1

Critical Clearing Time of Doubly Fed Induction Generator

Babak Badrzadeh, Student Member, IEEE, and S. K. Salman, Senior Member, IEEE
e , s r , T , b
Te , Tm

AbstractA detailed model of grid-connected Doubly-Fed Induction Generator (DFIG) suitable for fault analysis is presented. 5th order model of wound rotor induction machine together with a two-mass model of the mechanical drive-train is employed to investigate transient voltage stability of integrated wind turbine. Converter system is represented in such a way to contain adequate model of the rotor- and stator-side converters as well as the DC-link components. PWM converters, respective controllers and the switching schemes are represented in the same reference frame as the machine to realize a combined machine-converter model. Applying a balanced three-phase network fault to the simulated system, case studies are conducted to determine the value of the Critical Clearing Time (CCT) for the DFIG as well as the Fixed-Speed Induction Generator (FSIG). Further investigations are also made to evaluate the impact of the shaft system parameters on the CCT of a gridconnected FSIG and DFIG. Index TermsFixed-Speed Induction Generator- Doubly Fed Induction Generator- Back-to-back PWM converter- Integration of embedded generation-Power system faults-Power system modeling-Power system transient stability-Critical Clearing Time -wind power generation.

supply electrical frequency in stationary and synchronously rotating reference frame rotor, turbine base electrical frequency
electromagnetic and mechanical torques PWM pulse train converter instantaneous d-q output quantities resistance and inductance of input filter input filter line voltage and current

PM

v i , ii R, L
V1, I1 E
e e gq , gd

DC-link voltage d-q axis switching functions DC-Link capacitance turbine and generator inertia constant turbine and generator damping coefficient

C HT , H G

DT , DG K

shaft stiffness twist in the shaft system Superscripts: e representing synchronous reference frame

II. INTRODUCTION ITH continually increasing penetration of wind power into electrical grids, Doubly-Fed Induction Generator (DFIG) has becoming the most widely used MW range wind turbine generator in the market. In fact, DFIG offers several advantages compared with Fixed-Speed Induction Generator (FSIG) [1-4]. For example, active and reactive powers can be controlled independently. Additionally, reactive power can be either generated or absorbed depending on the requirements to retain power factor and voltage levels within statuary limits [4]. Currently, such wind turbines can not take part in the voltage and frequency control in the event of fault conditions. However, continuous trend of having high penetration of wind power has made it necessary to revise grid codes to ensure that wind turbines would contribute to the control of voltage and frequency and also to stay connected to the host network following a disturbance on the network. This requires detailed models of DFIG that can be used in transient stability studies. One of such studies is related to the determination of the CCT of a grid-connected DFIG. Currently four different types of models are commonly used to represent a single-cage squirrel-cage or wound-rotor induction machine as outlined below [5]: Third order model with the lumped-mass model Fifth order model with the lumped-mass model Third order model with the two-mass model Fifth order model with the two-mass model

I. NOMENCLATURE Symbols:
p Vqs , Vds

derivative symbol three-Phase supply voltages in d-q reference frame

three-Phase stator currents in d-q reference frame three-Phase stator flux linkages in d-q reference frame three-Phase rotor voltages in d-q reference frame three-Phase rotor voltages in d-q reference frame three-Phase rotor voltages in d-q reference frame stator and rotor resistances of machine per phase leakage inductances of stator and rotor windings magnetizing inductance on the stator side stator and rotor self-inductance stator and rotor mutual inductance stator and rotor winding turns d-q voltage decoupler terms

iqs , ids

qs , ds
' ' V qr , V dr

' ' i qr , i dr

'qr , 'dr
rs , rr'
Lls , L'lr

Lm Lss , Lrr

Lsr Ns , Nr

'e 'e vdr ,comp , v qr ,comp

Babak Badrzadeh and S.K.Salman. are with School of Engineering, The Robert Gordon University, Schoolhill, Aberdeen, AB10 1FR, UK (e-mail: prs.badrzadeh@rgu.ac.uk and s.k.salman@rgu.ac.uk).

