The Chemistry of Cooking and Cleaning - Ellen Richards

M.
i%^^^li
^'
If-
......
THE CHEMISTRY
COOKING AND CLEANING

A MANUAL FOR HOUSEKEEPERS
^f7f
ELLEN
IL
RICHARDS
Instructor in Chemistry, Woman's Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston
BOSTON ESTES & LAURIAT

301
305 WASHINGTON ST
iSSj
J//,
ut
ii
BY ESTES
LAURIAT,
^,,-^
CONTENTS.
Chap.
I.
Page.
Introduction,
II.
Starch, Sugar, and Fat, as Food.

f
i6
III.
Nitrogenous Food a^^'T' e Chemistry

OF Nutrition,
.V
.
.
37
PART
I.
II.
II.
The Ceiemistry of Cleaning, Chemicals for Household Use,
"55 .80
PREFACE
TN
upon.
this
age
of
applied
the
science,
every
opportunity
of
benefiting
household
should
be
seized
The family
is
the heart of the country's

social
scientist will
life,
and every
at
philanthropist or
point.
must begin
that
Whatever, then,
enlighten the mind,
and
lighten the burden of care, of every housekeeper will be

a boon.
At
the
present
time,
when
the
electric
is,
light
and
no
to
the gas stove are familiar topics, there
after all,
branch of science which might be of more benefit

the community,
if
it
were
properly
understood, than
Life.
Chemistry
ston's
the
Chemistry of
Common
title
Johnwider
excellent
book with
that
deserves a
circulation,
and a more careful study.
viii
PREFACE.
is
But there
tary
space jet unoccupied for an elemenshall
work
Avhich
give
to non-scientific
readers
some
practical
information
as
to
the
chemical
com-
position
of articles of daily use, and as to their action

in
in the various operations
which thev are employed.

for
is
The
public are the
more ready
the
application
of this knowledge since Chemistry

all
taught in nearly
High Schools, and every

some part of
it
child
has a dim idea of

into a
is
what
means.
these
To gather up
indistinct
definite
and practical form

little
notions
the aim of this
book.
in
There
istry,
is,
lingering
the
air,
a great
awe of chem-
and chemical terms, an inheritance from the age
of alchem^.
the
Every
in
chemist can
recall
instances
by
for
score
for
which
manufacturers
have
a
asked
recipes
article,
making some
substitute for
well-known
and have expected the most absurd results to

Chemicals
follow the simple mixing of two substances.

are
supposed by the multitude

is
to
be all-powerful,
and
great advantage
taken of this credulity by unscrupulous
manufacturers.
The number of
market under
patent
compounds thrown upon

taking names
is
the
fanciful
and
a witness
PREFACE.
to the
ix
apathj of housekeepers.
It
is
time that they

protection.
should bestir themselves for their

little
own
knowledge of the right kind cannot hurt them,

it
and
will
surely bring a large return in comfort and

*44lh^
economy.
These mysterious chemicals are not so many or so

complicated in structure but that a
will
little
patient study
enable any one to understand

as
far
the laws of their

in
action,
as
they are concerned
the
common
operations of the household.
No
attempt
is
here
made
to cover the
whole ground
such
of
its
of chemical science, but only to explain

principles as are
in a few other
involved in the raising of bread, and

processes.
common
CHAPTER
I.
INTRODUCTION.
TTTE
their
recognize
substances,
characters
as
we know people,
and
if
by
their
(properties)
call
by
anysalt
appearance.
is
Sugar we
call
it
sweet;
thing
sour,
in
we
acid.
Sugar
gas
and
will
dissolve
water.
Carbonic
a
acid
extin-
guish
ties
the
flame
of
candle.
These are proper-
of
the
several
substances.
teaspoonful
swells
of
^.
sugar
to
heated
over
fire
turns
black,
up
a large
bulk,
emits
gas
which burns with a

is
smoky
flame,
and
finally
there
like
left
it
black,
is,
crumbly mass, which

charcoal.
seems
nothing
what
fine
There
no
is
which
of
we
the
consider
properties
sugar
left,
sweetness,
none
which we know under the name of sugar.
There
2 a
THE CHEMISTRY OF
change,
a
loss
is
of
identity.
This change
is
called a chemical one.
Add
an
the
solution
of
an
that
acid the
to
solution
of
alkali,
and observe
substance
is,
acid substance and

in
alkaline
are
no longer
a
neutral
existence
as such.
There
dissolved
instead,
saline
sub-
stance
in
water.
The
either
new
of
substance
others.
their
has
not
the
properties
of
the
The
acid
and
the
alkali
have
both
lost
identity.
chemical change, then, involves a loss
of identity.
"
We
we
must be very careful
not
chiefly
to
transfer
our
ideas
tures
istr)'.
of composition,
drawn
from the mixto
use
in
common
mixtures
life,
directly
chem-
In these
or
the
product partakes, to
the
greater
less
degree, of
character
of
its
constituents,
which can
in
be
recognized,
In
all
essentially
unchanged,
of
true
the
new
union
material.
instances the
pro-
chemical
of
the
and
decomposition,
in
qualities
substances
concerned
the
cess
entirely
disappear,
and wholly
appear
different
sub-
stances with
*
new
qualities
in their
place."*
'The New
Chemistry."
Josiah
P. Cooke.
/. 99.
COOKING AND CLEANING.

All
the
are
substances
about which we know anyfew

flesh
thing
composed of a
of
elementary bodies.
of
animals,
tlie
The
grain
wheat,
all
the
are
dangerous poison,
arated
are
into
capable
of
of
being sep-
the
simple
substances
which they
is
composed.
The
which
chemical
element
that
differis
substance out of
ent *
nothing essentially
obtained.
has
ever yet
been
Pure gold
an element, a simple substance, from which nothing

.can
be taken different
a
little
;
from
itself.
A
or
gold
coin
is
contains
copper or
it
silver,
both, and
not pure gold
is
mixture
of
two
in
or
the
more
air
is
elementary substances.
The oxygen
Water
is
an element, a single thing.

of two
elements,
compound
oxygen and hydrogen, which are

exist as simple substances.
gases
when they
are
There
substances
twelve
about
to
seventy
the
of
these
;
elementary
ten
or
known
chemist
the
about
of them
enter into
compounds which
we use
in
in the kitchen.
The
others are found only
the
chemical
laboratory or in
the
physician's
to
medicine case, and a
few are
so rare as
Schorleramer.
be
* "Treatise on Chemistry." Roscoe
&
p. 51.
4 considered
THE CHEMISTRY OF
curiosities.
Most
of
the
these
elements
unite with each other, and, in
compounds thus
places with
formed, other elements

those
bodies,
may exchange
so
of
that
already
there,
few
elementary
by the
variety
combination,
make up
the objects of daily use.
To
understand something of the nature of these

their
chemical substances and

a necessity
for every
common
forms
is
housekeeper who would not
be cheated of her money and her time.

It
is
important for every one

all
to
;
remember
for
that
laws govern
chemical changes
one
is
often
asked to believe that some chemical sleight of hand
can
make one pound

as
of
washing-soda
special
worth
as
much
of
other.
two,
will
and that some

give
preparation
flour
third
more bread than any
As has been
their
said,
we
recognize
substances
by
have
properties,
essential
and the chemical

which
elements
two
characteristics
must be con-
sidered at the outset of our discussion.

It is
assumed
that
they are composed of homoso-called
geneous
particles, the
atoms, the smallest
COOKING AND CLEANING,

masses of matter which enter into
bination.
chemical comdefinite
is
The
particles
have
weight,
constant for each substance.

in
This weight
known
chemistry as the atomic weight.
Hydrogen being
its
the lightest substance yet known,
atomic weight
is
taken as the unit.
THE CHEMISTR2' OF
which
they
terms
words
are a
merely
great
cannot
aid to
convey,
right
and
therefore
the
com-
prehension of the laws

at
of combination.
will
In a table
the
end of the book

all
be found the atomic
weight of
the elements referred to in the text.
The atoms
value
others.
in
of each element have also their
own
the
uniting
and
exchanging places
with
The
thing
unit of value
else
is
an arbitrary standard.
Somethe
might
have been taken than

value
is
unit
chosen,
as
but the relative
of
all
the elements
compared with each other

At the outposts of the
constant.
Hudson's
Bay Territory
all
trade
is
on a system of barter or exchange, and

is
a basis of value
is
necessary.
The
skin of a beaver
agreed upon as the

values.
unit from
:
which to count
is
all
For example
skins,
red fox skin

fox
skin
worth
two
four
beaver
beaver
a
All
silver
is
worth
is
skins.
of
the
hunter's
stock
valued in this way, and also articles to be purchased

are
valued by the
for
same standard, a
a gun
knife
is
is
pur-
chased
silver
four beaver skins,
worth three
fox
or
twelve
beaver skins.
Chemists have

agreed upon a unit of value
unit
in
exchange, and the
thus
agreed
upon
is
the
;
atomic
is,
weight
of
hydrogen above
relative
referred
to
that
the smallest
weight of
hydrogen
known
It
to
is,
enter
into
combination with other elements.
in a sense,
an arbitrary choice, but having once

as the unit,
accepted
it
we can count
its
all
other values,
union
or in exchange, from
value.
TABLE
II.
THE CHEMISTRT OF
The symbols
are,
chemical changes.
as
it
were,
the chemist's alphabet.
The
the
non-scientific
reader
this
is
apt to look
upon
the
the
acquisition
of
sign
language
as
school-boy regards
the
study
of Chinese
this
as
work of a
be so very
attempt to
plicated
lifetime.
far
While
the
all
view
if
might not
from
truth,
one were to
remember
the symbols of the

are
comthe
compounds
which
of
possible
in
union
and
interchange
yet
the
seventy
or
more
elements,
the
the
properties
and combinations of
dozen of
them which make up the common

daily
substances of
use
are
not beyond the reach
of the busy housewife, and

in
ter
fully
can be comprehended
reading.
"
few
hours of
thoughtful
To mas-
the
symbolical
language of chemistry, so as to
it
understand what
expresses,
is
a great step
towards mastering the science."*
Hydrogen seems
tween
present
the
to
be the
connecting link be-
other
elements,
which
into
may,
for
our
purpose, be
in
divided
two classes^ as
shown
"'I'he
New
Chemistry." /. 149,

TABLE
Some elements which can
be substituted for
HI.
Some elements which unite with H, and with

Class
I.,
H, and
for
each other in
as well
as with
chemical compounds.
each other.
10
I
THE CHEMISTBT OF
IV
II
is
Na2C03, or commercial soda ash, the compound

the
with which
laundress
is
familiar,
under the
name
The
of washing crystal.
letters
mean
to
always
the
smallest
relative
else,
quantity
known
the
combine
with
anything
in
and when
one
times
elements
combine
it
more than
writing
I
proportion,
or three
we
times
unit
indicate
by
two
I
the
units.
Thus Ho
H.
or
2H
means
twice
of
the
the
value
of
Some
of
the
compounds formed
given
in
by the union
are
elements
the
Tables
very
familiar substances.
I
ir
H2O
I
Water.
16
X J,
Two
I
parts
by weight of hydrogen.
Sixteen parts by weight of oxygen.
will unite with 2
H.
TI
II
Ca O
40, 16
Qiiick-lime.
Forty parts by weight of calcium.

Sixteen parts by weight of oxygen.
I
Ca
will
exchange places with
H.
IV
II
C O2
12, 16 X 2
Carbonic acid gas.
Twelve
parts
by weight of carbon.
Thirty-two parts by weight of oxygen.

