Source : NASA

ATMOSPHERE

The atmosphere of Earth is a layer of gases surrounding the planet Earth that is retained by Earth's gravity. The atmosphere protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation, warming the surface through heat retention (greenhouse effect), and reducing temperature extremes between day and night (the diurnal temperature variation). Atmospheric stratification describes the structure of the atmosphere, dividing it into distinct layers, each with specific characteristics such as temperature or composition. The atmosphere has a mass of about 51018 kg, three quarters of which is within about 11 km (6.8 mi; 36,000 ft) of the surface. The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude, with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space. An altitude of 120 km (75 mi) is where atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft. The Krmn line, at 100 km (62 mi), also is often regarded as the boundary between atmosphere and outer space. Air is the name given to atmosphere used in breathing and photosynthesis. Dry air contains roughly (by volume) 78.09% nitrogen, 20.95% oxygen, 0.93% argon, 0.039% carbon dioxide, and small amounts of other gases. Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor, on average around 1%. While air content and atmospheric pressure varies at different layers, air suitable for the survival of terrestrial plants and terrestrial animals is currently only known to be found in Earth's troposphere and artificial atmospheres.

COMPOSITION

Source : WIKIPEDIA

Structure of the atmosphere

Principal layers: In general, air pressure and density decrease in the atmosphere as height increases. However, temperature has a more complicated profile with altitude. Because the general pattern of this profile is constant and recognizable through means such as balloon soundings, temperature provides a useful metric to distinguish between atmospheric layers. In this way, Earth's atmosphere can be divided into five main layers. From highest to lowest, these layers are: Exosphere: The outermost layer of Earth's atmosphere extends from the exobase upward. It is mainly composed of hydrogen and helium. The particles are so far apart that they can travel hundreds of kilometers without colliding with one another. Since

`the particles rarely collide, the atmosphere no longer behaves like a fluid. These freemoving particles follow ballistic trajectories and may migrate into and out of the magnetosphere or the solar wind. Thermosphere: Temperature increases with height in the thermosphere from the mesopause up to the thermopause, then is constant with height. The temperature of this layer can rise to 1,500 C (2,700 F. The air is so rarefied that an individual molecule (of oxygen, for example) travels an average of 1 kilometer between collisions with other molecules. The International Space Station orbits in this layer, between 320 and 380 km (200 and 240 mi). Because of the relative infrequency of molecular collisions, air above the mesopause is poorly mixed compared to air below. While the composition from the troposphere to the mesosphere is fairly constant, above a certain point, air is poorly mixed and becomes compositionally stratified. The point dividing these two regions is known as the turbopause. The region below is the homosphere, and the region above is the heterosphere. The top of the thermosphere is the bottom of the exosphere, called the exobase. Its height varies with solar activity and ranges from about 350800 km (220500 mi; 1,100,0002,600,000 ft).

Mesosphere: The mesosphere extends from the stratopause to 8085 km (5053 mi; 260,000280,000 ft). It is the layer where most meteors burn up upon entering the atmosphere. Temperature decreases with height in the mesosphere. The mesopause, the temperature minimum that marks the top of the mesosphere, is the coldest place on Earth and has an average temperature around 85 C (120 F; 190 K). At the mesopause, temperatures may drop to 100 C (150 F; 170 K). Due to the cold temperature of the mesosphere, water vapor is frozen, forming ice clouds (or Noctilucent clouds). A type of lightning referred to as either sprites or ELVES, form many miles above thunderclouds in the troposphere.

Stratosphere: The stratosphere extends from the tropopause to about 51 km (32 mi; 170,000 ft). Temperature increases with height due to increased absorption of ultraviolet radiation by the ozone layer, which restricts turbulence and mixing. While the temperature may be 60 C (76 F; 210 K) at the tropopause, the top of the stratosphere is much warmer, and may be near freezing. The stratopause, which is the boundary between the stratosphere and mesosphere, typically is at 50 to 55 km (31 to 34 mi; 160,000 to 180,000 ft). The pressure here is 1/1000 sea level.