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However when considering fault consequences for a gridconnected induction generator, it would be more realistic to adopt the fifth order model by incorporating stator flux transients [5]. In fact, shaft system representation has a major influence on the short-term stability margin measured by its respective CCT. For a grid-connected FSIG, it has been shown that the single-mass representation of mechanical drive train can introduce significant errors in the value of the CCT, where using single-mass model results in greater CCT compared with the two-mass model [7]. It has reported [8] that the fifthorder model of the machine along with the two-mass representation of the drive train would enhance transient stability of the system compared with the third order model. What is more, for a grid-connected DFIG, control capability of the DFIG under fault condition is principally determined by the converter action during and after the fault [9]. In order to model the converters, in the simplest scenario, it is assumed that the converters are ideal and the DC-link voltage between the converters is constant [1-3]. A detailed model of DFIG with back-to-back PWM converter and associated controllers with the assumption of constant DC-link voltage at any time is proposed [10]. Nonetheless, in reality the DC-link voltage does not remain constant but it increases during fault condition [4]. Consequently, using a simplified model would not guarantee the accurate assessment of DFIG performance in the event of fault, e.g. when determining the CCT of the grid-connected DFIG. With regard to the performance comparison of the FSIG and DFIG, it has been shown that using DFIG, transient stability can be improved, compared with FSIG during threephase network faults [2]. It has been reported [3] that terminal voltage recovers faster in case of DFIG. However, to the best knowledge of the author of this paper it seems that no study has been conducted so far to determine the value of the CCT of a grid-connected DFIG. This paper presents a detailed 7th order model of the DFIG containing: (i) fifth-order model of the wound-rotor along with the two-mass representation of the drive train, (ii) proper model of the back-to-back PWM converter including statorand rotor-side converters and intermediate DC-link capacitor, and (iii) pertinent power electronics controller. PWM modulated converter and inverter are represented in the same reference frame as the machine to realize a combined machine-converter model where switching scheme is incorporated into the model. Several case studies have been conducted to determine the value of the CCT for the DFIG as well as the FSIG following the application of a three-phase-toground faults on the associated system,. Further investigations are also made to evaluate the impact of the shaft system parameters on the CCT of the grid-connected FSIG and DFIG. III. DFIG MODELING A. Modified wound-rotor induction machine model Assuming balanced operation of the machine, stator and rotor flux linkage relationships in the d-q reference frame may be written in matrix notation as follows [11]:

qs Lls ds = 'qr ' dr

+ Lm 0 0 0

0 Lls + Lm 0 0

0 0 L'lr + Lm 0

iqs 0 ids ' 0 iqr ' L'lr + Lm idr 0

(1)

Viewing the machine as equivalent to a secondary-rotating transformer has made it possible to refer all the rotor-side values to the stator-side [11]: 3 3 Ns 3 N Lm = Lss = Lsr = ( s ) 2 Lrr (2) 2 2 Nr 2 Nr Using Stator Flux Orientation Control (SFOC) to provide independent control of active and reactive power, the d-axis of reference frame would be aligned to the stator flux linkage and therefore [12]: (3) e = 0 qs Using SFOC, it should be borne in mind that the d-q voltage components can not be considered as independent control variables and therefore implementation with current controlled PWM inverter requires voltage decouplers to compensate for these coupling terms [12]. More description of DFIG voltage 'e 'e decouplers ( vqr,comp, vdr,comp ) can be found in [13]. Thus, based on the above mentioned mathematical equations, the equivalent circuit of the wound-rotor induction machines can be derived as shown below:
e i qs

rs

e L ds ls

'e L'lr vqr ,comp rr'

'e i qr

+
e v qs

+-

-+

+
'e v qr

Lm

q-axis equivalent circuit

e i ds

e rs qs = 0 Lls

'e L'lr vdr ,comp rr'

'e i dr

+
e v ds

-+
Lm

+-

+
'e v dr

d-axis equivalent circuit

Fig.1 Equivalent circuit of three-phase wound-rotor induction machine in synchronously rotating reference frame

B. Rotor- and Stator-side converter In electrical drives applications, it is usually convenient to characterize the converter in the same reference frame used

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for induction machine. In fact, the d-q orthogonal reference system can also yield the converter models. This would be particularly advantageous when a complex vector d-q representation is employed, e.g. complex vector voltage and current equations corresponding to the PWM operation. The d-q model of a Voltage Source Converter in the rotor reference frame can readily be obtained by defining two switching functions to express converter constraint equations [14,15]: 2 e e vqr = vi PM g qr (4)

e e e e e v qs = Ri qs + Lpi qs e Li ds + v q1

(16)

vas
~

I a1

va1
~

vbs
~

I b1

vb1
~

vcs
~

I c1

vc1
~

e vdr =

Fig.2. Basic topology of stator-side converter

e vi PM g dr

(5)

e e e e ii = PM (iqr g qr + idr g dr )