The exchanges
ments according
weight
sion
U
the
ele-
and
to
interchanges
<
of
these
two laws of value and
are
chemical
is
reactions,
and
the
expres-
of
them
called
a chemical equation.
arithmetic
is
certain
tial
modicum of chemical
essen-
to the right
understanding of these reactions.
" In
at
the
laboratory
we never mix our

out the
if
materials
random, but always weigh

. .
.
exact proleast
portions
for,
the
excess
of
one or the
is
other
substance over the propor-
tions indicated
It will
taken, that excess will be wasted.
not enter into the chemical change." *
In the
economy of nature nothing

coal
thin
is
lost.
The
not
wood
Twelve
and
burned
air,
in
our
stoves
its
do
vanish into
lbs.
without adding to
(not
of
weight.
of
coal
lbs.
counting
the
ash), in
there
burning,
take
lbs.
32
oxygen,
and
are
formed 44
In
in
all
of carbonic acid gas.

is
chemical equations there

represented
just as
much
the
weight
on
the
one
side
of
sign of equality
*
(=)
as
on the
other.
"The New
Chemistry." /.
151.
12
THE CHEMISTRl' OF
For instance,
in
the
I
I
equation
II
HCl
Muriatic Acid.
4-
II NaHO = NaCl
II
+
-I-
II
'
H2O
Water.
Caustic Soda.
Sodium
Chloride or
Salt.
36.5
40
76.5
= =
sum
58.5
18
76.5
The sum
taken
is
of the
weights
the
of the of the
as
two substances
weights
result
equal to
of the
two new substances formed

reaction.
the
of
the
The
to date
present science
of
chemistry
may be
said
from the discovery of the
law of definite
for
lbs.
all
proportions,
culations.
which
If
gave
a
to
firm
basis
cal-
we wish
obtain 44
dioxide),
of
cartell
bonic
just
acid
gas
(carbon
we
can
taken,
how much pure charcoal must be

:
by
writing out the reaction thus

IV
I
O,
IV
II
C O2
is is
The atomic weight of Carbon The atomic weight of Oxjgen
12,
16,
X X
= =
12
32
44
Therefore
iî
12
lbs.
of
charcoal
must be burned
order to obtain 44
lbs.
of carbonic acid gas.

This law of
not
definite
13
proportion by weight
It
is
it
caninva-
be
too
rule
strongly
emphasized.
action,
the
riable
of
chemical
and
will
be
the
in
referred
to
again
and
again
in
in
discussing
chemical
digestion.
changes
occurring
cooking
and
When more
bination, together,
it
than two elements
enter
into
to
comband
an
is
common
in
this
its
for
two or more
the
and
case
group
is
has
exchange value of
of the values
is
own,
which
not the
sum
of the
separate
elements, but which

in
constant,
and dependent
it
upon these values
a way which
is
not necessary to explain here.

will
I
These partnerships
II II
be included
not
that
in
brackets
letters
as
(SO4)
(CO3)
II
(NO3),
these
represent actual
I
compounds
II II
I
existing
that
by themselves,
the group en-
IV
as
do H2O, CO2, CaCl2, but
closed in the brackets passes from one

into
compound
another as
if
it
were only one element, and

letters will
the
cate
numbers over the bracketed

the
indi-
exchange value
elements
of
the
partnership,
not
of the
separately.
this clearer.
few
illustrations
will serve to
make
14
THE GHBMISTRT OF
TABLE
IV.
Mineral Acids and Compounds

I
I
I
II
II
HCl
Muriatic.
H(N03)
Nitric.
H,(SO0
Sulphuric.
II
II
H^CCOa)
Carbonic
II
Till NaCl K(N03)

Salt.
II
CaCSOO
Plaster of Paris.
CaCCOs)
Marble.
Saltpetre.
Reactions and Equations

I
II
II
II
Ho(SO^)
I
Ca(CO0
= =
II
II
II
Ca(SO0
I
-f
H^CCOs)
II
H,(S04)
I
+ +
II
2(NaCl)
TI
Na.,(SO0
I I
II
2(HC1)
II
II
NaCl
:
H2(S04)
It
II II =NaH(SO0H- HCl
will
be
seen
that
that
the
groups do not sepwith

the
single
arate,
but
they
combine
as
elements by the
same law
that
which governs
the combinations of the simple substances.

It is also
to
be
observed that where two atoms

in
of hydrogen
I
can be replaced
either
compound,
as
II
in 11:,(S04),
one or
equal
both
can be exchanged
value,
differ
for
an
atom
of
replacing
and the
in
two compounds
properties.
thus
will
formed
be
will
their
This
shown
later
on,
in
the
case ot cream of tartar.
OF COOKING AND CLEANING.

For a
of the
full
ir,
and clear exposition of the principles

the
science,
reader
J. P.
is
referred
to
" The
New
Chemistry," by
Cooke.
CHAPTER
II.
STARCH, SUGAR, AND FAT, AS FOOD.
"X^THEREVER
change,
heat
is
there
as
in
is
life,
there
certain
is
chemical
and
rule
a
that
degree of
necessary,
order
chemical change
in the colder
may
heat
occur.
Vegetation does not begin

the
air
climates
until
becomes
the
warmed
blasts
by
the
of
spring.
When
cold
of winter
If
come upon
life
the
land, vegetation
ceases.
plant
is
to
be
sustained
during
northern winter,
artificial
warmth must be
up
a
supplied.
or
This
is
done
In
by
keeping
furnace
stove
heat.
chemical terms,
is
carbon
from
coal,
wood,
or
gas
caused to unite with the oxygen of
the air to
form carbonic acid gas,

elements, heat
z6
is
and by
:
this
union of two
produced

IV
17
C
In
II
O2
IV
II
CO2.
is
wood and
is
gas
there
another
compound
which
utihzed
IV
I
CH4
II
04
IV
II
CO2
II
H2O.
These two chemical reactions express the changes

which cause the production of
for
artificial
heat used
domestic purposes.
live
it
As many animals
plants
in
temperatures in which
that
would
die,
is
evident
in
they
must
This
air
have
is
some source
in
of
heat
themselves.
found
the
union of the
oxygen of the
matter eaten
acid
breathed,
food,
with
the
the
carbonaceous
of
as
as
and
IV
II
formation
I
carbonic
in
and
II
water (CO2 and
H2O),
just
the case
of the
combustion of the wood in the grate.

stead of this
so rapidly
as
Only, in-
union taking pTace in one spot, and

to
be
grate
accompanied by
fire,
it
light,
as
in
the case of
the
fluid
takes
in
place
in
each
drop of the
slowly
circulating
as
the
to
body,
and so
noticed.
to
and
continuously
the
not
be
Nevertheless
identical.
chemical
reaction
seems
be
18
THE CHEMISTRT OF
The
first
condition
portion
of animal
life
to
be studied
supplies
is,
then,
that
of the
food which
the
to
heat necessary for the

take
place.
other chemical changes

of
for
The
as
class
foods
the
which
will
be
here
considered
heat,
those
production of
animal
includes
carbon
compounds,, chiefly
composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

These carbonaceous bodies
oxygen
for
need abundance of
or
their
slow
of
combustion
the
oxidation,
and hence the

fresh
air,
diet
animal
must
include
It
a point too a
bright
often overlooked.
to
pile
does
coal
not
make
fire
on
the
without opening the draught.
certain
quantity
of heat
is
produced by other
causes than this
combustion
considered
to
of carbon compounds,
later,
which
will
be
but
the
best
authorities
seem
now
agree
that the
chief heat-
producing foods used by the human race

starch, sugar,
include
and
fat.
Starch
is
the
first
in
its
importance, both from

extensive
or
use.
less
in
its
is
wide distribution and

found
It
is
Starch
in laid
all
plants
in
in
greater
abundance.
seeds of
up
large
quantities
the

many
and
per
toes,
19
species.
Rice
is
nearly
pure
starch,
to
it,
wheat
seventy
the
other
of
it.
cereals
contain
tubers
sixty
cent
Some
less
contain
ten
to
as pota-
although in
It
is
quantity,
twenty per
acid
cent.
formed
from
in
the
air,
carbonic
gas
and water contained

living
the
by means of the
rays,
plant-cell
and
plant
for
the
life,
sun's
and
it
is
the end of the
the stored energy of the

early
life
summer, prepared
plant another year.
the
of the
young
Common
and the
indirectly
sugar,
cane-sugar,
is
found
It
is
in
fruits
juices
of
some
plants.
life.
directly
or
product of plant
of
starch
The chemical
have
transformations
and
sugar
been
very
carefully
and
scientifically studied,
with refer-
ence to brewing and wine-making.

Several
of
the
in
operations
concerned necessitate
to
great
precision
respect
temperature
and
length
of time,
the
and these operations bear a close

process of bread-making by means
principles
sugar,
x)n
analogy to
of
yeast.
The general
starch
which the
sugar
into
conversion of
alcohol,
into
will
and
are
conducted,
therefore
be stated as
20
THE CHEMISTRT OF
a
preliminary to
food.
discussion
of starch and sugar as
There
chemist,
are
two
distinct
this
means
known
to
the
by which
change can be produced.

of
acid
sugar,
One
is
by
the
the
use
and
but
use
heat,
which
changes
farther.
starch
into
is
can
of
go
class
no
of
The other
called
by the
substances
the
ferments,
some
of
into
which
sugar,
have
power of changing the starch

of
and and
great
others
changing
acid
gas.
the
sugar
into
alcohol
in
carbonic
variety,
These substances are
and the germs of some of them are always

air.
is
present in the
A
is
substance
formed
or
in
sprouting grain which

converter,
called
diastase,
starch
into
which
first
changes
the
the
starch
sugar
is
or
glucose,
in
under
pre-
influence
of
warmth, as
for
is
seen
the
paration
of
malt
brewing.
The
by
the
principal
chemical
re-action
IV
I
:
change
expressed
following
11
II
Co H,o O5
Starch.
-f
H2
ferment
=
is
IV
II
Ce H,, Oe
Sugar (glucose).
Water.
The
sugar
formed
from
starch
one of the

class
21
of
sugars
differ
commonly
some
sugar,
:
called
their
glucose.
These
from
easily
sugars
in
of
properties
ordinary
cane
but
cane
sugar
is
changed
IV I C,, Ha,
into glucose
II
I
II
Oh
-f
H,
ferment
IV
2 Cr,
II
H,. Oe
Cane Sugar.
Water.
Glucose.
So,
whether we
is
start
with
starch
or
cane-sugar,
glucose
produced by one kind of fermentation,

is
and
this
glucose
then converted
acid.
by yeast into
the
alcohol and
is
carbonic
In beer,
in
alcohol
the
product
object
of
desired,
but
bread-making the
is
chief
the
fermentation
to
produce
alcohol
carbonic acid to
puff
up
the
bread,
the
escapes in the baking.

IV IV
I
II
II
C2 Ho
IV
II
Oo
H12 Oe
Dextrose.
=
2
Alcohol.
C O2
Carbonic Acid Gas.
The
alcohol,
if
burned,
would
give
carbonic
acid gas and water.

IV
2
I
II
C2 He
Alcohol.
II
12
IV
II
C O2
II
6 H2
Oxy-en.
Carbonic Acid Gas-
Water.
It will
be seen that the
total
number of atoms
22
THE CHEMISTRT OF
remains
constant.
in
of carbon
starch,
at
There are
the
six in the
and
end,
24-4=6
13
carbonic acid gas
the
and but two atoms of hydrogen have

atoms of oxygen have been
lbs.
been added, while

required;
hence,
of
16
of
starch
will
yield
lbs.
26
of
lbs.
carbonic
acid
gas
the
and
10.8
water,
more
These
than
double
of
in
weight
of
the
starch.
products
the
air
decomposition
the
are
in
given
back
those
to
same
from
form
which
substances
existed
which
the
starch was originally formed.
The same
in
cycle
of
chemical
changes
goes on
are
the
human body when

food.
starchy
substances
taken as
in
Such food, moistened and warmed

air,
the
mouth, becomes mixed with

of
the
saliva
by reason
froth,
of
it
the property
is
to
form
also
impregnated with ptyalin,
substance which
can change starch into sugar, as can the diastase

of the malt.
The mass then passes
into the stomach,
and the change once

the sugar
tory
is
l)egun, goes on.

is
As soon
as
formed,
it
absorbed into the circula-
system
and
is
in
some
manner
oxidized,
changed
into carbonic acid gas
and water.

