WREX 1996 PUMPS AS TURBINES FOR LOW COST MICRO I-IYDRO POWER. Dr A A Williams, Nottingham Trent University, UK.

Abstract

Small centrifugal pumps are suitable for use as hydraulic turbines and have the advantage of being mass produced in many countries throughout the world. When used with an integral induction motor, they can be installed as a combined turbine and generator unit. Recent research and development work carried out at Nottingham Trent University in collaboration with the Intermediate Technology Development Group has concentrated on two aspects that had previously held back the wider application of this technology. A standard design of Induction Generator Controller (IGC), enabling these units to be used for isolated micro hydro schemes, has been proven, and is now being manufactured in five countries world-wide. Progress has also been made on the application of performance prediction methods which facilitate the selection of a pump unit for particular site conditions. Sites, suitable for the application of small centrifugal pumps as turbines are of two main types: firstly, as a low-cost alternative to crossflow turbines with an output of 5kW or less; secondly, for energy recovery in pipelines. These types of installation may be suitable for industrialized and developing countries. Three examples of different types of scheme are described in the paper and these show the favourable financial returns that are possible.
1 Introduction

Micro-hydropower is a practical and potentially low-cost option for generating electricity at remote sites, particularly for small villages in hilly areas[l]. Running costs for such schemes are very low, but the initial capital cost can be relatively high and any reduction in equipment costs will make the technology more accessible. One way to reduce the equipment cost is to use a standard pump unit as an alternative to a conventional turbine. Pumps are mass-produced, and as a result, have the following advantages for micro-hydro compared with purpose-made turbines: Integral pump and motor can be used as a turbine and generator set Available for a wide range of heads and flows Available in a large number of standard sizes Short delivery time Spare parts such as seals and bearings are easily available Easy installation - uses standard pipe fittings The main disadvantage of using a pump as turbine is the difficulty of finding the turbine characteristics that are needed to select the correct pump for a particular site. Academic research on pumps as turbines at Nottingham Trent University has focused on the development of methods for predicting the turbine performance characteristics s of pumps and these are described briefly in section 3. The University Micro-Hydro Centre has been involved with design and installation of pump as turbine schemes in

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WREC 1996 the UK, Indonesia and Pakistan. Evaluation of several schemes installed by the Aga Khan Rural Support Programme in the Northern Areas of Pakistan, has demonstrated that despite some difficulties associated with the remoteness of the sites, pump as turbine installations have made an important contribution to village development[2].
2 Induction Generators and Controllers

Until recently, most small isolated power schemes have used synchronous generators. Induction motors, which can operate as generators[3], are cheaper than synchronous generators, particularly for sizes up to 30 kW. They are also more robust because a standard induction machine has cast bars instead of a winding on the rotating part. Using a pump as turbine (PAT) with an induction generator instead of a conventional turbine gives the opportunity to avoid a belt drive, with the following advantages: ?? Very low friction loss in drive (saving up to 5% of output power). ?? Easier installation - PAT and generator come as one unit. ?? Lower cost - no pulleys, smaller baseplate. ?? Lower cost - in the case of a mono-bloc design, because of simpler construction, fewer bearings, etc. ?? Longer bearing life - no sideways forces on bearings. Most pump units, even for powers of less than 1 kW, are supplied with three-phase Single-phase induction motors can be used as stand-alone induction motors. generators, but problems may be experienced in achieving excitation and in determining the size and arrangement of the capacitors required. Fortunately, it is possible to use a three-phase induction motor as a single-phase generator and this is the preferred approach to providing a single-phase supply[4]. The unbalanced arrangement of capacitors, shown in Figure 1, helps to compensate for the unbalanced load on the generator, and as a result the generator can be used with an output of up to 80% of the motor rating.

Figure I Single phase stand-alone generation from a three phase machine using the C-2Cconnection.