(6)

Additionally, the bridge converter voltage can be described by [14, 15]: 2 e e vqs = v1 PM g qs (17)

Where switching functions can be expressed in terms of Fourier series [14,15]: 2 2 e g qr = 1 + cos 6( s r )t cos12( s r )t + ... (7) 35 143
12 2 e g dr = sin 6( s r )t sin 12( s r )t + ... (8) 35 143 Equations (4-6) relate the instantaneous inverter input quantities vi and ii to the instantaneous d-q output quantities.

e v ds =

e v1 PM g ds

(18)

Once the machine is modeled in the rotor reference frame, it is necessary to transform the variables on the converter side to the rotor d-q frame using the following substitute quantities [14]: 2 vi' = vi (9)

It is also worth considering that the same switching functions can be employed for the stator-side converter by substituting e for ( s r ). Finally, implementing pertinent controllers according to [13] makes the detailed DFIG model complete. Therefore, the equivalent circuit of rotor- and stator-side converters may be suggested as shown in Figs.3 and 4.
e vi' ( PM g qr 1)

ii' =

ii

(10)
(11) (12)
(13)
e e g dr idr

v i'
e e idr PM g dr

e v qr
e e iqr ( PM g qr 1)

e e e e vi' ii' = v qr iqr + v dr idr e e v qr = vi' g qr

e e v qr = vi' g qr

q-axis equivalent circuit

+ +

e idr

ii'

e e g qr iqr

(14)

e v i' PM g dr

Regarding the stator-side modeling, it would be necessary to provide appropriate transformation of the stator variables from the stator fame to the rotor frame which would be applied to the stator circuit in the rotor reference frame [10]. As a result, given the topology of supply-side converter as shown in Fig.2, voltage across the inductor L can be described by [10]:
e e e e e v ds = Rids + Lpi ds e Li qs + v d 1

e vdr

d-axis equivalent circuit Fig.3 d-q equivalent circuit of a rotor-side PWM converter in synchronously rotating reference frame

(15)

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e i qs

L e LI ds

Fig.5 Block diagram of grid-connected induction wind generator

+e vqs

+ -

+ -

e v q1 i os

i dc
e ids

L e LI qs

i os

+e v ds

+ -

+ -

e vd1

Fig.4. d-q equivalent circuit of supply-side converter in synchronously rotating reference frame

Impact of the DC-link model on the transient stability Basically, the DC-link element is a storage element providing the machine with the required reactive power in order for the DFIG to generate active power. In doing so, current may be supplied to or drawn from the rotor-side converter giving rise to the DC-link voltage fluctuations. For instance, consider a 120 msec three-phase short-circuit fault occurring at the power system to which the DFIG is connected. Flowing toward the DC-link capacitor, large rotor current is produced (Fig.6) which is coincided by the low voltage at the stator terminals (Fig.7) making limited the exchange of power from the DC-link capacitor with the gridside converter. Consequently, DC-link voltage would soar if the fault remains for a while in the system (Fig.8). The overvoltage protection may trip the DFIG in order to protect the DC-link components as well as the IGBT switches. Thus, this case study shows that DC-link voltage does not remain constant which is in contrast to the result obtained when using a simplified model of the DC-link.
2.00 1.50 Rotor Fault Current (kA) 1.00 0.50 0.00 -0.50 -1.00 -1.50 -2.00 Tim e(s) 29.00 29.50 30.00 30.50 31.00 31.50 32.00 Ira (kA)

E.

C. Shaft System Modeling: The minimal realization of the drive train suitable for power system transient studies is based on the assumption of the two-mass model in which the gearbox, high-speed and low-speed shafts are represented by two masses connected by a shaft [7]. The two-mass model of the drive train is therefore given by a set of differential equations as follows [8]: dT 2H T = Tm K DT T (19) dt

2H G

d r = Te + K DG r dt

Fig.6 Phase A rotor fault current of DFIG

(20)
1.10 Vlg_rm (p.u) s 1.00 Grid rms Voltage (p.u) Tim e(s)

d = b (T r ) dt

(21)

0.90 0.80 0.70 0.60 0.50 0.40 0.30 0.20 0.10 29.00 29.50 30.00 30.50 31.00 31.50 32.00

DC-Link Voltage (kV)