No
it
23
starch
is
used in the
this
human
system as such;
into sugar beit
must undergo
it
transformation
fore
can be absorbed.
Whatever of
meets
juice.
passes out
active
of the
stomach
in
unchanged,
pancreatic
very
If
converter
starch
the
grains
of
the
escape
in
it.
these
two
agents,
as
they leave
in
system
entered
the
same form
that
which they
The cooking
requires
little
of pure
starch
as rice, farina, etc.,
explanation.
The
starch
grains
are
prepared by the plant to keep

cold or drought,
during
a season of
and are very close and compact
they need to be swollen and distended by moisture

in
order that the

as
it
chemical change
a law that
the
may
take place
readily,
is
finer the particles,
the
sooner a given change takes place.
For
in-
stance,
powdered alum
will
dissolve
in water
much
sooner than a crystal
of alum,
or
marble-dust in
Starch grains
in process
acid sooner than a piece of marble.
may
increase
in
bulk twenty-five
times
of hydration.
The cooking
containing
of
the
potato
is
and
other
a
starch-
vegetables,
likewise
mechanical
24
THE CHEMISTRT OF
necessary as a
;
process very
preparation
for
for
the
chemical action of
digestion
raw starch
time
has
been
shown
digestive
to
require
far
longer
and
Little
more
power than cooked

place
in
starch.
change
starch
is
can
take
the
mouth when
the
not heated and swollen, and in case the

secretion
is
pancreatic
disturbed
all.
the
starch
may
not become converted at
The most important

which can
foods
is
of
all
the
articles
of
diet
be classed under
"Wheat bread
larger
the
is
head of starch
not solely starch
bread.
but
of
it
contains a
else,
percentage of starch than
anything
and
it
must be discussed under
this topic.
Bread of
kind
the
some
first
kind
has been
of
used
by manDuring
from the
earlier
dawn
civilization.
stages
it
consisted
in
chiefly of
powdered
on
hot
meal
stones.
and
water,
baked
the
sun,
or
This kind of bread had the same charas

as
acteristics
the
far
modern
as
sea-biscuit, crackers
and
hoe-cake,
It
digestibility
it
was
to
concerned.
masticate,
little
had great
the
density,
in
it
was
difficult
and
starch
presented
but
more

surface
to
25
the
digestive
fluids
than
that
in
the
hard compact grain, the seed of the plant.
Experience must
have
taught
the
semi-civilized
digestible
man
than
that
a light porous
one.
loaf was
more
dense
left
Probably
some
dough
was
in
accidentally
over, until fermentation
had
set
and the possibihty of porous bread was thus suggested.
The
ideal
loaf,
light,
spongy,
is
with
crispness
and sweet pleasant
taste,
not only
aesthetically,
but chemically, considered the best

starch
form in which
organs.
can
be presented
condition
as
is
to
the
digestive
in
The porous
large
desired
shall
order that as
to
surface
possible
be presented
the
action
the
of
the
chemical converter, the ptyalin

is
of
saliva.
There
also a better
aeration
in
the process of mastication.
Very early
leavened
in
the
history
to
of
the
human
used.
to
race,
bread seems
have been
This
stand
was made
in a
in.
by allowing
plcuce
flour
and water
warm
until
this
decomposition had well set
portion
in
of
dough was
of
used
flour
to
start
fermentation
fresh
portions
and water
26
THE CHEMISTRY OF
be made into bread. be
This kind
care,
to
lest
to to
of bread
had
and
be
made
bodies,
with
great
lactic
taste,
acid
other
unpleasant
the
should
formed.
Because of
of
the
this
disagreeable
that
taste,
and because
might
chemists
the
possibility
the
dough
reach
stage
of
putrid
for
fermentation,
and
ren-
physicians
sought
some other
and
as
means of
dering
the
bread
as
light
porous.
The
was
search
began
the
almost
of
soon
chemistry
worthy
early
name
science,
and
1S37.
one
of
the
patents
bears
the
date
A
;
good
to
deal
of
time* and
fecting
thought has been
devoted
but
the
sinê
per-
of
of
unfermented
beer
yeast
bread
has
the
process
making
has
been
universally
introduced,
is
been
of
the
readily
to
obtained,
the
and
a
an effectual means
taste.
giving
bread
the
pleasant
Since
chemistry of
yeast
fermentation
of opinion
tific
has been
better understood, a change
has
come
about,
and nearly
all
scien-
and medical men now recommend fermented
bread.
The chemical
reactions concerned in bread raising

are
flour
27
identical with
those
in
is
beer making.
To
a
the
and
warmed water
added
yeast,
sub-
stance
tion.
capable of
causing the alcoholic fermentabegins

if
The
yeast
to
act
upon
is
the
starch
at
once, especially
the
dough
is
of a
semifluid
consistency,
for
but
no change
as
evident to the
sugar
eye
gives
some hours,
the
formation of
:
rise to
no other products
IV
I
II
C6H10O5
+ H,0
II
28
THE CHEMISTRY OF
light
as
bread
gluten
as
wheat.
It
is
the
right
proporto
loaf
tion
of
(a
nitrogenous
substance
light
be
to
considered later),
which enables the

flour.
be made of wheat
The production
of
the
of carbonic acid gas

process,
is
the end
chemical
the
is
rest
for
is
purely
meof
out
fer-
chanical.
The
the
kneading
the
purpose
spreading
already
rendering
dough
elastic
by a
of
the
and
thorough
incorporation
mented mass with

Another reason
of
gas
the fresh flour.

for
kneading
is,
that the bubbles

as
may be broken up
in
into
small portions
large
as possible,
holes,
order
very
wlien
at
that
fine
it
there
may be no
evenly
but
only
loaf,
ones,
is
distributed
through the
baked.
The temperature
maintained
during
which the dough should be

chemical
process,
is
the
the
most important
from the
for
is
point.
A
spirit.
lesson
can
be learned
distillers
first
of
The
best temperature
the
70
stage
F.,
of
the
the
alcoholic
is
fermentation
82
to
is
to
75
maximum
90.
liable
Above
90,
the
production of acetic acid
to occur.

IV
I
29
II
II
Co Ho
+
the
II
O2
IV
II
C2 H4 O,
Acetic Acid.
4-
Ho O.
is
Alcohol.
The more dense

needed.
flour
the
dough, the more yeast

is
After
is
dough
stiffened
by the fresh
the temF.,
and
nearly
ready^ for
to
the
oven,
perature
may be
of
raised
160 or
165
the
temperature
the
is
beer mash.
quick change
then occurs which
so soon stopped
is
by the heat
of the oven, that no time
allowed for souring.

lactic
In
is
the
to
use
of
leaven,
place,
the
fermentation
liable
take
because
sour
dough often
yeast,
contains
a ferment
different
from
ordinary
and
this
produces a different
set of reactions.
The temperature should be

light
carefully regulated, if
and sweet bread

loaf
is
desired.
to
to
The baking of
the
the
to
has for
the
to
its
object
kill
ferment,
it
heat
starch
sufficiently
render
acid
easily
soluble,
expand
the
carbonic
to
gas
and
drive
shall
off
the
alcohol,
and
form a crust which
have a pleasant
raise
flavor.
The
oven must be
of the inside
favorable tem-
hot enough to
of the loaf to
the
temperature
212 F.
is
The most
perature for baking
400 to 550 F.
30
THE CHEMISTRY OF
The brown
coloration
of
the
crust,
which gives
a pecuhar flavor to
the
to
loaf,
is
probably caused
heat.
by decomposition
dextrine
flour
due
formed.
the
high
Some
of
may be
said
One hundred pounds

from
of
are
to
make
126 to
weight
is
150 pounds
of bread.
This
of
increase
water,
due
to
the
incorporation
ical
very possibly by a
chem-
union, as
it
the water
does not dry out of the
loaf as
does out of a sponge.
The bread
the oven,
seems
moist
when
first
taken
from
and dry
will
after
standing
some
hours, but
It
is
the
this
weight
be found nearly the same.
probable
chemical
change which
makes
the
difference, to delicate stomachs,
between fresh bread

eaten
it is
and
stale.
thick loaf
old,
is
best
after
it
is
twenty-four
hours
although
said
to
be
"done," when ten hours have passed. Thin

do not show the same
ill
biscuits
hot.
effects in
when eaten
any case,
in
The bread must be well baked
order
that the process of fermentation
may be
into
stopped.
The expansion
its
of water or
is
ice
1700 times
volume of steam
in
sometimes taken advantage

water
of
making
snow-bread,
gems,
etc.
It

plays
31
part
in
the
lightening
of
pastry
and of
crackers.
Air,
at at
is
70,
expands
to
about
three
times
its
volume
if
the
temperature
of a hot oven, so that of
air
entangled in a mass
dough,
is
it
gives
a certain lightness when the whole

is
baked.
This
with
the cause
of the sponginess of cakes

viscous
made
air
eggs.
The
it,
albumen
it
catches
the
and
holds
even when
too
hot,
is
expanded,
unless the
is
oven
is
when
the
sudden
expansion
falls.
liable to burst the
bubbles and the cake

the
As has been
condition,
said,
production
of the porous
by means of carbonic
acid,
generated in
of
for
some
starch,
other
way
the
than
study
by
of
the
decomposition
chemists
was
years.
practical
first
sotne
Among
put
in
the
methods proposed,
theoretically,
viz.,
was
very
one
undoubtedly the
best
but
difficult to
practice,
the liberation
of carbonic acid gas
from bi-carbonate of sodium,
by means of muriatic acid.

I I
IV
II
Na H C O3
Soda.
+ H
I
II
CI
=
IV
Hydrochloric
Acid.
Na
II
CI
II
H2
C Oi
32
THE CHEMISTRT OF
The
difficulty
is
lies
in
the
fact
that
this
libera-
tion of gas
instantaneous
soda,
on the contact of the

skilled
acid
with
the
and only a
it
hand can
mix the bread and place

the
loss
in
the
oven without
acid
(the
of
much
of the
gas.
Tartaric
acid
phosphates),
sour milk
all
(lactic
acid), vinegar
(acetic
acid), alum,
to
of which
have been used,
are
is
open
the
the
same objection.
substance
the
Cream of
tartar
only acid
not
liberate
It
it
commonly used
by simple
whicli
in
does
the
gas
contact
cold.
unites
with
soda only when heated,

in
because
is
very
slighUy soluble
cold
water.
For the even distribution of the gas by thorough

mixing,
best.
cream
of
tartar
would
is
seem
to
be
the
The chemical
But
reaction
shown
in the table
on page^-^
products
the
the
as,
beside
gas,
in
there
are
other
in
which
of
remain
all
behind
so-called
the
bread,
case
the
baking
powders,
healthfulness
of
these
residues
must be con-
sidered.
Common
tioned
residues
salt,
the
is
residue
the
from
the
first-men-
reaction,
safest,
and
are
perhaps the
in
from
acid
phosphate
next
order.

