabricated multi-word chunks (stored in memory as whole units) 2. Focus on receptive skills; acquisition (memorisation) of a large number of chunks (-> fluency) 3. MT used in translation of lg chunks (avoid word-for-word translation) 4. Consciousness-raising activities; noticing, selecting, recording common collocations and expressions. Keeping a lexical notebook. Practise: matching exercises, gap filling. 5. T helps ss notice and identify lg chunks; ss discourse analysts 6. Spoken and written texts; lg corpora

The Acquisition/ Learning Hypothesis: Acquisition -> subconscious, learning conscious, very important, distinction according to Krashen these are different processes Acquired vs. learnt knowledge According to Krashen we use there 2 types of knowledge in 2 different ways; Acquired knowledge is the most important He says that acquired knowledge is much more useful and the process of acquisition is much more important than the process of learning According to K what is learnt consciously can be only used consciously, what is acquired subconsciously will be used subconsciously (controversial) In the classroom ss should acquire the lg subconsciously Acquired knowledge is necessary, useful, we need it when we want to use the lg; Learnt knowledge is rather useless Other linguists claim that these two kind of processes knowledge are not separated, according to some of them the knowledge that was learnt consciously becomes subconscious Its difficult to the site what kind of knowledge we rely on communication The Input Hypothesis : The process of acquisition requires using understanding input/the meaning; We dont think about the grammatical/lexical form about pronunciation Understanding is crucial; the input that we receive must be comprehensible If you dont understand you dont acquire Input should include some items that are not understood by ss -> a little/slightly above ss current lvl of competence, if there are too many unknown items input becomes useless ss dont understand Input must be slightly above because we want the ss to develop

The Natural Order Hypothesis: L1: it is similar to natural acquisition -> in what order children acquire to grammatical structures -> all children acquire the English grammatical structure in the same order (children that acquire English as their first lg), English children earlier acquire the plural forms of nouns, as ending much earlier that the third person singular L2: Krashen believes that the same happen in L2 acquisition, he thinks that children who acquire English as L2 will develop their grammar at the same order as children who acquire English as L1 Krashen says that is useless to teach s Present Simple (s ending) at the beginning of the course, because they are ready to acquire it they will learn, memorize the rule but in spontaneous communication, they will miss the s ending; His solution is not to teach grammar at all, we should provide them input and let them acquire it in the natural order when they are ready to acquire it (grammar rules subconsciously) The Monitor Hypothesis (refers to conscious learning/learnt knowledge) The role of learnt knowledge is limited Conditions for monitoring use: you need to know the rule, you need to take time eg. during the conversation you dont have time to think about the rule, in writing you have got more time to stop and think Focus on form -> in spontaneous communication you focus on meaning, understanding each other, you dont think of language form, in grammar text/exercises the form is important and attention is focused on form -> you can use your monitor Three categories of learners: 1) monitor over users they attention to mistakes they check for mistakes, use conscious knowledge, when speaking they will be hesitant, speaker not fluent but more correct lg (output) 2) monitor under users more fluent speaker when involve in conversation but the quality of the lg will be worse, more errors 3) monitor optimal users a kind of flexible user, when writing you should improve your form but in speaking you should use non-monitor The Affective Filter Hypothesis: 3 main components of the affective filter It is some kind of psychological barrier If your effective filter is really high, the input has really small chances to become intake This affective filter is high a) when you self-confidence is low, when you dont think you can be successful b) when your anxiety is high c) when your motivation is low; T should try to lower the affective filter then the process of acquisition will be more affective Ss should a) have high self-confidence b) feel relaxed c) have high motivation, students are willing to