Troposphere : The troposphere begins at the surface and extends to between 9 km (30,000 ft) at the poles and 17 km (56,000 ft) at the equator, with some variation due to weather. The troposphere is mostly heated by transfer of energy from the surface, so

on average the lowest part of the troposphere is warmest and temperature decreases with altitude. This promotes vertical mixing (hence the origin of its name in the Greek word "", trope, meaning turn or overturn). The troposphere contains roughly 80% of the mass of the atmosphere. The tropopause is the boundary between the troposphere and stratosphere. Other layers: Within the five principal layers determined by temperature are several layers determined by other properties: The ozone layer is contained within the stratosphere. In this layer ozone concentrations are about 2 to 8 parts per million, which is much higher than in the lower atmosphere but still very small compared to the main components of the atmosphere. It is mainly located in the lower portion of the stratosphere from about 1535 km (9.322 mi; 49,000110,000 ft), though the thickness varies seasonally and geographically. About 90% of the ozone in our atmosphere is contained in the stratosphere. The ionosphere, the part of the atmosphere that is ionized by solar radiation, stretches from 50 to 1,000 km (31 to 620 mi; 160,000 to 3,300,000 ft) and typically overlaps both the exosphere and the thermosphere. It forms the inner edge of the magnetosphere. It has practical importance because it influences, for example, radio propagation on the Earth. It is responsible for auroras. The homosphere and heterosphere are defined by whether the atmospheric gases are well mixed. In the homosphere the chemical composition of the atmosphere does not depend on molecular weight because the gases are mixed by turbulence. The homosphere includes the troposphere, stratosphere, and mesosphere. Above the turbopause at about 100 km (62 mi; 330,000 ft) (essentially corresponding to the mesopause), the composition varies with altitude. This is because the distance that particles can move without colliding with one another is large compared with the size of motions that cause mixing. This allows the gases to stratify by molecular weight, with the heavier ones such as oxygen and nitrogen present only near the bottom of the heterosphere. The upper part of the heterosphere is composed almost completely of hydrogen, the lightest element. The planetary boundary layer is the part of the troposphere that is nearest the Earth's surface and is directly affected by it, mainly through turbulent diffusion. During the day the planetary boundary layer usually is well-mixed, while at night it becomes stably stratified with weak or intermittent mixing. The depth of the planetary boundary layer ranges from as little as about 100 m on clear, calm nights to 3000 m or more during the afternoon in dry regions. The average temperature of the atmosphere at the surface of Earth is 14 C (57 F; 287 K) or 15 C (59 F; 288 K), depending on the reference. On the following editions we will discuss about air currents and temperature distribution in atmosphere!!

SONIC FREE FALL

Shown at the cover page of LIFEGAD section is one of the Photos released by the Red Bull Stratos project,documenting every stage of a practice dive. (Photo by Joerg Mitter/Red Bull ) The photo shows Baumgartner, in his custom-built suit, preparing to leap from the capsule's door while another, taken from a camera mounted outside the capsule, captures the daredevil on the precipice, about to jump. Pilot Felix Baumgartner of Austria is seen before his jump during the first manned test flight for Red Bull Stratos on March 15, 2012 in Roswell, New Mexico. In this test he reach the altitude 21800 meters (71500 ft) and landed safely near Roswell. Red Bull Stratos is a mission to the edge of the earths atmosphere, where upon reaching altitude of 120,000 feet by helium baloon, pilot and basejumper Felix Baumgartner will then freefall to the ground in an attempt to break the speed of sound. "On the way up, without even opening the capsule door you can find yourself in a life or death situation," Todd said. "So its extremely dangerous."The highest altitude Baumgartner had ever jumped from was 30,000 feet (9,144 m) up, according to team officials. He is aiming to break the record for the highest skydive ever, set in 1960 by U.S. Air Force Captain Joe Kittinger, who jumped from 102,800 feet (31,333 m). The Red Bull Stratos science team has confirmed that the capsule delivering Austrian sportsman Felix Baumgartner to the edge of space for his record-breaking freefall attempt is mission ready. Attached to a helium balloon, the capsule - which took five years to develop and weighs 1,315 kilograms fully loaded - will act as Baumgartner's life support system during his nearly three-hour ascent to 36,000 meters. Once the capsule has completed its ascent and Baumgartner has safely accomplished his mission, a remote triggering system will release the craft from the balloon. Tracked via a GPS system, a recovery parachute will bring the capsule slowly back to Earth, where the data can be extracted and evaluated. USA - March 2012.