The
not
tartrate,
33
lactate,
and acetate of
hurtful.
sodium
are
known
to
be
especially
As the imis
portant constituent of Seidlitz

salt,
powders
Rochelle
the same
of
compound
tartar
as that resulting
from the
not likely
use
to
in
it.
cream of
and
soda,
it
is
be very deleterious, taken in the small quantities

which even habitual "soda-biscuit" eaters take
The
most
various
products
formed
by the
chemical
decomposition of alum and soda are possibly the

injurious,
least
as
the
sulphates
are
supposed
to
be the
readily
absorbed
salts.
Taking
into
consideration the advantage given by the insolubility

of cream
paratively
salt,
it
of tartar
little
in
cold
water,
its
and the
com-
danger from
to
derivative, Rochelle
would seem
to
be,
on the whole, the best

in
substance
the
gas
;
add
to
the
soda
order to liberate
but the proportions

the
alkali
must be chemically
given.
exact,
according to
reaction
left,
At
least,
there
will
must be
be
given
no
for a
reason
which
to
under
the
head of hindrances
digestion.
Hence,
baking
powders
prepared
by
weight
34
THE CHEMISTRY OF
carefully mixed,
and
the
are
great
improvement on
teaspoonful
measured by guess.
The
reactions
of the various baking
powders with the proportions

/^
of each will be given on page 4'
Another group of substances which, by their slow

combustion or oxidation
carbonic acid gas and
the
in the
animal body, yield
water,
and
furnish heat
fats
:
to
for
system,
comprises
the
animal
as,
instance
oils,
suet, lard
oil,
and butter; and the vegetable
as olive
fatty
the oily matter in corn, oats, etc.

all
These
sition,
materials
have a similar compo-
containing
when pure only carbon, hydrogen,

differ
and oxygen.
in
They
from
to
starch
the
and sugar
carbon and
relatively
the
proportion
of
oxygen
hydrogen, there being very

in the fatty
little
oxygen
group, hence more must be taken from
the air for their
combustion.
Ce Hio O5
Starch.
Ci8 H36 O2
Stearine in Suet.
One pound
of starch
requires
one and two-tenths

suet requires
pounds of oxygen, while one
pound of
about three pounds of oxygen for perfect combustion.
At the same time, a greater quantity of heat

can be obtained from the
than from starch or sugar;
regions require fat
fats,
35
pound
for
pound,
hence, people in Arctic
A
up
the
to
most noticeable difference between the starch

fat
group and the

in
group,
is
that the latter
is
stored
the
s)'stem
easily
against a time of need.

fats
This
is
more
done, since the

essential
do not seem
undergo any
change
in order that they
may be absorbed.
They
pass the
mouth and stomach
without any chemical change, and only
when they
encounter the
is
bile
and the other
intestinal juices,
there any question as to what happens.
With these
form emulsions
divided
the
fluids,
the
bile
especially,
the
fats
in
which
the
globules
are
finely
and rendered capable of passing through

into
membranes
if
the
circulatory
system.
The
change,
ties
any,
is
not one destructive of the proper-
of the fatty matters.
The
globules
are
carried
along by the blood, and deposited wherever needed,

to
fill
up the spaces
in
the
muscular
tissue,
and
to serve as a reserve supply of fuel.
There
that
seems
animal
to
be
good reason
derive
for
fat
believing
the
does
some
from
the
36
TH^ CHEMISTRY OF COOKING, ETC,

constituents
other
of
in
its
food,
diet
but
of
or
it
is
not an
for
important
question
rice
the
mankind,
oil
even
food.
It
the
eaters
use
butter
with
their
must not be inferred from what has been said

the
that
oxidation
of
starch
and
fat
is
the
only
source
quantity
of
is
heat
in
the
animal body.
certain
undoubtedly derived from the chemical

the
changes
of
other
portions
is
of
food,
but
the
chemistry of these changes

stood.
not yet fully under-
CHAPTER
III.
NITROGENOUS FOOD AND THE CHEMISTRY OF NUTRITION.
TN
the the
previous
existence
chapter,
the
adult
food
necessary for
of
the
animal
than
was conexist,
sidered
but
animals
force,
do
in
more
they
move and
do work
;
exert
mechanical
terms they
also the
young animal grows.

else
is
For growth and work, something

beside
starch
needed
the
in-
and
fat.
The
muscles are
struments
nourished,
of motion
in
and they must grow and be

that
order
is
they
to
may
well
have
power.
The nourishment
corpuscles.
cular
tissue,
carried
them by the blood

as in
We
find
in these, as
mus-
an element which we have not here-
tofore considered, nitrogen.
We
find
it
also in the
products of their decomposition,

37
hence we reason
38
THE CHEMISTRY OF
if
that
the
wear and
of
the
tear of
the
muscles causes
the
Hberation
out
of
nitrogenous
compounds, which
this
loss
pass
system
use
as
such,
must
food
be
supplied
by the
of
some
and
kind of
fat
which contains nitrogen.
Starch
it
do not;
therefore they cannot furnish
to the blood.
is
The
of egg
are
;
typical
food of this class
albumen, white
hence the terms albuminous and albuminoid

used as descriptive of the group.
articles
often
The
other
common
casein
the
of diet
the
containing nitrogen of
are the
flesh,
of
milk,
musculine
the
of
animal
gluten
of
wheat, and
legumen of
the
peas and
in
beans.
The
in
proportion
element
each
is
shown
the table on page 53.

these
The
dergo
food
as
is
chemical changes which

are
bodies
un-
not
well
understood.
in
The nitrogenous
mouth, l)ecause,
is
finely
comminuted
the
before stated, chemical

to
action
rapid
;
in
it
prois
portion
the
fineness
first
of
division
but
in
the stomach that the
chemical change occurs.
The
the
agents
of
of
this
change are the pepsin and

juice
;
acid
the
gastric
the
two together
render the nitrogenous substance soluble
and
dia-

lysable,
39
capable of passing through the membranes.
Neither
seems
able
to
to
do
this
alone,
is
and
it
does
not
it
seem
is
matter what acid
present so
;
long as
acid
is
acid
and
just
acid enough
;
but
if
the
neutralized, action ceases
hence the danger
of soda biscuit with too
much
soda.
The chemical
albumen
is
changes which
into
go
on
after
the
taken
the
system
are not
known.
decomposition of some sort takes place, and the

passes
nitrogen
separated
out
of the
system
as
in
urea, being
by the kidneys,
carbonic
acid gas
is
by
the lungs.
The
effect
of
cooking
will
upon
nitrogenous
food
should be
soluble,
such as
in
render the substance more

case
digestibility
because
this
means
and
heat,
solubility.
Therefore white of egg (albumen)

milk
(casein),
in
curd
of
when
hardened
by
must not be swallowed

In the
case
the
fibre,
lumps.
of
flesh,
the
cooking should soften

tissue,
and loosen
bundles of
fall
connecting
so that the
little
which contain the nutriment, may
apart
easily
when brought
in
contact with the
teeth.
Any
process which toughens
and
hardens
40
THE CHEMISTRT OF
meat
should
all
the
be avoided.
The
cooking
of
beans and
leguminous
vegetables should soften
and loosen the compact

be avoided,
as
grains.
Hard
water should
an insoluble lime or magnesia comis
pound of legumen
formed.
the
three
all
We
of diet
have
now considered
placed
classes
of
food under one or more of which
staple articles
may be
the
starch food, the fats
and
the nitrogenous material.

diet,
Some
general principles of
indicated by science, remain to be discussed.
One
best,
of the most obvious questions

starch
is
Which
or
is
or
fat,
beans
and
peas,
flesh?
As
to starch or
fat,
the (juestion has been answered

tried to explain
by experience, and science has only

the
reason.
The
eat.
colder
the
climate
the
more
fat
the people
The
as
tropical
nations live
tlie
is
chiefly
on starch foods,
page
50,
it
rice.
From
this
statements on
;
will
be seen that
rice.
right
fat
yields
is
more heat than

plain that
in the
in
Therefore
of winter
the inference
fat
is
cold
appropriate
or
food,
while
the
heat of
summer
rice
some
other starch food should be substituted.
No
such
evident
rule
can be seen
in
the case

of the
41
albuminous foods.
At most, the
class
can
be divided into three groups.

the
material
The
as
first
includes
lentils,
of vegetable
origin,
peas,
and the gluten of wheat.
The second comprises

animal
the white of egg and the curd of milk, material of
animal origin.
flesh
The
third
takes
in
all
the
used by mankind as food.
Considering the question from a purely chemical

standpoint,
without
regarding
the
moral or social
out
clearly
aspects
I St.
of the case, two
points
stand
If the stored-up vegetable matter has required
the
force
derived from the sun to prepare
it,
the
tearing apart, and giving back to the air and
earth,
the
so
elements
of
which
to
it
was
built
it
up, will
yield
much
force
whatever tears energy must
down
used
but a
certain
amount
of
be
up
in
this destruction.
2nd. If the animal, having accomof

is
plished
this
decomposition
the
material,
the
killed,
vegetable,
and
appropriated
and the preof
pared nitrogenous food in the

eaten by man, then no force
the
is
form
muscle
is
necessary to render
to
food assimilable
it
it
is
only
be
dissolved
in order that
may
enter into the circulation.
42
THE CHEMISTRT OF
The
force-producing
to
power
is
not
lost
it
is
only transferred
the
another animal
body.
part
Hence
of man's
ox or
for
the
sheep
in
can
do
work
use,
him
preparing the vegetable
food for
and man may thus accomplish more than he

could.
otherwise
to
this
There
is,
however,
all,
if
another side
all,
question.
live
Nearly
not
young
animals
of the
on food of animal
race
live
origin.
The young
it
human
the
on milk, but
milk
is
has been
the
found *by experience

food
of
for
that
live
not
the
best
adult
It
is
to
upon
to
to
exclusion
all
else.
not
conducive
activity.
quickness of
thought or general bodily This

fact,
with
many
others,
leads
us
to
the
conclusion
food.
that
mankind
needs
some
vegetable
Two
to
other facts sustain this inference.

the
The
form
digestive
fifteen
organs of
herbivorous
cent,
tlie
animals
twenty per
of
the
whole weight
animals
of
the
body.
to
Those of
six
carnivorous
form
race
five
per
per
cent.,
those
of
the
human
of
the
about
eight
cent.
The
length
canal through which

the
the
the
food passes bears about

three classes.
same
relation
in
mixed

diet
test
43
seems
to
be indicated as desirable by every
which
has
been applied, but the proportions
in whicli the vegetable
and animal food

relative
are to be
of car-
mingled,
as
well
as
the
quantities
bonaceous and nitrogenous material which

the best
efficiency to
will
give
the
human machine
are not
so easily determined.
Dietaries,
analysis,
based
upon
experience
for
and chemical
rations,
have been prepared

use
in
soldiers*
and
for
prisons.
Many cook-books and

lists
most works on physiology give
of quantities.
for
One who
says
also
:
has
studied
the
the
question
years
"
Not
only
age
the
and
occupation,
play an
but
im-
the
individuality
in
of
person
portant part
the
regulation
of diet, and decide

the
is
not only
food,
the
quantity
in
but
also
it
kind
of
.
the
.
and the form
which
to
be taken
For the proper assimilation of the nourishment and

its
complete
agreeable
effect
;
in
the organism, the food

relish
. .
must
be
it
must
is
needful
nourishment
not
enough.
A supply of Man requires

of
yet more.
taste
.
.
He
The
must
find
his
food pleasing to the

roasting
boiling
and
food
44
THE CHEMISTRT OF
are
materials
civilized
operations which
we
find
only
among
people,
and
they
have
been
developed
art
with
the
advance of
civilization.
The whole
to
of cooking
amounts
will best
to
this
So
prepare
the
food that
it
answer
the
its
end."*
that
is,
The
nutrition
of
of
the
animal body,
taken,
is
is
the
assimilation
food
dependent upon
absorption.
vious
Absorption
dependent
upon
preare
chemical
processes.
the
;
These
processes
the
saliva,
contingent
gastric
upon
etc.
secretions,
it
the
fact
juice,
and
is
a
is,
well-known
to
that
tent,
the
flow
of
these
control
licûids
great
ex-
under the
the
of
the
nerves.
Whatever
abundant
excites
nerves
pleasantly,
causes an
of
secretion
of
the chemical agents

lies
food change.
In
this fact
the secret
of
modern cooking, the
judicious use of condiments.
Pettenkofer
(Konig,
page
21)
says
to
of
condiuse
ments
of
"
may compare
for
them
the
right
lubricants
an engine,
power,
which indeed cannot

but
replace
*
the
steam
may
help
it
to
Die menschlichen Nahrungs-und Genussmittel, von Dr.

