The Two Booms of The Environmental Movement

The history of the US environmental movement progressed in two major bursts of change. At the turn of the 20th century, the growing power of business prompted an increase in government power driven by a public that was more active and expected more from its government. By the 1960s, environmental policy advanced due to a more diffuse public agitation and opportunistic government response. In this paper I will discuss the two major periods in which environmental policy change has occurred. These changes were due to the nature of activism of each period and the reaction of the public at large.

II. The Progressive Era: Conservation Broadly speaking, the Progressive Era is characterized by the governments increased responsiveness to the people. Progressives believed the government needed to protect social welfare, promote moral improvement, create economic reform, and foster efficiency. These were manifested in understanding the importance of conservation, a greater distrust of business, as well as a general belief that government should promote public morality. The federal government had to expand to effectively respond to the general publics beliefs and concerns. New laws were passed, expanding the responsibilities of the government. However, expansion of the actual government was still needed, therefore it hired experts from a variety fields to properly and effectively

respond to the grievances of the people.

Influences Even though we often think of the Progressive Era running from the 1890s to early 1920s, the priorities of Progressive Era environmental reformers were influenced by forward-thinking predecessors like Henry David Thoreau and George Perkins Marsh. Even as early as 1854, Henry David Thoreau published his book called Walden, or Life in the Woods, telling the story of his two years spent at Walden Pond and criticizing the growth of industrialism and the destruction of nature. Only a decade later, congressman George Perkins Marsh, tells the public that the damage done to the environment is already irreversible and warns about careless technological leaps. Thoreau and Marsh were not alone in thinking about the relationship between humanity and nature. In grappling with these ideas, German zoologist Ernst Haeckel coined the term ecology, or the study of the relationship between all organisms and their habitats. Together, these three helped to shape the goals of Progressive Era reformers. Social Reformers Following in this conservationist tradition, George Grinnell, John Muir, Gifford Pinchot, and Theodore Roosevelt all took stands to help protect and conserve the wilderness and its inhabitants. In 1887, George Grinnell and Theodore Roosevelt founded the Boone and Crockett Club for ethical hunting laws and wildlife conservation, whose mission is to suppor[t] the use and enjoyment of our wildlife heritage to the fullest extent by this and future generations (Boone & Crockett). Only a year earlier, Grinnell had founded the Audubon Society for the protection of birds and their natural habitats

from unnecessary hunting. In 1892, John Muir, naturalist and writer, founded the Sierra Club, whose early motto encouraged people to "climb the mountains and get their good tidings (Sierra Club). While each organization was different, they were each founded in the spirit of wilderness preservation and outdoor recreation. One Goal, Different Reasons Although both were concerned about the preservation of wilderness, Thoreau advocated conservation for its impact on the human soul, while Marshs advocacy for conservation stemmed from his belief that environmental damage is difficult to reverse. These two rationales can be seen throughout the environmental policies of the Progressive Era. Thoreaus Influence Thoreaus feelings that conservation of the environment was key due to its profound affect on the human soul resonate in the ideas, life, and policies of Theodore Roosevelt. With its founding in 1849, the Department of the Interior, known to many at the time as the department of everything else, played its role as the main conservation agency throughout the Progressive Era. However, it was not until Roosevelt took office as the president, could Thoreaus views be seen in environmental policy. Thoreaus belief that conservation is necessary for its impact on the human soul can be seen specifically in Roosevelts use of the Antiquities Act. This law aimed to preserve ancient Indian artifacts under a new title of national monuments and under this law; Roosevelt declared millions of acres to be national monuments like the Grand Canyon and the Petrified Forest. Not only were these areas protected, but all life that lived by natures rules and not humanitys were protected. Not only did Roosevelts policies reflect Thoreaus beliefs,

he had gone into the Badlands of North Dakota and became the rough, tough conservationist that so many of us respect. Marshs Influence Marsh warned that environmental degradation was irreversible and that it would lead to the decline of civilization. In New York, many began worrying that his words rang true and at a constitutional convention, delegates sought to take action on this pressing matter. The Forever Wild Amendment was a response to the shortcomings of the Cutting Law of 1893, which arbitrarily determined the size and quantity of trees that could be cut down. David McClure and other proponents of the amendment felt that the 1893 law did not provide proper protection of state-owned land, so they called for an addition to the state constitution. By a unanimous decision, the delegates declared that,
The lands of the state, now owned or hereafter acquired, constituting the forest preserve as now fixed by law, shall be forever kept as wild forestlands. They shall not be leased, sold or exchanged, or be taken by any corporation, public or private, nor shall the timber thereon be sold, removed or destroyed (New York State Constitution, Article 14).