D. System under Consideration: Simulation is carried out on a 2 MVA, 690 V, 50 Hz, 4pole that can be used as FSIG or DFIG. Fig.5 shows the power system used to investigate the performance of the generators under fault condition. As can be seen here, the generator is connected to a two-bus double-circuit 33 kV distribution system through a 0.69/33 kV step-up transformer with leakage reactance of 6%. The rest of power system is represented as a three-phase voltage source with a short circuit level of 40 MVA. Applying a three-phase network fault at t=30 sec in the middle of the one of the transmission lines, case studies are then conducted to investigate into the CCT of the DFIG as well as the FSIG.
Grid ~ 33kV line

Fig.7 Stator terminal voltage of DFIG

E (kV) 1.30 1.20 1.10 1.00 0.90 0.80 0.70 Tim e(s) 29.00 29.50 30.00 30.50 31.00 31.50 32.00

2R
jX
R

2 jX jX
33/0.69 Transformer

DFIG G

Fig.8 DC-link voltage of DFIG

Fault

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Rotor speed (p.u)

Further investigation has shown (see Fig.9) that the greater the DC-link voltage, the smaller over-voltage. The same figure shows that representation of ideal DC-link by a 5000 mF capacitor, lead to fairly constant DC-link voltage profile the event of fault, as demonstrated earlier. It therefore be concluded that simplification of the DC-link model not suitable for short-term transient stability studies.
C=400 mili Farads 1.80 1.70 1.60 1.50 1.40 1.30 1.20 1.10 1.00 0.90 0.80 0.70 0.60 28.0 29.0 30.0 31.0 32.0 33.0 34.0 35.0 C=500 mili Farads C=5000 m Farads ili

n(p.u) 1.300 1.250 1.200 1.150 1.100 1.050 1.000 0.950 Tim e(s) 24.0 26.0 28.0 30.0 32.0 34.0 36.0 38.0 40.0

DC-Link Voltage (kV)

Fig.12 Rotor speed of FSIG

TE (p.u)

0.25 Electromagnetic Torque (p.u) 0.00 -0.25 -0.50 -0.75 -1.00 -1.25 -1.50 -1.75 -2.00 -2.25

Tim e(s)

Fig.9 Effect of increasing DC-link capacitance of DFIG

E. Comparison the transient stability of FSIG and DFIG: Consider the generator of Fig 5 is operated as a FSIG when a 120 ms three-phase-to-ground fault occurs at the location shown in the same figure. Fig.10 shows the stator voltage falls to %30 of its pre-fault value. This is followed by an increase in electromagnetic torque (Fig.11) due to the absence of pertinent controllers. Assuming the mechanical torque remains fairly constant during fault period, Fig 12 shows that the rotor continued to accelerate without having any sign of restoring its pre-fault value. In contrast when the same machine is operated as a DFIG, the same fault produce the same voltage dip, but changes in electromagnetic torque initiate respective controller to restore pre-fault speed (Figs. 13 and 14) leading to almost instantaneous voltage recovery as shown in Fig.7. It can therefore be concluded from this case study that transient stability of DFIG is substantially improve due to the application of power electronics converters and respective controllers compared that of FSIG.
1.10 1.00 Stator rm voltage (p.u) s 0.90 0.80 0.70 0.60 0.50 0.40 0.30 0.20 Tim e(s) 28.0 30.0 32.0 34.0 36.0 38.0 40.0 Vl_grm (p.u) s

Tim e(s)

29.00

29.50

30.00

30.50

31.00

31.50

32.00

Fig.13 Electromagnetic torque of DFIG

n (p.u)

0.6700 0.6680 0.6660 Rotor Speed (p.u) 0.6640 0.6620 0.6600 0.6580 0.6560 0.6540 Tim e(s) 29.0

30.0

31.0

32.0

33.0

34.0

35.0

36.0

Fig.14 Rotor speed of DFIG

Fig.10 Stator terminal voltage of FSIG

TE (p.u)