1880.
/.
J.
Konig.
Berlin,
100.

much
easier
45
and more regular

naturally
the
action,
and besides,
out
prevent
quite
wearing
to
of
this,
the
machine.
condition
is
In
order
to
be able
:
do
one
absolutely essential
it
the
lubricant
"
must
not attack the machine,
must be harmless
an
art
Cooking
attention
has
thus
become
and
worthy the
of
intelligent
learned
women.
The
added
of
laws of chemical
of
definite
action are
founded upon the law

whatever
way.
is
proportions,
is
and
the
more than enough,

every household
family,
is
in
The head
should study the condition
of her
if
and tempt them with dainty dishes

If
that
what they need.
the ashes
have accumulated
in
the grate, she will call

so
a servant to shake
burn.
If
them
out
the
that
the
fire
may
she
sees that
are clogwill
ashes of
the
food
previously
taken
ging the vital
energy of
the
air,
her
child,
she
send
to
him out
into
with oxygen
will
and exercise
make him happy, but she

food.
not give him more
Nature seems
excess
too
of
heat,
to
have
made
from
provision
the
for
the
resulting
oxidation
of
much
starch
or
fat,
by the
ready means of
46
THE CHEMISTRr OF
the
surface,
in
this loss
evaporation of water from
of
water being
ply,
supplied
goes,
by drinking
change,
heat,
fresh sup-
which
without
the
into
the
circu-
lation.
The
;
greater
the
greater
the
evaporation
article
hence the importance of water as an
of
diet
must not be overlooked.

the
For an
at
active
person,
supply
has
is
been
estimated
three quarts
per
day.
Water
the heat regulator
of the animal body.
While dangerous disease seldom seems

from eating an
the
to
result
excess
of
is
starch
or
fat,
because
so
portion
not
of
wanted
the
rejected
as
much
sand,
many
most
complicated
diet.
disorders
do
result
from an excess of nitrogen
The
readiness with which such substances undergo
putrefaction,
and
the
many
give
noxious
should
products
lead
lbs
to to
which such
changes
rise,
be more careful as
to the
quantity of food.
growing
person
needs
about
one
part
of
nitrogenous food to four of starch and fat; a grown

person,
one part
nitrogenous
food
to
five
or
six
of
is
starch
and
fat.
fair
average ration per day
perhaps

Bread
Fat Rice (cooked)
Flesh
All
lib. lo oz.
I
47
to 2 oz.
i lb.
i lb.
processes
of cooking and the use of
all
con-
diments which hinder digestion should be
avoided.
the
of
Woody
digestive
fibre
or
cellulose,
as
it
bran,
to
irritates
itself
canal,
and
the
causes
empty
is
the
food
before
of
chemical change
complete.
An
excess
sugar
sometimes
decomposes with
the formation of acids which have the
same
effect.
Tannin,
tobacco,
salt
in
excess,
and
alcohol, all
harden the albuminous part of the food, and by

this
means hinder
solution.
Certain
the
substances, as
alcohol
and
coffee, lessen
amount of food needed

fats
all
for the time being.

at
The
various
decompose
about 300" F.,

exceedingly
into
bodies,
some
of
them
acrid
and and
irritating to the
mucous membrane of the nose

must
also
throat,
and which
prove
is
offensive
to the lining of
the stomach.
This
probably the
fried
reason
in fat.
why many people cannot bear food
48
THE CHEMISTR T OF
In
counting the
cost
of
the
several
articles
of
diet,
bility
It
not only the price per pound, but the digesti-
must be taken
has been
starch
in
into account.
found by experiment
rice
less
that
of
the
is
total
than
one per cent,
rejected,
while in potatoes nearly eight per cent,
is
not used.
(See table, page 52).

all
The
from
cost of a diet which derives
the nitrogen
the
animal kingdom has

as
been
estimated
in
Germany
vegetable
struction,
is
9.2
marks per day; while an

giving
at
entire
diet,
is
the
1.95
same
chemical
con-
given
marks per day.

the working
live
This
people
very
evident reason
why
of
all
lands
(except America)
on
vegetable
food almost entirely.
49
50
THE CHEMISTRY OF
O M
^ V ^

fs
61
52
THE CHEMISTRY OF
Digestibility
of
some
of
articles
of
food
shown
re-
by the
jected
:
per
cent,
the
several
constituents
53
54
THE CHEMISTRT OF COOKING, ETC,

The
daily
need
of
woman
is
counted
as
three-fourths or four-fifths that of a
man.
Elementary Composition in
1.
of C.
PART
II.
CHAPTER
I.
THE CHEMISTRY OF CLEANING.
IVTEXT
to
the materials for food, those used for
the very necessary operations
of cleaning are
perhaps of greatest interest to the housekeeper.

This chemical
chapter
will
discuss
the
are
properties
suited
to to
of the
aid
in
substances which
the
performing
advantage.
First
terials
work
of
cleansing
the
best
in
importance among
these
chemical ma-
are soap
and
its
substitutes.
" Whether the extended use of soap be preceded

or
succeeded
by an
it
improvement
in
any
comresult
munity
of
whether
higher
be the precursor or the

of
degree
refinement
amongst
the
55
5G
THE CHEMISTRT OF
earth
nations of the
the
remark of Licbig. must

that
be acknowledged to be
true,
the
quantity of
soap consumed by a nation would be no inaccurate
measure whereby
tion.
to estimate
its
wealth and
civiliza-
Of two
countries
with
an equal amount
of
population, the wealthiest and

will
most highly civihzed

of
soap.
consume
the
greatest
weight
This
consumption does not

nor depend upon
the
subserve sensual gratification,
fashion,
but upon the feehng of

welfare
to
this
beauty,
;
comfort
and
attendant
feeling
is
upon
coin-
cleanliness
and a regard
* cident with wealth and civilization."

It is
surely a
problem of the greatest
interest
to
every
housekeeper,
its
how
in
to
keep
of
her
household
that
large
and
shall
belongings
a
state
state
cleanliness
;
be
of
is
perfect a
direct
health
result
for
portion
of disease
of
uncleanly
ways.
is
[The
toleration of
impure
air in
close
rooms
one of the most common,

easily
as well as
one of the
most
remedied of these uncleanly ways.]

of
This
at
state
least
cleanness
must
also
be attained
labor.
the
cost in
money, time and
Such
* Muspratt's Chemistry as applied to Arts
and Manufactures.

a question ought to
every
said,
stir
57
the
business
capacity
of
woman
soap
in
charge of a house.
its
As we have
claim,
first
and
substitutes
justly
of
all,
our attention.
primitive peoples find a substitute for soap
Many
in
the roots, bark or fruit of certain plants.
Nearly
every
soaps,
country
the
is
known
which
oily
to
produce such vegetable

of
quality
they possess
forming
to
an emulsion with
peculiar
substances
being due
as
vegetable
these
substance,
known
barks
Saponin.
fruits
Many of now used

of the
for
silk
saponaceous
and
are
with
good
results
the
the
"soap
best
bark"
druggist
being one of
black
dress
substances
dressing
over
goods,
whether
of
or woollen.
fruit
The
of
the
Soapberry
of the
tree
Papindus
is
Saponaria
to
native
West
Indies,
said
be
capable of cleansing as
its
much
linen as sixty
times
weight of soap.
ashes
Wood
material
were
before
probably
used
as
cleansing
as
long
its
soap was
made,
well
as
long
after
general use.
Their properties and
value will be considered later.
58
THE CHEMISTRT OF
Soaps
for
laundry use
are
chiefly
fatty
composed of
acids.
alkaline
bases,
is
combined with
but
Their
the
action
"gently
of
efficiently
to
dispose
greasy
the
dirt
the clothes
and and
oily
exudations
of
skin
to
miscibility with,
solubility in
wash
water." *
We may
state
it
in
this
wa}'.
All
kinds
of
cleansing, whether
it
be
of
our skins, our clothes,
our painted wood-work, our windows or our dishes,

consist of two
tion
distinct
operations
oily
;
first,
the solu-
or
emulsion of
the
matter which causes

second, the mechandirt,
the dust
ical
and
dirt
to
adhere
dust
removal of the
is
and
which, in most
cases,
effected
silver
by water.
paint,
Sometimes, as in the
the
case
fine
It
of
and
cleansing
agent
is
sand or chalk.
will
readily be
seen that the

oily
first
is
operation
to
to
the
removal of
in
the
matter
of
prime imclearly
portance
the
laundry.
In
of
the
order
best
understand
secure
*
the
question
means
this
removal,
we
must
first
consider
and
the
Chemistry
applied
to
the
Manufacture
Morfit.
of
Soaps
Candles.

properties of the grease
50
and
oily matters,
and
next,
what agents
with them.
Oily
will
dissolve
them or form an emulsion
matters
in
salt
general
is
are
soluble
in
certain
substances, as
soluble
in water,
and can be
recovered
in their original
form from such solutions
by
simple
evaporation.
alkalies
call
Some
of
them
readily
combine with
to
form the kind of
com-
pound which we
soap.
Others in contact with

so-called, in
the alkalies form emulsions,

fatty
which the
an
globules
are
suspended,
forming
opaque
in-
hquid.
These emulsions are capable of being

and by
this
definitely diluted with clear water,
means
opacity
the fatty globules are

of soap-suds
is
all
carried away.
The
it
due
to
the
fact
that
contains
particles in suspension, the
nature of which will be
presently shown.
Setting
aside
classes
the
of
vegetable
agents
saponin,
affect
we
oily
have
mat-
then two
ters,
which
^the
one
class
by simple
benzine,
or
solution, as turpen;
tine,
alcohol,
direct
ether,
etc.
the
other class
of
by a
union,
by the
formation
an
emulsion.
Agents of the
latter class are
substances
60
THE CHEMISTRY OF
in
known
chemistry as the
alkali
metals,
and
in
order to justify the

of these alkali
that the value
somewhat extended discussion
metals,
of
all
we must remind our readers

soaps
as
detergents
the
depends
upon
the
alkali
chiefly.
is
To
distinguished
French chemist, Chevreul,

of the action of soaps.
due
our
knowledge
"The
fat
neutral salts formed

are
by the
alkalies
and the
acids
decomposed
fat
by the water, whereby

salts,
insoluble
tates,
double
acid
stearates,
palmiis
oleates
are
separated,
of
the
while
free
the
alkali
set
free.
By means
alkali
the
im-
purities clinging to the materials are
removed."
the peculiar
Every
woman must have

been washed
in in
noticed
opaque appearance of soap-suds, even before anything
has
it.
This
is
due
to the
suspension
the
water
of
the
particles
of these
" insoluble double fat acid salts."
[Hot water
will
dissolve
soaps without
the
this
de-
composition, but on
place.]
cooling
separation takes
As
each
soap-maker
claims
that
it
his
product
than
contains
something which
renders
better

Other soaps,
chief stress
or
in
61
different
his
from
them,
and as the
rests
recommendation
soap
is
on the
resin
fatty matters used, " Oil
superior to
soap," and the

to
hke,
it
behooves the housekeeper

certain
remember
kind of
her
that,
within
Hmits
so
is
of course,
the
to
fatty
acid
does not
that
it
much
matter
or
(provided
only
not
putrid
otherwise unfit for use) as the quantity and quahty
of the
alkali,
and
as
she
is
often
called
upon
to
beheve
that
some
new
chemical
a
far
has
just
been
soap
discovered which makes

than
the
more
efficient
it
world has
to
ever
before
seen,
may be
of the
instructive for her

alkali
follow our
discussions
metals and their compounds.
The
chemical
group
of
" alkali
metals "
com-
prises six substances
Ammonium, Cassium, Lithium,