In this amendment, the belief that the land and the organisms that dwelt on the land needed to be protected from humanitys grasp. Believing in the use of experts, Roosevelt called upon Gifford Pinchot to head the US Forest Service. Unlike John Muir, who believed in the complete preservation of the wilderness, Pinchot believed that some wilderness areas should be preserved while others would be developed for the common good. What this means, is that there should be a balance between the preservation of nature and the development of areas for the good of the people. Both Pinchot and Marsh believe that some level of preservation is necessary, but Marsh thought that preserved areas must be separated from humanity/commercial

exploitation of the area, while Pinchot believed that through some preservation, conservation could be accomplished. Environmentalism Throughout the Progressive Era and even earlier, there was a clear focus on conservation. In 1849 after the Department of the Interior was created, Congress and President Lincoln took a new approach to conservation by creating the first state park, giving 20,000 acres in Yosemite Valley, California to the public for recreation purposes. Later in 1870, Oakland may Samuel Merritt saw environmental damages so he financed the creation of Lake Merritt and the first wildlife refuge. Thinking on a larger scale, Congress and President Grant took another step forward by creating Yellowstone National Park, the first national park, more than two million acres of land set aside for wildlife with a group of approvals and a signature. Even though parks were made, public forests were still being cut down, so US secretary of the Interior, Carl Schurz, attempted to implement land-management laws that would slow the exploitation of these forests. Unfortunately, he failed, leading to most of the American Midwest being deforested logging companies. It is in 1901 that Roosevelt represents the will of the people as the President of the US and as a result, over 225 million acres of land become part of the US Forest Service. As well as around 50 wildlife reserves and 250 national forests are announced; as well as the previous, millions of acres protected by the Antiquities Act. He could protect these lands because of the section in the law stating that, objects of scientific interest could be protected as national monuments. As more and more land was turned into national parks and monuments, the Department of the Interior needed to expand in order to properly handle their growing territory. The key change in focus from

the Progressive Era to the 1960s through 1970s was the environmental impact on human health. This change begins with Alice Hamiltons book, Industrial Poisons; it explored the dangers of industrial pollution to American laborers.

III. 1960s 1970s: Uncertain Beginnings

The second burst of environmental policy enactment began in the mid 1960s and accelerated with the election of Richard Nixon as president in 1968. Years of government corruption, the ongoing war in Vietnam, the civil rights movement, and recent political assassinations had caused the public to lose its trust in the government. President Nixon faced a skeptical people, and focused on rebuilding the publics trust by advancing environmental initiatives that were both pressing and nonpartisan. The result was what the administration called a decade of environmentalism with the passage of new laws and the creation of new agencies. A Shift Occurs The shift in national consciousness from conservation to thinking of human life all began with predecessors like Alice Hamilton, Aldo Leopold, and Rachel Carson. These people greatly affected the public focus and consequently environmental policy. Aldo Leopold, writer of A Sand Country Almanac, a book helping educate the general public about natural science. It spurred a shift from a wilderness lover driven movement to an environmental movement bringing together scientists from all fields. However, it was Silent Spring, written by Rachel Carson and released in 1962, which heightened the

awareness of common day people and spurred the demand for new legislation in the effort of protecting the environment. Specifically, it deals with the damage caused by insecticides. Through these three books, the general public begins focusing on what effects their environments are having on themselves and connected the entire nation to believe in the protection of the environment for the protection of our lives, health, and not only for wildlife. The Growing Distrust Leading into the Nixon era (1960s-70s), turmoil was amassing; the people witnessed political assassinations, civil rights protests, and anti-war protests, all of which lead to a general distrust in the government. The two most important shockers to the American people were the assassinations of Robert F. Kennedy and Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. both men had been political icons of peace and their deaths were mourned. During civil rights and anti-war protests, video clips were shown on television of police turning violent against crowds of peaceful protesters. At Kent State, a huge uproar developed from a police shooting and killing students during a protest. And it was during these times that Richard Nixon was elected president and faced a skeptical people. Looking at people like Alice Hamilton, Aldo Leopold, and Rachel Carson, reflections of their beliefs can be seen in Nixons environmental policies. Nixons Clean Air and Clean Water Acts focused on the inspection of the environmental resources that affected human life the most, oxygen and water. Their goals were to increase air quality and water purity for the sole purpose of benefitting human health. Much of the problems occurring in the air and water were due to the rapidly growing industrial market. The Environmental Protection Agency main duty was and is to protect human life and the

environment. All three of these actions are reflections of Rachel Carsons belief that our impacts not only affect the environment but also affect ourselves. IV. Conclusion The environmental movement can be split into two major bursts, the Progressive Era and the 1960s and 70s under Nixon. Even though they had similar goals, they were overall goals were different due to their social contexts. The Progressive Era focused on ending the idea of infinite resources and conserving some. While the Nixon era focused on human impacts on the environment and how the environment then affects humanity. The environmental movement is an ongoing battle, and as these two events have come and gone, a new boom will arrive. And as individuals have led these movements, thinking of future consequences, so will future movements. In conclusion, the only differences in the bursts are due to the people who bring the topics to attention.

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