1.00 Electromagnetic Torque (p.u) 0.50 0.00 -0.50 -1.00 -1.50 -2.00 26.0

F. Impact of shaft system representation on the short-term transient stability As mentioned previously, inclusion of the low-speed shaft into the FSIG model can dramatically influence the transient stability margin and respective CCT. This has also been verified using the power system shown in Fig 5. For example, simulation results show that increasing turbines inertia constant from 3.5s to 5.5s, while keeping generators inertia constant at 1 sec, has improved the CCT from 80ms to 120ms as shown in Fig.15 (each curve corresponds to the critical speed, i.e., the speed that corresponds to the CCT). On the other hand Fig.16 shows that increasing generators inertia constant form 1 to 2 sec, while keeping that of the turbine at 3.5s, has improved the CCT from 80 to 100 ms. Moreover, representing the shaft of the system with the two-mass model give rise to the reduction of stability margin and hence provides a more conservative assessment of transient stability.
Further investigation is then made to evaluate the impact of shaft system representation on the transient behavior of the DFIG. As can be seen from Fig.17, increasing turbines and

Tim e(s)

28.0

30.0

32.0

34.0

36.0

38.0

40.0

Fig.11 Electromagnetic torque of FSIG

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1.0320 1.0300 1.0280 Rotor speed (p.u) 1.0260 1.0240 1.0220 1.0200 1.0180 1.0160 1.0140 1.0120 Time(s) 29.80

H_T=3.5(s)

H_T=4.5 (s)

H_T=5.5 (s)

30.00

30.20

30.40

30.60

30.80

31.00

31.20

31.40

31.60

31.80

Fig.15 Effect of increasing Turbine inertia constant on the transient stability margin of FSIG
H_T=3.5(s) H_T=4.5 (s) H_T=5.5 (s)

1.0320 1.0300 1.0280 Rotor speed (p.u) 1.0260 1.0240 1.0220 1.0200 1.0180 1.0160 1.0140 1.0120 Time(s) 29.80

30.00

30.20

30.40

30.60

30.80

31.00

31.20

31.40

31.60

31.80

Fig.16 Effect of increasing Generator inertia constant on the transient stability margin of FSIG

generator inertia constants, does not lead to substantial improvement of the transient stability to DFIG. For instance, no major improvement is achieved on the reactive power consumption of the originally unstable system. This is due to the independent control of active and reactive powers which makes rotor speed and stator terminal voltage independent from each other. Therefore, when determining short-term transient stability of the DFIG, representation of the drivetrain does not affect voltage behavior. However, in a DFIG the natural frequency of the shaft is very close to the natural frequency of the grid which may lead to the Sub-Synchronous Resonance (SSR) between the wind turbine generator and series-compensated line or Sub-Synchronous Torsional Interaction (SSTI) between the wind turbine generator and HVDC system [16]. In fact, to predict such phenomena, it would be advisable to adopt a two-mass model of the shaft.
H_T=3.5(s), H_G=1(s) 0.40 Reactive Power(MVar) 0.20 0.00 -0.20 H_T=5(s), H_G=1(s) H_T=3.5(s),H_G=2(s)

DC-link voltage and rotor current protection settings [17], it can be seen that both DC-link voltage and rotor speed restore their pre-fault values shortly after fault clearance without hitting the limits and therefore the system remains stable. In order to the determine the value of the CCT for the gridconnected DFIG, fault duration is increased to 200 ms, where the rotor current exceeds the limit and therefore due to the operation of protection system, the rotor is short-circuited giving rise to nearly zero DC-link voltage. Afterwards, the short-circuited DFIG operates as a FSIG, where the terminal voltage restores its pre-fault value and the rotor speed is stabilized at 1.6 p.u. in super-synchronous mode. Due to the fact that in a DFIG the protection system must contain proper protection for the rotor over-speed which might be assigned to 1.35 times of reference value of the rotor speed, the wind turbine generator will trip shortly after in order to avoid imposing stability problems on the grid particularly with regard to the absorption of the reactive power as shown in Fig.21. Therefore, it can be concluded that as opposed to the FSIG, realizing a stable speed within the statutory limits can not guarantee stable transient stability performance as far as DFIG is concerned. Additionally, as already explained due to the decoupled performance of the rotor speed and stator voltage, the latter is hardly affected by the rotor speed variation in the event of fault. In fact, for a grid-connected DFIG, rotor speed must not necessarily return to its pre fault value, yet it is possible to operate dynamically in a wide range of speeds, i.e. sub- and super-synchronous modes with slip of up to 0.35 [9] and then realize the optimum speed according to the operating conditions. As a result, it can be concluded that the concept of Critical Clearing Time is of limited value in the context of grid-connected DFIG.
Ira (kA)

2.00 1.50 Rotor Fault Current (kA) 1.00 0.50 0.00 -0.50 -1.00 -1.50 -2.00 Tim e(s)