Sodium.
Potassium,
six
Rubidium and
and
Two
of
the
Cassium
mineral
total
Rubidium were
discovered by
in
means of the spectroscope, not many years ago,

the
the
waters
for
of
Durckheim, and
of
all
probably
amount
sale
in
the salts of these
metals, could be
carried
one's pocket.
third
alkah
metal
Lithium occurs
in several minerals^
62
THE CHEMISTRY OF
its
it
and
but
salts
is
are of frequent use in the laboratory,
not sufficiently abundant to
be of com-
mercial
importance.
alkali metals,
As regards the three remaining

I I
the
II
oxide of
tile
Ammonium, (NH4)HO,
the
I
is
known
I
as " VolaI
II
Alkali,"
I
oxides
of
Potassium,
KHO,
and
II
Sodium,
NaHO,
as " Caustic Alkalies."

their
in
With these
three alkalies
are
and
compounds, and these alone,

housekeeping.
we
concerned
The
volatile
in
alkali,
tity
Ammonia, has been recendy prepared

price
quan-
and
such
that
its
every
use.
is
housekeeper
It
may
become acquainted with

occur in soaps, and
its
does not often
use
confined to the more

the
delicate cleansing operations, the bath,
washing
of woollens, and
other cases
where
its
property of
evaporating, without leaving any residue to attack the

fabric or to attract anything
from the
air, is
invaluable.
This property affords a safeguard against the carelessness
of the
laundress in
not sufficiently rinsing

is
the fabric, and this imperfect rinsing
at the
bottom
of most
of
the
trouble
alkali.
in
washing woollens with

flannels
soap or caustic
All
worn next the

skin, all the woollens of
G3
an
infant's wardrobe, should

soft
be
washed
in
water
made
and
alkaline
by
ammonia, or ammonium carbonate.

advantage
will
An
additional
be found in the
fact that the shrinkis
age of woollens thus washed
very
slight.
The
ex-
ammonium
time,
as a
gas,
compounds
are
somewhat
more
pensive than the caustic alkalies, but in the present
when an ammoniacal
liquor
is
largely
produced
secondary product in the manufacture of coal

the
cost
its
is
not
excessive
compared with the

in
benefit
use confers.
For use
the bath, and
for woollens, the
ammoniacal gas liquor must have

in
passed through a process of purification,

to
free
it
order
from some other products of the dewhich

is
structive distillation of coal,
not
healthful
in
or useful.
as a
This caution must

article
;
be borne
for
mind,
crude
or
is
sometimes sold
is
cleaning
uses
paint
carpets
this
not
fit
for
the
we
have been specifying.
Ammonia
chemicals
water,
bought of the
best
dealers
in
and
druggists'
supphes, costs
about 30
cents a pint, without the bottle.
pint
of this liquid possesses as
much
alkaline
64
THE CHBMISTRT OF
I
IV
II
II
value as ten ounces of sal soda,
Na2C03+ 10H2O,
latter,
and has not the injurious properties of the

even when used
in
excess.
As the
alkali is volatile,
and water nearly boiling

seventh
as
will
retain only about one-
much
of the
ammonia
air,
gas
it
as water at
will
the ordinary temperature of the

that
be seen
of
the
directions
on
fluids
the
various
bottles
" Magical "

to
washing
which contain ammonia,
pour the required quantity into hot water, with
the
word
" hot " the

fluid
especially
emphasized,
of
are
at
variance
stance.
with
known
should
properties
this
sub
with
water,
The
be
largely
to
diluted
cold
water,
and
then
added
the
warm
in.
never to water too hot to bear the hand
Ammonia
(but
is
most excellent
brass,
for
cleaning
glass
not
for
as
it
dissolves
copper,
and
copper
salts).
A
hair
teaspoonful
is
of
ammonia,
possible
added
to
quart
of water,
the
best
agent for cleansing
brushes.
in
For use
bonate
is
travelling,
;
the
solid
in
ammonium
hard water
carit
preferable
for
use
is

also
G5
better, as
sal
the lime
It
is
precipitated out by
or
is
it
as
by
a
soda.
costs
twenty-five
of
it
thirty
cents
pound, and one
pound
of
as
much
alkaline value as two
pounds of
sal
soda.
The compounds
sium and Sodium,
of the two alkali metals, Potasare
capable
of saponifying
fats
and
soaps.
forming
the
complex
substances
known
as
For the compounds of these

in
alkalies,
employed
use
the
the
manufacture
of
soap,
we
shall
popular terms "potash" and "soda," as

to
less likely
cause confusion in
soft
our readers' minds.
Potash
makes
is
soap
soda makes hard soap.
Potash
days
of
derived
from wood ashes,

soft
and
was
in
the
the
our
grandmothers
Potash
soap
universal
detergent.
(often
called
Pearlash)
fires
was
every
its
cheap
and
abundant.
The wood
of
household furnished a waste product ready for

extraction.
Soda ash was,

ashes
of
at
that
time,
obtained
from
not
the
sea-weed,
and
of
course
was
common
inland.
Aerated Pearlash (Potassium
bicarbonate), under the

for bread.
name
of saleratus, was used
G6
THE CHEMISTRT OF
The
discovery
of
a
by
the
French
manufacturer,
Leblanc,
the cheap
process
of
making soda ash from
and abundant sodium chloride, or comhas

quite
mon
use
salt,
reversed the
conditions
is
of the
of the
two
alkahes.
Potash
is
now some
eight cents a pound, soda ash
only three.
first
In
carried
1824, Mr. James Muspratt, of Liverpool,
out
is
the
said
Leblanc process on a large scale,

to
and he
have
to
been
the
that
compelled to give
before
away soda by the ton

he could convince
the ashes
soap-boilers,
it
them
was better than

using
of
kelp,
which they were
on
small scale.
it,
But the soap trade, as we now know

existence after the
came
into
soap-makers real-
ized
the value
the
of
the
ne\y
process.
Soda ash
is
now
will
cheapest
well
to
to
form of
alkali,
and housekeepers
do
remember
this
fact
when they
are
tempted
buy some new

the
"
ine," or "crystal."
in
In regard to
alkali
best
form
which
to use the
is
for
washing purposes, experience

is,
the
best
guide,
for
that
experience
of soaps,
great,
reinforced
l)y
judgment
the
number
is
and soap
the
substitutes, in
the
market
so
and
names
so
little

indicative
(37
of
their
value,
that
only
some
general
information can be given.
In the purchase
the
of
soap,
it
is
safest to
choose
make
of
some well-known and long-established
firm, of
which there are several who have a repulose

if
tation
for
to
their
product
is
not good
and,
it
an additional agent,
to
stronger
than soap,
carbonate)
is
better
buy
sal
soda
(sodium
and
use
it
knowingly, than to trust to the highly lauded

of
the
packages
contains
grocery.
five
A pound
times as
of
sal
soda
as
from four to
of hard
much
alkali
it
a pound
soap,
and
therefore
should
be used with care.
Washing soda should never be used

form, but should be
dissolved
in the solid
in a separate vessel,
and the
dicious
solution
used with
solid
is
it
judgment.
probably the
is
The
inju-
use
of
the
cause of
regarded.
the scores
the
disfavor
with
which
so
often
One
of
*'
of the most highly
recommended of
washing compounds "

its
in the market, doub;l;iss
owes
popularity
to
the the
following
into
directions
"Put
the
contents
stir
of
well,
box
one quart of
quarts
boiling
water,
then
add
three
of
68
THE CHEMISTRT OF
:
cold water
clothes,
this will
make one
gallon.
For washing
large
allow two
cupfuls of liquid to a
tub
of water."
As
the
package
this
safe,
contains
rule,
about
pound
of
washing soda,
have found so
large
which good
housekeepers
to a
means about two ounces

and
this in solution.
tubful of water,
Ten pounds
of
the
of washing soda can

for
its
be purchased
grocer
the
price
of
this
one-pound
Nearly
all
package, with
the
high-sounding name.
compounds
for
in the
market depend upon washing

Usually
they
contain
and,
soda
their
else.
efficiency.
nothing
rarely,
Sometimes
In
soap
is
present
borax.
one or two, ammonia has been
found.
For hard water, a

pensable.
for
litde
sal
soda
is
almost indis-
Borax
is
a very good
cleansing
is
agent
many
purposes.
in
The
sodium
in
a milder
fabrics
safest
form than
washing
colored
soda.
For delicate
it
and
for
many
articles,
is
the
substance to use.
On
to
first
thought,
we may wonder why we need

agents
to
add these chemical
soap,
when our

grandmothers
did
G9
without
them
but
we
soft
must
soap
remember
and wood
for
that
our
grandmothers
all
used
ashes
for
the cleansing
operations
It is
which we now depend upon hard soap.

that
soft
a recognized fact
caustic
soap
effective
is
much more
in
and
than
in
hence
more
removing
this
lies
grease
partly
hard soap.
that
The
the
reason
for
the fact
gelatinous
character
of
of
the
soap allows a considerable
proportion
free
lye to
be mechanically held
is
in the mass,
and partly
because potash
than soda.
a more powerful chemical agent
Many
for
prudent housewives
still
make
soft
soap
their
own
ciency of the
Many more add to the efficommon soap by dissolving several

use. in
pounds of
as
it
hot water,
of
sal
adding about one-third
many pounds
soda,
and
allowing
the.
mass
to cool into a white, soft curd.
A
a
washing
fluid,
said
to
be of great value,
is
prepared by the addition of freshly slaked lime to

solution
of
sal
soda.
is
When
added
the
to
liquid
it,
has
it
become
clear,
alcohol
and
is
bottled for use.
70
THE CIIEMISTRT OF
II
I
II
Slaked lime,
CaH202, or caustic lime, and

I
car-
II
bonate of soda, Na2(C03), put together in solution,

II
II
must inevitably
and
result in
I
carbonate of lime, Ca(C03),

I II
caustic soda,
to
2NaH0,
use
this
compound much
than
sal
more dangerous
in
excess
soda.
The
little
alcohol
gill
dilutes
caustic
solution,
and the
for
cup used
to
measure
the
fluid
use,
insures
safety.
The
mistress
who
considers herself
cautious will sanction the use
of this ''fluid,"
when
she will not allow
sal
soda to be used.
Turpentine has been
sometimes recommended as
its
an addition to washing fluids^but

attended
water,
to
use
may be
in
it
with
the
danger,
as,
when
of
the
applied
hot
is
bare
arms
is
laundress,
readily absorbed,
and
liable
to cause illness.
There
for
is
compound
of
use,
sodium of great value

which seems
This
It
is
laundry and
common
or
to take
the place of the old-time soft soap.

silicate,
sodium
water-glass,
for
soluble
glass.
its
is
manuis
factured
print works,
and
common name
in
"water-glass,"
free
that
is,
glass
soluble
water,
and
from the lime or lead of the
common window-

glass.
71
Being made from clean materials, sand and

or
soda,
potash,
it
has
no reminder of the dead

as
meat or bone-boiler's establishment,

times has.
is
soap somefor the silica
The
affinity
it
of the
holds
it.
alkali
not strong, and yet
until
some stronger
virtue
acid
comes
it
in
is
contact with
said
By
of this
property,
by the
to
few housekeepers who

it,
have
fabric,
hitherto
had access
if
not
to
injure the
to
even
the
used
in
excess,
and
of
give
to
linen
It
is
clean,
fresh
appearance
agent
so
new
cloth.
hoped
that
an
valuable
all.
to
the
housekeeper may soon be accessible to
The removal
of spots
from clothing
is
a subject
which has perplexed every woman.
The
nearly
fabrics
all
upon which we wish

and
tlie
to operate are
is
colored,
modern dye
that
such a
is
complex and unstable compound

not uncommon.
Chloroform,
all
disaster
ether,
alconol,
benzine,
turpentine,
to
dissolve
grease,
if
but
all
are
Kable
show an
enlarged ring
not very carefully applied, and the
water in
ethe-r
is
and
useful
alcohol
for
affects
many
colors.
Turpentine
some coarser
fabrics,
but
72
for
THE CHEMISTRY OF
the
most
is
delicate
silks
and woollens benzine
or naphtha
if
the safest, not injuring the color, and,
pure, completely volatile.
For grease on carpets

washing
is
or
other
articles,
where
out
of
the
question,
absorbents
may
be used
such as powdered soapstone,

flour,
magnesia,
buckwheat
etc.
These
absorbents
are
also
sometimes
used
to
remove spots other than those caused by grease.