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WREC 1996 Small micro-hydro schemes may be operated with a constant load, but this means that all the electrical loads have to be switched on and off at the same time. The induction generator controller (IGC), developed at Nottmgham Trent University, enables appliances to be switched on and off while maintaining a constant output voltage. The characteristics of the generator and water turbine are such that this controller also produces good frequency regulation. The IGC has provided a breakthrough to practical, commercially viable induction generator systems. The IGC was developed in collaboration with the Intermediate Technology Development Group and the UK Overseas Development Administration, and has been designed to be manufactured and maintained in less industrialized countries. The technology has now been transferred to local manufacturers in Indonesia, Nepal and Sri Lanka and is being used to provide light and power in remote communities. There are around one hundred IGCs installed on micro-hydro systems around the world. 3 Turbine Performance Prediction The performance of a standard centrifugal pump in turbine mode can be found from test results (which are rarely available) or by a mathematical prediction. Four types of method for predicting the performance in turbine mode have been presented by various authors. One method, presented by Kittredge[S], although often quoted, has been found to be limited in its application. A much simpler method, based on the pump best efficiency data, uses equations suggested by Shanna[6]:

Imax

llm.3

where: Qb, and Hbepare flow and head at pump best efficiency point; t-l_ is pump maximum efficiency; Q, and H, are predicted flow and head for turbine operation at the same speed. These equations have been found to give fairly accurate results for standard purnps[7]. A practical manual has been written that explains how to apply this method when selecting a pump for a micro-hydro site[l]. Thirdly, a series of formulae based on a statistical analysis of pump and turbine performance tests has been presented by Alatorre-Frenk[l)]. This method is more complicated than that of Sharma, but is also more reliable. A fourth method, presented by Burton and Williams[ lo], uses detailed knowledge of the pump geometry to predict the turbine performance. The basis for this method is the area ratio analysis, in which the conditions for optimum operation (as a pump) are defined by the matching of the outlet flow from the impeller and the inlet flow to the volute. This method requires more information than is generally available from the manufacturer, and is best implemented through a computer programme. However, the method has been shown to give quite accurate predictions for pumps of different size and shape[ 111. The area ratio method has also been used to predict differences in efficiency between pump and turbine operation. In some cases, turbine maximum

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efftciency may be greater than pump maximum effkiency. The method can also be used to determine adjustments or simple modifications to improve the match between turbine and site. 4 Suitable Applications for Pumps as Turbines The chart in Fig. 2 shows the range of heads and flows over which various turbine options may be used. The range of Pelton and crossflow turbines shown is based on information from the range of turbines manufactured in Nepal, and is compared with the range of standard centrifugal pumps running with a four-pole (approx. 1500 rpm) generator. The range of pumps as turbines (PATS) can be extended by using either a two-pole (approx. 3000 rpm) or a six-pole (approx. 1000 rpm) generator.