Now we will see the technologies involved in this great achievement Pressure suit and Helmet:
A Suit Designed For Astronauts: To combat the challenges of the mission, Felix Baumgartner is pressurized from head to toe.At altitude, without a pressure suit Felix Baumgartner's body fluids would begin to "boil" from lack of atmospheric pressure (a potentially fatal condition called ebullism). To reduce the likelihood of decompression sickness, his space suit is designed to provide pressure equivalent to the environment at 35,000 feet. The exterior of the full-pressure suit is made of a material that is both fire retardant and an insulator against extreme cold (likely around -5 degrees Fahrenheit when Felix jumps and possibly as low as 70 degrees Fahrenheit during his descent). Inside, the suit's "bladder" is filled with gases to provide the pressurization. The uninflated suit, without the helmet and visor, weighs approximately 28 pounds. The pressure suit helmet has features including a sunshade, a heated visor to prevent fogging, and a two-stage regulator that supplies 100% oxygen at all times. When Felix exhales, his breath is vented into the suit, designed to maintain its pressure of 3.5 psi (pounds per square inch) during the initial phase of the freefall. The helmet weighs about 8 pounds. Pressure suit manufacturer David Clark Company has pioneered air and space crew protective equipment design, development and infrastructure since 1941, with products ranging from anti-G suits to space units. Parachute: No parachute is guaranteed to operate higher than 25,000 feet. But Felix will jump from 120,000 feet. A special rig developed to meet his needs is truly next-generation equipment. Felix's parachute rig includes a main parachute, emergency chute, unique stabilizing drogue, and oxygen system. Overall, it weighs roughly 60 pounds. If all goes according to plan, Felix will deploy only his main chute. To do so, he'll need to slow from the speed of sound to approximately 172 mph. If, however, Felix experiences uncontrollable spinning or instability in his attempt to reach the speed of sound, he can deploy a small chute, called a "drogue," designed specifically to steady him even at supersonic speeds. Felix's emergency chute, the reserve, is unique, too. Normal skydiving rigs don't have a mechanism to cut away the reserve, a skydiver's last resource. But Felix's oxygen supply is limited, and if his reserve accidentally deployed at high altitude, his landing could be delayed so much that he'd run out of oxygen while still suspended in the stratosphere. That's why Felix has the option to cut away the reserve and return to freefall, finally pulling his main parachute once he reaches a "normal" altitude.

Capsule:
The pressurized Red Bull Stratos capsule is designed to protect Felix during his ascent. STRUCTURE The overall structure of the capsule, which will weigh around 2,900 pounds fully loaded, can be described in four components: Pressure sphere Cage Shell Base and crush pads PRESSURE SPHERE The pressure sphere contains the capsule instrumentation and it is where Felix will be positioned throughout the ascent. It is molded from fiberglass and epoxy painted with fireproof paint The door and windows are acrylic With a diameter of 6 feet, the pressure sphere's interior contains displays, instrument panels, cameras and a chair The sphere will be pressurized to 8 pounds per square inch (psi), the equivalent to 16,000 feet above sea level, which will significantly reduce the risk of decompression sickness during the ascent without requiring Felix to inflate his pressure suit. CAGE The cage surrounds the pressure sphere and supports the capsule overall. The cage was made by welding together Chrome-Moly (chromium molybdenum) aircraft tubing/pipes The strong steel alloy is frequently used in motorsports and aerospace industries The cage frame is the point where the capsule attaches to the balloon and it will also bear the load for the parachute system and capsule touchdown. SHELL The shell surrounds the pressure sphere and cage and is the part of the capsule that is visible to the observer. The shell is a foam-insulated skin covered in fiberglass and paint, providing protection and insulation in the stratosphere, where temperatures near -70 F The is 11 feet high, while its base is 8 feet in diameter The broad, curved base provides a secure step platform on its edge and will help to keep the capsule stable during descent BASE AND CRUSH PADS The 8-foot-diameter capsule base is the broadest part of the vessel, providing protection in the form of the base panel and crush pads. The base comprises of a 2-inch-thick aluminum honeycomb sandwich panel which protects the capsule from sharp objects during landing and also provides a mounting area for the balloon system control box and other systems such as batteries (the power source for capsule systems and cameras) Outside the base are the crush pads, composed of cell-paper honeycomb covered by a fiberglass/epoxy fairing. The crush pads, designed to handle 8 Gs on impact, provide shock absorption for the capsule's parachute landing The crush pads are for one-time-only use and must be replaced after every flight Engineers performed more than 150 drop tests to develop the crush pads.