Grass stains often
baffle
the
best
laundress.
sure, if expensive, solvent for chlorophyl (the green
coloring
matter
of
plants)
fresh.
is
alcohol,
if
applied
while the stain
is still
Fruit stains are generally
removed
on
by
the
water.
well-known
In
process
cases
of
pouring
acid
is
boiling
some
oxalic
better.
Red
acid,
iron
if
rust
is
most readily soluble

little
in muriatic
and
one has a
acid
knowledge of chemical
of
great
principles,
this
It is
it
may be
readily
use
in
the
clear
laundry.
water,
the
very
washed out with

most
also
fast colors.
and
does not
affect
is
As
can
with
iron
compound formed
entirely.
soluble,
it
be taken away
The
efficacy
of
salt

lemon
is
73
probably due to the setting free of a small

acid.
as
amount of muriatic
Black iron
with iron,
stains,
those
from the inks made
may be
it
best
removed
by oxalic
red
iron
acid,
stains.
although
has
Httle
effect
on
The
iron forms a colorless
compound
with the acid

all
but great care must be taken to remove a thorough Washing.
of
it
by
The
this
difficult
solubihty of oxalic
It
is
compounds
wash
the
makes
article
harder.
well
to
in
with
the
ammonia water
last
finally,
order to
acid
remove
traces
of acid.
the
Oxalic
useful
and
in
ammonia
the
are
two
of
most
agents
laundry.
For
further
details,
see
chapter II.
It
may comfort some young

mildew
to
is
housewife to
know
It
that
beyond the
a vegetable
art of the chemist.
seems
the
be
growth,
which
attacks
it,
cotton fibre,
and
in a
measure destroys
If
it
as
dry rot does

only,
a stick of timber.
is
superficial
in
successive
will
;
washings
it.
and
bleachings
its
the
is
sun
remove
as
If
deep seated,
removal
is
hopeless
cure.
in other
cases, prevention
the best
Some
cloth
is
very
liable
to
mildew,
and
74
THE CHEMISTRY OF
blamed
for its
servants are often
appearance without
good cause.
We
for the
will
now
consider
some of the preparations

in the
mechanical removal of " matter

tarnish
wrong
place"
on
silver,
spots on paint, etc.

since, took care of her
The matron
silver
of
or
fifty
years
herself,
for
superintended
heirlooms
the
cleanmg very
or
closely,
gifts
the
were
precious,
the
of friends valuable.
The
silver
was hardened
by a certain proportion of copper, and took a polish

of great brilliancy
and permanence.
the
The matron
silver,
of to-day,
who has
same
in
same kind of
is
and
who
ware
takes the
is
care,
the exception.
Plated
in
found
nearly
every household
our
villages.
is
The
silver
deposited
is
from
the
battery
only a thin coating, and
of pure, soft metal
very bright
tarnished,
polish.
when new, but
easily scratched, easily
and never again capable of taking a

utensils,
beautiful
little
The
being of comparatively
value, are left to the table-girl to clean,
and of course
she uses the material which will save her labor.
In order to ascertain
for
if
there was any foundation

that
the prevalent
opinion
there
was mercury

or
75
some equally dangerous chemical

sold,
in
the
silver
powders commonly
ples in
vicinity.
we have purchased samand

in
Boston
and
vicinity,
New York and

been
found.
Thirty-eight
different
kinds
have
Of
these,
25 10
3
were dry powder.

"
"
partly liquid.
soaps.
Of
or
the
twenty-five
powders,
fifteen
were chalk
a
little
precipitated
calcium
carbonate,
with
coloring matter, usually rouge.

6 were diatomaceous earth.
2
"
fine
'*
sand entirely.
"
partly.
"
Mercury was found
in
none.
No
other
injurious
chemical was found in any save the ''electro-plating

battery
in
bottle,"
which
contained
;
potassium
cyanide,
KCy,
a deadly poison
but
it
was labelled
all
poison, although
the
label
also
stated that
salts
of silver are
poison when
taken
internally.
This
preparation
does contain
it
silver,
and does deposit a

article.
thin coating, but
is
not a safe
76
THE CHEMISTRY OF
Of
the nine polishes;
partly liquid, five contained
alcohol and
ammonia
for
the
liquid portion
four,
alcohol and sassafras

in
all
extract.
The
in
solid
portion,
case,
cases,
was
little
chalk, with,
one
the
addition of a
jeweller's rouge.
The caution
preparations
material,
is
to
be observed
to
in
the
use of these
of
the
in regard
the
fineness
will
few
coarse
grains
scratch
II
the
IV
II
coating of
or
soft
silver.
Precipitated
chalk,
IV II SiOo,
CaCOs,
seem
to
well-washed diatomaceous earth,
be of the most uniform fineness.
We may
many
wife.
learn
lesson
in
this,
as
well as
in
other things,
from the
old-fashioned
for
housetwelve
it
She
bought a pound of whiting

off
cents,
floated
fine
the
fine
portion,
or
sifted
through
the
cloth,
and obtained twelve ounces of

for
same
material,
three
ounces of which the

or
fifty
modern
matron
pays
twenty-five
cents,
according to the name on the box.

Silver
is
liable to tarnish
from many causes, some

Flannel
is
of which can be
tain
avoided.
apt to conto
sulphur,
and should not be used
wrap up

silver
articles.
77
Clean,
soft
tissue
paper
a
first,
then
a bag
of of
Canton
sufficient
flannel,
form
good covering.
a
Want
itself
ventilation
in
house
shows
silver,
very quickly
air
by
the
tarnish
gas.
in
on
the
caused by foul
Iron and
to
and coal
oxidize
steel
damp
of
air,
according
favors
the
rule
that
the
presence
oily
water
chemical change.
the air and hence
little
coating will exclude
no oxidation can ensue.

of
spots
The mechanical removal

kitchen
utensils
is
II
on paint and
agents, II IV II
effected
IV
II
by
scouring
_
such as
chalk,
CaCOg, whiting
Bristol
impure,
CaCO^,
sand
pumice
IV
II
and
brick
(silicates),
fine
Si02,
and preparations which owe
their
cleansing
properties to one of these solids.
A
dress,
frequent
source
to
of annoyance
is
the
bluing,
which seems
be indispensable to the
city laun-
who
has
not fresh grass, or the white snow
of the country on which to whiten her clothes.
Three substances
purpose.
Indigo,
are
at
present
plant
used
for
this
from the
Indigo tinctoria,
Soluble
has been
known from time immemorial.
78
THE CHEMISTRY OF
blue,
Prussian
iron,
is
is
chemical
compound
containing
a recent invention.
insoluble
in
Ultramarine, the third,

water,
silicate,
giving
tint
is
by-
means of the very

pacted
in the cloth.
fine blue
powder, which
im-
The
entirely
all
indigo bags of olden time have been almost
replaced by numerous
" Soluble
Blues,"
less
of
which are Prussian blue of greater or
strength.
It
must be borne
in
mind
that this substance
is
decomposed by
are
the fixed alkalies,

free
and
if
the clothes or
not
rinsed
from
soap-suds
spots
washing
soda, mysterious
the
linen,
iron-rust
may appear on
of
is
caused
by
the
decomposition
tint,
the
so
bluing.
The
general yellowish
is
which
often seen on linen,
probably due to
kinds
this cause.
Of
fifteen
different
of
bluing which were
examined, not one was anything but Prussian blue.

Here, as in so
many
other cases, the young house-
keeper who has had some training in a chemical

laboratory, has an advantage over
in
one who has not,
her idea of absolute cleanliness,
and her con-
ception of the inexorable laws of chemical change.

A
of
79
long chapter might be written on the subject

in the case
economy
of the multitude of chemical

offered
for
sale.
preparations
so
is
so
freely
There
is
much
for
the young housewife
to
do that she
easier,
is
tempted by every promise of making labor

is
and
very
ready
to
try
anything
that
recommended.
She thinks that
all
if
her servants are provided with

for
if
the
modern appliances
it
doing work quickly

they
and
well,
it.
is
their
fault
do
not
ac-
complish
of
She forgets that the past generation

in
women, who succeeded
keeping their families

brains
to
healthy and happy, brought

they knew,
too,
the
work
the
properties
of
the
substances
they used, because they prepared them at home.
When American
istry
girls
will
learn to apply
life,
Chem-
and Physics
a
to
every-day
of
the
we may hope
ques-
for
tion.
speedy
solution
servant-girl
CHAPTER
II.
CHEMICALS FOR HOUSEHOLD USE.

I.
Acids.
'T^HERE
in
are
three
acids which should be found
evêry
laundry
cupboard
acetic
acid,
IV
II
C2H4O2; muriatic or hydrochloric

IV
I
acid,
H CI;
II
and
II
oxalic
acid,
CoH.Oiin
Vinegar can be used

acetic
many
and
cases
instead of
acid
stain
but vinegar contains coloring matters

delicate
acid,
fabrics,
it
which
use
is
better
to
the
purified
especially
as
the
so-called
vinegar
If
may
contain sulphuric acid.

black
usually
silk
soda has been spilled on

of
acetic
an apth.Q
plication
color.
80
acid
will
restore
THE CHEMISTRT OF COOKING, ETC.

Many
fabrics
81
of
the
at
bright
blue
flannels
and
other
found
the
present
time in our markets
owe
their brilliant
shades to an acid
compound
of
a coal-tar color,
in
and
as
soon as they are washed

the
alkali
soap
or
ammonia,
color
neutralizes
the
in
to
acid,
and the
If
becomes
pale
and faded
is
appearance.
acetic acid
or vinegar
added
is
the second rinsing water,
the
bright jcolor
in all
such cases restored.

accident,
This fact was discovered by
and
all
is
well
worth
remembering.
are
Of
course,
not
shades of blue
all
made
with this
compound, and hence not

thus restored.
It
is
faded blues can be

test
well
to
bit
of
the
cloth before washing the whole garment.
A
acid.
weak acid
fabrics
like
acetic
acid
is
safe
to
use on
many
which would be injured by a strong
Muriatic
or
hydrochloric
acid
is
useful
it,
in
multitude
of
ways.
in
By means
few minutes,
of
the
writer
once restored,
a delicate
blue
cambric dress, which had been quite ruined by nu-
merous large
laid
stains of
red iron
rust.
The
cloth was
over a large bowl half
filled
with hot
water.
82
THE CHEMISTRY OF
and the spots thus steamed were touched with a

drop of the
acid,
and
as
soon as
the
iron
was
to
dissolved, the cloth was plunged into the water
prevent injury to the
cotton
off;
fibres.
All
the
spots
were
thus
dissolved
the
garment
was
then
quickly rinsed in several waters, and finally in water
containing
trace
far
a
acid
little
still
ammonia, which neutralized any

remaining.
of
This
iron
process
stains
is
by
the
best
for
removing red
from
white cloth.
Porcelain
or
china,
stained
acid.
with
iron,
can
be
cleaned
with
muriatic
For the porcelain or

it
enamelled
but
the
water-closet
basin
is
especially
useful,
acid
must
be
removed by
alkali
rinsing
with
iron
water
followed by a
little
to
save
the
pipes below.
The
acid
it
must not
be used on
marble,
is
as
it
dissolves
with great rapidity, and the polish

muriatic
acid,
in
lost.
The property which

liberating carbonic acid
common
with the so-called stronger acids, possesses
that
of
gas with brisk effervescence

this acid valuable for
from
its
compounds, renders
the detection of carbonates.