Fig. 2. Head -flow ranges for PATS and other turbine options

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Malham - installed 1991 The first installation of a pump as turbine (PAT) with induction generator and IGC was at a remote farm in the Yorkshire Dales of North England. This scheme, funded mainly by the UK Overseas Development Administration, has been operating as a demonstration project for 5 years. The technology has thus be proven before transferring it to other countries. The exact cost of the scheme is difficult to assess, because some of the equipment was donated, and much of the installation work was carried out by the farmer with assistance from a National Trust work team. The penstock and construction materials for the intake and generator house came to approximately $5,000. The mechanical equipment consists of three pump units, the smallest of which produces around 800 watts of electrical power. This unit is able to supply most of the needs of the farm, including lighting, TV, freezer (with the addition of a capacitor-starter) and small tools. During wetter periods, when the stream flow is greater, a 2.5 kW or 4 kW PAT can be used. A 5 kW diesel generator, which used to be the farm only source of s electricity is now run only occasionally, resulting in savings of up to $1,500 per year in fuel and maintenance. During 1995, the generator of the smallest unit was exchanged for an energy efficient model. This has improved the power output and the motor starting capability and is recommended for similar schemes elsewhere. Nagrak - installed 1992 This scheme was installed as part of the programme of German Technology Exchange (GTZ) in West Java, Indonesia[l3]. The pump is of Chinese manufacture, for which spare parts are easily available in the nearest large town. It is connected through a direct-drive coupling to an Indonesian-made induction motor as generator producing 4.5 kW. The PAT and induction generator made up less than 10% of the total cost of the scheme, which was approximately $4,000. The IGC was made to the Nottingham Trent University design by a local manufacturer who was trained during a four-week course held at the Bandung Polytechnic in West Java. Assistance on the selection of the PAT for this site was also given from the UK. No turbine testing was carried out before installation at site and performance has been close to that predicted, with an overall (water to wire) efficiency of 48% from a head of 19 m and flow of 50 l/s. Electricity supplied by the scheme is used for lighting in 45 houses and for a local battery charging facility. The payback period for the project is estimated to be 5 years, or less, if additional connections are made. The installation cost to the consumers was lower than standard prices charged by the Indonesian electricity utility (PLN) in rural areas. Since the scheme has an IGC with a ballast load, and during the daytime there is no domestic load, further applications of the power are possible, e.g. for a sawmill. Barnacre - installed 1996 An example of a small PAT scheme used for energy recovery is at Barnacre, in the north-west of England. This uses a 30m (3 bar) pressure drop in the drinking water supply to Blackpool to generate 3.5 kW of electric power at a remote water treatment

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WRJX 1996 The use of a pump as turbine has greatest advantage, in terms of cost and simplicity, for sites where the alternative would be either a crossflow turbine, running at relatively low flow, or a multi-jet Pelton turbine. For these applications, shown by the hatched area on Fig. 2, a crossflow turbine would normally be very large compared with an equivalent PAT. Very small crossflow turbines are not normally made due to the difficulty of fabricating the runner. A crossflow installation would require a large turbine running at slower speed than an equivalent PAT, resulting in the need for a belt drive to power a standard generator. A pump as turbine requires a fixed flow rate and is therefore suitable for sites where there is a sufficient supply of water throughout the year. Long term water storage is not generally an option for a micro hydro scheme because of the high cost of constructing a reservoir. In many village schemes in developing countries, where the main electric load is evening lighting, a PAT is suitable. During the daytime the generator can also be used to power equipment that will benefit the economy of the village, e.g. a circular saw, crop dryer or sewing machines. Sometimes, where only lighting is needed, the water supplying the micro-hydro scheme can be used during the daytime for irrigation or for running a water mill for grinding corn. Another application for pumps as turbines is in fluid supply lines, where pressure reducing valves are often used to control supply pressure. In this case, installing a small turbine can recover energy that would otherwise be dissipated at the control valve. However, since the exit pressure of the system must be maintained above atmospheric pressure, an impulse turbine such as a crossflow or Pelton turbine cannot be used. These types of scheme are suitable for the application of a pump as turbine, particularly if the flow rate in the pipeline is more or less constant. The overall environmental impact of micro hydro schemes is positive, and their wider application is not only possible, but is very likely given current trends in rural development and environmental awareness. There is a large potential market for very small, isolated power generators throughout the world, due to the continuing demand for electricity and the constraints on extension of national power networks. Pump as turbine schemes for slightly larger mini-hydro plants have also been installed in Peru and Guatemala[l2]. The advantages of low-cost and simplicity of installation also apply for these projects which are in the range 20 - 200 kW. An advantage of using a pump as turbine in this range, rather than a Francis turbine, is that the runaway speed (in case of electrical load loss) for a PAT is much lower, which reduces the need for protection against water hammer. 5 Examples of Pump as Turbine Schemes Described below are three schemes using pumps as turbines with induction generators, which have all been commissioned with some involvement of the Nottingham Trent University Micro-hydro Group.