High altitude balloon:

The Red Bull Stratos balloon is filled with lighter-than-air helium, much like other high-altitude balloons. Helium is the ideal gas because it lifts, it's non-toxic, and non-flammable.The balloon will be approximately 30 million cubic feet in capacity - more than 10 times larger than the balloon that Joe Kittinger used for his recordsetting jump in 1960. At launch it will stand about 600 feet high, and from the top of the balloon to the bottom of the capsule the overall system wil l measure 764 feet. That's like launching a 75-story building.The balloon's vast envelope is constructed of banana-peel-shaped strips, or "gores," of high-performance polyethylene (plastic) film that is only 0.0008 inches thick. These strips in total cover 40 acres. (You could wrap about 5,018,400 peanut butter sandwiches with that much plastic!)And although it's actually thinner than sandwich wrap, the balloon material weighs more than 3,000 pounds, and when combined with the capsule parachute system and the rest of the flight train, the total weight of the ascending craft is expected to be around 7,000 pounds.

Chest pack:
This chest pack was designed with Felix's comfort and balance in mind. It's not too heavy or cumbersome to wear over his pressurized suit while still maintaing a streamlined shape. Think of it as a mail box in terms of size and purpose. All the data recorded inside the chest pack will report Felix's speed, position, and altitude back to Mission Control. Here's the list of gadgets contained inside:

The voice transmitter and receiver that connect to his helmet. GPS beacons to track his position. Telemetry equipment (which enables data capture and monitoring from long distances). An HD camera with a 120-degree view that encompasses Felix's faceplate as well as the ground below when Felix is in his streamlined, angled "delta" position. A package that will be used by the world governing body for air sports and aeronautical world records (the Fdration Aronautique Internationale) to verify the records Felix hopes to establish. An inertia measurement unit (IMU) that will report altitude (pitch/angle) and spin.
Source : All info and pix from Red Bull stratos official website

DOES ICE MELT FASTER IN AIR OR WATER?

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If you watch ice cubes melt, it may be hard to tell whether they melt faster in water or air, but if the water and air are the same temperature, ice melts more quickly in water than in the air. Usually it is water, because the molecules in liquid water are more tightly packed than the molecules in air, allowing more contact with the ice and a greater rate of heat transfer. Also, water has a higher heat capacity than air. Initially the surface area of ice melting in air and ice melting in water is the same, but as ice melts in air a thin layer of water results, which absorbs some of the heat from the air and slightly insulates the remaining ice. When you melt an ice cube in a cup of water it is exposed to both air and water. The part of the ice cube in the water melts faster than the ice in the air, but as the ice cube melts, it sinks further down. If you support the ice to prevent the ice cube from sinking, you could see the part of the ice in the water would melt more quickly than the part in the air. Other factors come into play. If the air is blowing across the ice cube, then the increased circulation may allow the ice to melt faster in air than in water. If the air and water are different temperatures, the ice may melt more quickly in the medium with the higher temperature.

When you think of a regular ice cube melting in a regular glass of water, you have to remember that cold water (like the water from the ice cube) is actually denser than warm water (like the water in the cup). This is because in the cold water, the molecules have less energy and are actually closer together than in warmer water. So as the ice cube melts, the cold water coming off of it sinks to the bottom of the glass and the warm water from the bottom comes up to take its place. The water in the glass is actually constantly moving, keeping the ice cube warm by something that scientists call 'convection currents.

But salt water is much denser than tap water, warm or cold. So when you put a freshwater ice cube in a glass of salt water, the cold water coming off the ice cube doesn't sink at all. Instead, the dense salt water stays at the bottom of the glass and the cold water stays on the top. Without any convection currents to carry the cold water away from the ice cube, the ice cube melts much more slowly. It is true that dissolving table salt in water will lower the temperature of the water, because it takes energy (more precisely, enthalpy) to pull those ions apart. That could help freeze the water. However, that effect amounts to only about 0.9 K cooling for 1 M salt concentration. (That cooling is temporary and has no effect on the freezing time for the salt water if you let it stand at room temperature before putting it in the freezer.) The same 1M NaCl lowers the freezing point of water by about 3.7 K, so it still needs to cool more than plain water before it freezes, even if you didn't let it reach room temperature first. Have you ever wondered why salt is sprinkled on road side during winter in frosty nations? The balance between freezing and melting processes can easily be upset. If the ice/water mixture is cooled, the molecules move slower. The slower-moving molecules are more easily captured by the ice, and freezing occurs at a greater rate than melting. You can see a demonstration of this by clicking on the temperature in the animation and setting it to a lower value (say, -10). Conversely, heating the mixture makes the molecules move faster on average, and melting is favored. Reset the animation and then enter a higher value for the temperature (say 10) and watch what happens. Adding salt to the system will also disrupt the equilibrium. Consider replacing some of the water molecules with molecules of some other substance. The foreign molecules dissolve in the water, but do not pack easily into the array of molecules in the solid. Try hitting the "Add Solute" button in the animation above. Notice that there are fewer water molecules on the liquid side because the some of the water has been replaced by salt. The total number of waters captured by the ice per second goes down, so the rate of freezing goes down. The rate of melting is unchanged by the presence of the foreign material, so melting occurs faster than freezing. That's why salt melts ice!!
Source : World Wide Web

