Lecture 02

Seismic Waves
Objectives
(i) to learn basic definitions related to
seismology
(ii) to learn about the nature and basic
types of seismic waves which can
propagate in elastic materials;
(iii) to learn about the attenuation,
refraction and multi-path propagation of
seismic waves in the Earth.
Basic Definitions
A seismic wave is a disturbance that carry
mechanical energy and propagate in an elastic
medium
ground displacement (deformation) vector
ground velocity vector
ground acceleration vector
stress tensor
fluid pressure
Basic Relations
2
2
i i
i i i
u v
a u u
t t
c c
= = = =
c c
In the case of harmonic ground displacement
0
sin( )
i
u u t e =
2
0 0
a u e =
acceleration
0 0
v u e = velocity circular frequency
time
Harmonic Wave Representation
Any seismic wave of finite duration can be represented as
a superposition of harmonics
{ }
1
( ) cos( ) sin( )
N
n n n n
n
u t a t b t e e
=
~ +

where 0
0
0
2
( ) cos( )
T
n
n n
a u t t dt
T
_
e =
}
and
0
0
0
2
( )sin( )
T
n n
b u t t dt
T
e =
}
Frequency and Period
Frequency of oscillations (rad/sec)
Frequency of oscillations (Hertz)
Fundamental frequency
Time period of n-th harmonic
n
n e e = A
0
2 / T e t A =
2
n
n
T
t
e
=
/ 2
n n
f e t =
Harmonic Representation
(example)
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
Time [sec]
D
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t

[
m
]
Original stimulus
1
st
harmonic
1
st
and 3
rd
harmonics
1
st
, 3
rd
and 5
th
harmonics
Wavelength and Wavenumber
Wave velocity
Spatial period (wavelength)
Wavenumber
Attenuation
2
n
n
V t

e
=
V
n
n
k
V
e
=
1
2
n
n
Q V
o =
Governing Equations for Seismic
Waves
System of coordinates
x
y
z
( )
, ,
x y z
u u u = u
Stress tensor
( )
, , 1, 2, 3
ij
i j =
Displacement vector
Mechanical Properties
Bulk modulus
Youngs modulus
Shear modulus
Poisson ratio
2/ 3 K = +
(3 2 ) /( ) E = + +
G =
/ 2( ) v = +
Governing Equations for Seismic
Waves
2
nd
Newtons law
1,
1
,
0, 1 2 1 2
i k ik l
ik ik
k i l
i k l
u u v u E
i k v x x v x
o
o o

= = | |
c c c

= + + =
` |
= + c c c

\ .
)
2
2
, 1, 2, 3
i ik
i k
u
k
x x
o

c c
= =
c c
Hooks law
Two Types of Body Waves
The total displacement vector can be decomposed into two
components
p s
u = u +u
displacement in the direction of stress
displacement perpendicular to the
direction of stress
Two Types of Wave (cont)
The displacement components are governed
by
2 2
3
, ,
2 2
1
(1 )
(1 )(1 2 )
p i p i
k
k
u u
E v
t v v x
=
c c

=
c + c

2 2
3
, ,
2 2
1
2 (1 )
s i s i
k
k
u u
E
t v x
=
c c
=
c + c

compressional
shear
Compressional Wave
Also called primary wave, P-wave, longitudinal wave
4
(1 )
3
(1 )(1 2 )
p
E G
E v
V
v v
+

= =
+
Shear Wave
Also called secondary wave, S-wave, transverse wave
2 (1 )
s
E G
V
v
= =
+
Difference Between P- and S-
waves
P-wave is faster than S-wave, by at least
S-wave cannot propagate through gases or
liquids
Unlike P-wave, S-wave can be polarized in
vertical or horizontal planes
Curl of compressional wave displacement: 0
p
V = u
Divergence of shear wave displacement: 0
s
V = u
2
Wave Propagation Through Earth
Surface Waves
Surface waves are caused by the
interference of P- and S-waves with a free
boundary and are called the Love (L-wave)
and Rayleigh waves.
These surface waves are almost entirely
responsible for the damage and destruction
associated with earthquakes.
Love Wave
Velocity of Love wave depends on frequency, i.e. this wave is dispersive.
Love Wave (cont)
Love wave can only exist in a finite elastic layer
and is characterised by transverse motion in the
vicinity of the free boundary.
The Love wave is a type of surface wave
formed by the constructive interference of
multiple reflections of SH waves between the top
free surface and the solid-solid or solid-liquid
interface.
Love waves are faster than Rayleigh waves and
therefore arrive after the S-wave on a
seismogram.
Rayleigh Wave
Velocity of Rayleigh wave depends on frequency, i.e. this wave is dispersive.
Rayleigh Wave (cont)
Rayleigh wave, also known as "ground roll", is
characterised by movements parallel to the direction of
travel.
This wave is the result of an incident P- and SV-waves
interacting at the top free surface and travelling parallel
to that surface.
Rayleigh waves travel along the surface and decay
exponentially with depth passing through a node where
there is no motion at all.
Rayleigh waves are most commonly found on the
vertical component of seismograms.
Most of the shaking felt from an earthquake is due to the
Rayleigh wave, which can be much larger than the other
waves.
Seismic Measurements
~1/1000 30 Hz Seismometer
Seismographer Geophone
Example Seismogram
Attenuation and Spreading of
Seismic Waves
sin( )
n i
x
j n i
q
i
e
u k x
x
o