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plant. Until recently, the site was powered by lead-acid batteries that needed to be collected once each week and recharged off-site. With the upgrading of the water treatment plant, including heaters to maintain the temperature of the chlorine, and continuously operating sampling pumps, there is an increased power requirement at the site. Increasing the use of batteries would have proved very expensive, and a single phase connection to the electricity supply would have cost $80,000. Since January 1996, the plant has been powered by an integral PAT induction generator unit with an IGC. The ballast load is an air heater, mounted in a ventilated cabinet. The installation was carried out by tapping into the main pipeline without draining the system. This added to the cost, but avoided an interruption of supply to consumers. Even so, the cost of the plant, approximately $30,000, was much less than the proposed connection to the regional electricity company supply, and represents a s worthwhile investment for the water company. 6 Conclusions Standard centrifugal pumps are manufactured in a large number of sizes, to cover a wide range of heads and flows. Given the right conditions, pumps as turbines can be used over the range normally covered by multi-jet Pelton turbines, crossflow turbines and small Francis turbines. The greatest advantage of using a pump as turbine is for medium head sites, where a pump has both practical and cost advantages over other types of turbine. The main problem of using a pump as turbine is still the difficulty of predicting accurately the turbine performance, but methods are now becoming available that overcome this difficulty.
References

[l] Rijal, K, Bansal, N K, Grover, P D, Economics of Shaft Power Applications in Rural Areas ofNepal Znt. .Z.ofEnergy Res., Vol. 19, Part 4, 1995, pp 289-308. , [2] Williams, A A, Constraints on the Diffusion of Small-Scale Hydropower in Northern Pakistan, Science, Technology & Development, Vol. 12, Nos. 28~3, August/December, 1994, ISSN 0950-0707.
[3] Smith, N P A, Williams, A A, Harvey, A B, Waltham, M & Nakarmi, A-M, Directly coupled Turbine- Induction Generator Systems for Micro-hydro Power 2nd , World Renewable Energy Congress, Reading, UK, Sept. 1992, pp 2509-2516. [4] Bhattacharya & Woodward, Excitation balancing of a self-excited induction generator for a maximum output Proc. ZEE, Vol. 135, March 1988, ~~88-97. , [5] K&edge, C P, Centrifugal pumps used as hydraulic turbines Trans. ASME, J , Eng. Power, Ser. A, Jan 1961, ~~74-77. [6] Sharma, K R, Small hydroelectric projects - Use of centrifugal pumps as turbines Kirloskur Electric Co., Bangalore, India, 1985. ,

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[7] Williams, A A, The turbine performance of centrifugal pumps: a comparison of prediction methods Proc. ZMechE, Vol. 208, Pt A, 1994, pp59-66. , [8] Williams, A A, Pumps as Turbines: a user guide IT Publications, London, s , 1995, ISBN l-85339-285-5. [9] Alatorre-Frenk, C, Cost minimisation in Micro-hydro systems using Pumps-asturbines PhD Thesis, University of Warwick, UK, 1994. , [IO] Burton, J D, Williams, A A, Performance prediction of pumps as turbines using the area ratio method Proc. 9th Conf. on Fluid Machinery Hungarian Academy of , , Sciences, Budapest, 1991, pp 76-83. [l l] Williams, A A,The Selection and Application of Centrifugal Pumps as Water Turbines, 10th Conference on Fluid Machinery Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, September, 1995. [ 121 Nozaki, T, Mini hydro power derived from general purpose pumps Int. Water , Power & Dam Construction, Small Hydro Supplement, Sept. 1994, pp xiv-xvii. [13] GTZ, Nagrak - Micro-hydropower factsheet GTZ - MHP Project, Jakarta , Pusat, Indonesia, April 1995.
Acknowledgements

Information on the scheme at Barnacre was provided by Bechtel Water Technology Limited, Warrington, UK. Pump units at Malham were donated by ITT Flygt, Ingersoll-Dresser Pumps and the Pakistan Council for Appropriate Technology.

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