30.0

32.0

34.0

36.0

38.0

40.0

Fig.18 Phase A rotor fault current

E (kV) 1.30 1.20 1.10 1.00 0.90 0.80 0.70 0.60 0.50 0.40 0.30 0.20 0.10 0.00 30.0 32.0 34.0 36.0 38.0 40.0

-0.60 -0.80 -1.00

Time(s)

26.0

28.0

30.0

32.0

34.0

36.0

38.0

40.0

42.0

Fig.17 Effect of increasing Generator and Turbine inertia constant on the transient stability of the DFIG

G. Investigation of the CCT in the context of DFIG Referring to the rotor current and DC-link voltage shown in Figs. 6 and 8 and assuming 1.5 times of rated values for both

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DC-Link Voltage (kV) Tim e(s)

-0.40

Fig.19 DC-link voltage

7
Vlg_rm (p.u) s

1.10 1.00 Stator rm Voltage (p.u) s 0.90 0.80 0.70 0.60 0.50 0.40 0.30 0.20 0.10 Tim e(s) 29.00

29.50

30.00

30.50

31.00

31.50

32.00

Fig.20 Stator terminal voltage

0.30 0.20 Reactive Power(MVar) 0.10 0.00 -0.10 -0.20 -0.30 -0.40 Tim e(s) 29.00 29.50 30.00 30.50 31.00 31.50 32.00 Q_GE (M N Var)

Fig.21 Reactive power

IV. ACKNOWLEDGMENT The authors would like to thank The Robert Gordon University for providing facilities. Babak Badrzadeh is thankful for the Robert Gordon University for their financial support to undertake this research. V. CONCLUSIONS A detailed 7 order model of grid-connected DFIG suitable for fault analysis was presented. Simulations have been performed to investigate into the concept of the Critical Clearing Time (CCT). The performance of the generator has been examined under both FSIG and DFIG operating modes by applying a three-phase network faults. It has been shown that representation of the DC-link components has a major influence on the transient stability performance of the machine. It has also demonstrated that the transient stability of DFIG is substantially enhanced due to the application of power electronics converters and respective controllers compared with that of FSIG. In addition, while the two-mass representation of the drive-train may dramatically influence the value of the CCT for a grid-connected FSIG, it has been found that variation of drive-train parameters has virtually no impact on the transient stability of the DFIG. It has also been observed that by continually increasing fault duration to a large value (in the process of examining the CCT of DFIG) the DC-link voltage has fallen to almost zero, leading to fixed speed operation of the DFIG but rotor speed remained stable. Thus, it can be concluded that the concept of the critical clearing time is of limited value as far as DFIG is concerned. VI. REFERENCES
[1] J. B. Ekanayake, L. Holdworth, X. Wu and N.Jenkins, " Dynamic Modeling of Doubly Fed Induction generator Wind Turbines," IEEE Trans. Power Systems, vol. 18, no.2, pp. 803-809, May. 2003. [2] L. Holdworth, X.G. Wu J. B. Ekanayake, and N.Jenkins, " Comparison of Fixed Speed and Doubly-Fed Induction Wind Turbines During Power
th

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VII. BIOGRAPHIES
Babak Badrzadeh (S03) was born in Bandaranzali , Iran, on March 21, 1977. He received his BSc. and Msc. from the Iran University of Science and technology, Tehran in 1999 and 2002, respectively. He is currently working toward his PhD. at the School of Engineering, The Robert Gordon University, UK. His area of interest is grid integration of renewables as well as power system stability and control. Salman K Salman (SM 88) He is a member of the IEE and a senior member of the IEEE, was born in Basraha, Iraq, 1941. He graduated from the Faculty of Engineering, University of Baghdad in 1964. In 1972 he obtained his MEng in Electrical and Electronic Engineering from the University of Sheffield, UK and in 1975 he completed his PhD at UMIST, UK. In 1975 he joint the University of Benghazi, Libya as a lecturer, assistant professor and associate professor. His practical experience includes testing and commissioning of measuring devices, protection relays and control circuits related to 132 kV/33 kV/11 kV systems. He has published several papers on voltage control of distribution networks with embedded generation and on the protection of power systems at national and international conferences and scientific journals. He is also a co-author of a book titled Digital Protection for Power Systems which was published by the IEE in September 1995. Currently he is a Professor and leader of Renewable Energy Power Systems Group at the School of Engineering, The Robert Gordon University, UK.

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