attenuation due to viscous losses (friction):

n
o
1
attenuation due to geometrical spreading: ,
q
i
x
Amplitude of seismic wave:
1 for body waves (spherical spreading) q =
0.5 for surface waves (cylindrical spreading) q =
Reflection and Transmission of
Elastic Waves
x
z
incident wave
surface wave
reflected wave
transmitted wave
Trace Wave Velocities
Trace wave wavenumbers (whether a P-
or S-wave) and velocities in the media I
and II must be equal, i.e.
/ sin / sin
I I II II
V V u u =
sin sin
I I II II
k k u u =
and
Seismic Refraction
Seismic Transmission
The transmission coefficient for a seismic wave propagating from medium 1
to medium 2 can be estimated from
1
2

= m
where
1
2 2
1
1
12
sin cos
cos 2
u u
u
+
=
n m
m
w
,
2
1
c
c
n =
IRIS Earths Interior Structure Poster
Seismic waves through the Earth
Summary: Body Waves
Type (and names) Particle Motion Typical Velocity Other Characteristics
P, Compressional,
Primary,
Longitudinal
Alternating compressions
(pushes) and dilations
(pulls) which are
directed in the same
direction as the wave is
propagating (along the
raypath); and therefore,
perpendicular to the
wavefront
V
P
~ 5 7 km/s in
typical Earths
crust;
>~ 8 km/s in Earths
mantle and
core; 1.5 km/s in
water; 0.3 km/s in
air
P motion travels fastest in materials, so the
P-wave is the first-arriving energy on
a seismogram. Generally smaller and
higher frequency than the S and
Surface-waves. P waves in a liquid or
gas are pressure waves, including
sound waves.
S, Shear,
Secondary,
Transverse
Alternating transverse
motions (perpendicular
to the direction of
propagation, and the
raypath); commonly
polarized such that
particle motion is in
vertical or horizontal
planes
V
S
~ 3 4 km/s in
typical Earths
crust;
>~ 4.5 km/s in
Earths
mantle; ~ 2.5-
3.0 km/s in (solid)
inner core
S-waves do not travel through fluids, so do
not exist in Earths outer core
(inferred to be primarily liquid iron) or
in air or water or molten rock
(magma). S waves travel slower than
P waves in a solid and, therefore,
arrive after the P wave.
Summary: Surface Waves
Type (and names) Particle Motion Typical Velocity Other Characteristics
L, Love, Surface
waves, Long
waves
Transverse horizontal
motion, perpendicular
to the direction of
propagation and
generally parallel to the
Earths surface
V
L
~ 2.0 - 4.5 km/s in
the Earth
depending on
frequency of the
propagating wave
Love waves exist because of the Earths
surface. They are largest at the
surface and decrease in amplitude
with depth. Love waves are
dispersive, that is, the wave velocity is
dependent on frequency, with low
frequencies normally propagating at
higher velocity. Depth of penetration
of the Love waves is also dependent
on frequency, with lower frequencies
penetrating to greater depth.
R, Rayleigh,
Surface
waves, Long
waves,
Ground roll
Motion is both in the
direction of propagation
and perpendicular (in a
vertical plane),
and phased so that
the motion is generally
elliptical either
prograde or retrograde
V
R
~ 2.0 - 4.5 km/s in
the Earth
depending on
frequency of the
propagating wave
Rayleigh waves are also dispersive and the
amplitudes generally decrease with
depth in the Earth. Appearance and
particle motion are similar to water
waves.