For
claims
it
it
83
instance,
it
if
the
label
of
a washing powder
to
be something new, and requires that
be used without soda, as soda injures the clothes,

can be tested as follows
:
Put half a teaspoonful
of the
powder
into
a tumbler,
add a
little
water,
then a few drops of muriatic acid.
brisk efferif
vescence
will
prove
it
to
is
be
carbonate, and
the edge of the tumbler
held near the colorless

characteristic yellow
If
flame of an
color of
alcohol
lamp, the
sodium
will
complete the proof.

until
the
effer-
acid
is
added drop by drop
no more
a greasy
vescence occurs, and there remains
scum
the
for
on the surface of the
liquid
as
in
the
as
tumbler,
sal
compound
the
acid
contains
unites
soap
the
well
soda,
with
alkali
of
the
soap
and
sets free the grease. If
some very
as
costly
to
silver
all
polishing
powder
a
is
offered
superior
other
powders,
drop
or two of
it
muriatic acid will

II
decide whether or not

IV
II
is
chalk
or whiting
(CaCOa)
by
the
efferves-
cence or liberation of the carbonic acid gas.

Oxalic
acid
is
purchased
iii
white
is
crystals,
\
and
for
use
saturated
solution
made
as
one
84
THE CHEMISTRT OF
it
part of
is
dissolves only In several parts of water,
it
well to keep an excess of the crystals in the bottle.

is
It
somewhat poisonous, and should not be

solid
left
in
the
form within reach of careless people.

of
liguid
small
bottle
can,
however,
be kept
with other laundry articles.
This acid
is
the
only
efficient
means which
the
It
is
known
leather
to
the
writer,
for
removing
shoetake
stains
from
white
stockings.
will
out
most
;
fruit
stains
latter
on
napkins
and
from
acid
the
will
fingers
for
the
purpose
tartaric
also serve.
Oxalic
as
acid
is
invaluable
to
the
housekeeper
means of removing black

inks.
iron stains, such as
those caused by the iron

It
is
more
be
powerful
acid
"
than
acetic
acid,
and
must
carefully
removed
from
cloth
by
rinsing with water
and
very
finally
by ammonia.
as
Oxalic
acid
is
efficient
an
to
agent
use
for
cleaning brass, and

acetic,
salts is
seems even safer
than
as
the
compound
of the latter with copper
one of the most
dangerous of
the
copper
compounds.

IV II
85
Sulphurous acid gas

ing sulphur,
It
(SOo)
the
is
obtained by burnagent
for
and
will
is
well-known
bleaching.
ing
often
remove spots which nothcloth or other substance
else will touch.
The
should be moistened and held over a bit of burning

julphur
;
as
the
agent
is
an acid, the same prein the
cautions
must be observed as
as
to
case
of
the
other
acids,
the
removal of the corrosive
substance.
2.
Alkalies.
The
ate,
uses of
ammonia water and ammonium carbon;
have been considered in the text

is,
a precaution
to be taken
chat the
bottles should not be kept
with other bottles containing liquids for internal use,

as distressing accidents
have occurred from swallow-
ing
ammonia.
soda or potash
;
Caustic
is
better for
to
greasy tins
than soap
a
it
swab should be used

is
apply
it,
however, as
of soda
corrosive
to
the
hands.
Silicate
may
also be used for this purpose.
Some
alkali
alkali
should be
always
at
hand.
(sal
The
soda)
compounds,
sodium
carbonate
86
T
THE CHEMISTRT OF
V
TI
NagCOs
are of
+H
III
II
IV
II
lO H2O and calcium carbonate CaCOs,

as
daily use
has been
already explained in
the previous chapter.
BOOKS FOR REFERENCE.
For Teachers
" History of Chemical Theory."
A.
Translated and edited by Henry
*'
Wurtz.
Watts.
Elementary Manual of Chemistry."

Eliot
and
Storer.
"Physiology and Hygiene."
(Chapter on Digestion.)
Huxley and Voumans.

"Treatise on Chemistry."
Roscoe and Schorlemmer.
For General Readers
" Elements of Chemistry."
Le Roy
C. Cooley,

"The
Birth of Chemistry."
87
Rodwell.
"Chemistry of
Common
Life."
Johyiston
and ChurcJi
{tieiv edition),
" The
New
Chemistry."
y. p.
Cooke.
"Lessons on
Elementary Chemistry."
Henry E. Roscoe.
" Fermentation."
Sc/iutzenberêr.
" Vortrage uber die Entwickelungsgeschichte der Chemie

in
den letzten Hundert Jahren."
Dr. A. Ladenburg.
Table of some
weiijhts
common
elements with their atomic
and symbols.
NAME.
88
THE CHEMISTRT OF COOKING, ETC.

NAME.
Calcium
INDEX.
Page.
Absorption of Food, Acetic Acid, Acids
...
...
Page.
Cleaning
Brass,
44 80
Acetic, 80 Hydro-chloric or Muriatic, 80 Oxalic, 73-80 Tartaric, 49 Acid Phosphate 4g Albumen, 38 Albuminous Food, 41
^
...
Brushes,
Glass, Paint,
Silver,
84 64 64 64
74-75 45 23
Cookins:, Of Starch,
....
Of Nitrogenous Food, . Cost of Nitrogenous and Vegetable Diet in
39
Alcoh'il, Alkalies,
Caustic,
Volatile,
29-59-71 85 62
Germany
48 32-49
.
compared,
Alum, Ammonia,
62 33-49
Cream of Danger
Tartar,
Acetic Acid on Copper,
Ammonium
Carbonate,
Assunilation,
......
...
61-63-64-85 . 63-64-85
Ammonia,
" Battery in a Bottle,"
.
84 85 75
44
5
Hard water,
Soda,
Atomic Weight, Baking Powders,

Benzine, Bluing,
32-49
59-71
Turpentine
Diastase, Ether, Fats,
in
Washing,
40 39 70 20
59-71 34-35
Books for Reference, Borax, Bread, Fermented, Reason for Kneading, Temperature for Ferment.
77 86
68 24 28 28 28 29 30
Decomposition of
Fruit Stains, Glucose, Gluten,
47 72
21
27
ing
Temperature
for
Baking,
Grass Stains, Grease on Carpets, Growth Nitrogenous Food re-
....
...
72 72
Snow Bread, Soda-Bread Carbonic Acid, Gas, Cassium, Chemical Change, Element, Equation, Reaction, Chloroform,
quired
for,
31-32-33 27-31-49
61 1-16
3 11
Heat Artificial,
.....
37
16
....
ii 7I
. Source of in Animals, 17 18 Heat-producing Food, Ink Stains, 73 . . 73-82-84 Iron, Black Stains of 72-78-81 Rust, Law of Definite Proportion by 12 Weight,
90
INDEX.
Page.
Page.
Soluble Glass,
Stains,
Lime, Lithium, Magical Washing Fluids, Mildew,
70
61
. .
70
71-72-80-82-84
18
.
.
.........
.
64
73
Starch
Milk
Muriatic Acid Nitrogen, Percentage of in Food,
42 81
Chemical Changes of Cooking of Sugar
20
23
20
5
7
37
50-53
Tables:
L Atomic
n.
ues,
III.
Required
in
Growth and
37 34.35 83 65
75
Weights, . Exchangeable Val-
Work,
Oils,
.
Oxalic Acid, Pearl Ash, Plate Powders, Potash, Potassium, . Potassium Cyanide, Principles of Diet, Properties of Substances, Proportion of Nitrogenous
IV.
Interchangeable Values, Mineral Acids, .
Bak'ng Powders
... ...
_
9
14
49
.... ....
.
65-S5 61
75
40
i
Food required, Ptyalin in Saliva,

.
....
.
...
46 22
Relation of Climate to Food, 40 Removal of Spots, . 71-72-85 Residues from Baking Powders,
Restoring Color Rochelle Salts,
32-33 80-81
49
61 72-81
Rubidium, Rust of Iron,

Sal Soda,
Salt,
Saponin,
Silver-Tarnish,
Snow-Bread Soap
Bark, Berry Tree, Soda, Soda Ash, Soda Bread,
65-O7-85 32-47 57 74 30
SS-S'^
Composition of Some Animal Food, 50-54 Composiiion of Some Vegetable Food, ;_ 51-54 Comparative Digestibility of Food, 52 Daily Weight of Food Required, 53 Percentages of Waste, . 54 Tannin, 47 Temperature for Fermenting 28 Bread . . For Baking Bread, 29 Tests with Muriatic Acid, 83 Tobacco, 47 Turpentine 59-70-71 Transfer of Force- Producing Power, 42 6-7 Unit of Value, 80 Vinegar,
.
Volatile Alkali,
Yeast,
57
57
. .
Yellow Tint on Lmen,
...
33-49-85
66
31-32-33 61
Washing Fluids, Washing Woollens, Water as the Heat-Regulator

of the Body, Water Glass,
.... ....
62 27 78 69-70 62-63
Sodium,
Carbonate,
Silicate,
46 70
57-59
Soft
Soap
67 7 69
Wood Ashes,
Work, Nitrogenous Food Required for
37
Jlo
BOSTON PUBLIC LIBRARY
3 9999 05987 654 8
Boston Public Library

Central Library, Copley Square
Division of
Reference and Research Services
The Date Due Card
in the
pocket indi-
cates the date on or before
which this book should be returned to the Library.

Please do not remove cards from this
pocket.

The Chemistry of Cooking and Cleaning - Ellen Richards

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

The Chemistry of Cooking and Cleaning - Ellen Richards

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

The Chemistry of Cooking and Cleaning - Ellen Richards

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

M.

COOKING AND CLEANING

Instructor in Chemistry, Woman's Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston

BOSTON ESTES & LAURIAT

Starch, Sugar, and Fat, as Food.

Nitrogenous Food a^^'T' e Chemistry

The Ceiemistry of Cleaning, Chemicals for Household Use,

the heart of the country's

enlighten the mind,

lighten the burden of care, of every housekeeper will be

the gas stove are familiar topics, there

branch of science which might be of more benefit

and a more careful study.

space jet unoccupied for an elemenshall

of articles of daily use, and as to their action

in the various operations

which thev are employed.

public are the

of this knowledge since Chemistry

High Schools, and every

has a dim idea of

and practical form

the aim of this

and chemical terms, an inheritance from the age

and have expected the most absurd results to

follow the simple mixing of two substances.

supposed by the multitude

taken of this credulity by unscrupulous

compounds thrown upon

time that they

should bestir themselves for their

knowledge of the right kind cannot hurt them,

surely bring a large return in comfort and

These mysterious chemicals are not so many or so

enable any one to understand

the laws of their

they are concerned

operations of the household.

of chemical science, but only to explain

involved in the raising of bread, and

These are proper-

which burns with a

crumbly mass, which

which we know under the name of sugar.

called a chemical one.

acid substance and

chemical change, then, involves a loss

must be very careful

from the mixto

COOKING AND CLEANING.

about which we know anyfew

an element, a simple substance, from which nothing

not pure gold

an element, a single thing.

oxygen and hydrogen, which are

others are found only

medicine case, and a

* "Treatise on Chemistry." Roscoe