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Introduction Aircraft noise has been an issue of enormous environmental, financial, and technological impact. Most commercial aircrafts are equipped with turbofan engines due to their capability of providing higher performance and lower noise when compared with turbojet engines. Dominant noise sources of turbofan engines are from the fan (including the stator) and the exhaust (also referred to as the jet).The noise produced in these two areas during takeoff and landing has a profound impact on the communities surrounding the airports. As a result, aircraft noise has been the target of strict FAA regulations, making turbofan engine noise suppression become the subject of intensive research and development. Noise reduction concepts are first tested on scaled models to give researchers the ability to identify and study dominant sources of noise and to quantify the amount of noise reduction that can be achieved from various methods. Research has indicated that increasing the bypass ratio results in a dramatic reduction of engine noise. However, the success of high-bypass engines have been offset by an increase in aircraft operations, thereby creating a need for new concepts. NASA created the Quiet Aircraft Technology (QAT) and Advanced Subsonic Technology (AST) programs to deliver new noise reduction concepts, most of which target the fan-inlet duct and the jet exhaust noise. Jet Noise Suppression Jet exhaust is one of the dominant noise sources that dramatically increases with throttle push from modern turbofan engines. Jet noise can be attributed to the turbulent mixing of the hot jet exhaust (core), bypass stream (fan), and ambient air; therefore, optimizing how these three streams mix will significantly reduce its intensity. In 1996, a concept that utilized chevron nozzles was tested by NASA. The nozzles allowed the core and bypass flows to mix in a way that reduces low frequency mixing noise from highly turbulent flows. NASA studied the amount of EPNL reduction for the following nozzle configurations: chevrons installed only on the fan exhaust, core exhaust, and on both. Greater EPNL reduction was obtained when the chevrons were simultaneously on both the fan and core exhaust nozzles. Chevrons penetrating the boundary layer of the core flow provided even greater noise reduction, achieving an EPNL benefit of up to 2.5 EPNdB (effective perceive noise decibels) and only a 0.50% loss in thrust. The chevron concept was a major breakthrough for separate flow exhausts because it was the first jet noise reduction concept that did not significantly affect thrust.

Figure below compares the noise reduction benefits achieved by installing chevrons on both the fan and core nozzles as oppose to having them on just the fan or the core nozzle. Configuration 3BB, 3BC24, 3I12B, and 3I12C24 correspond to a regular separate flow nozzle with no chevrons, chevrons installed on the fan nozzle only, chevrons installed on the core nozzle only, and chevrons installed on both, respectively. The effective perceived noise level is much lower for the 3I12B configuration.

Effective perceived noise level benefits of a separate flow exhaust with chevrons on both the core and fan nozzle versus other configurations
Figure :

Noise reduction due to chevrons can be enhanced through downward flow deflection of the fan flow to provide a deeper area of mixing below where the core, fan, and ambient flows combine. Deflecting the flow downwards has the effect of cushioning the sounds created by high-speed turbulent eddies in the primary flow, thus reducing far field noise. Fan flow may be deflected using pylon-mounted flap deflectors on the engines . This author has yet to find any practical applications of the flow deflection concept in modern engines.

FIG :Suggested flow deflection concept to further suppress noise. Uc, Uf, and U represent core, fan, and freestream velocity, respectively. III. Fan Noise Suppression Fan noise is related to flow turbulence hitting surfaces within the inlet of the engine. These inhomogeneities are inflow distortions being cut by the rotating fan blades, blade wakes sweeping across the stators, and turbulence passing near the blades or stators. Most fan tone noise come from the rotor-stator interaction. NASAs AST program has spent a decade researching different methods of reducing fan-inlet noise.

Using acoustic liners, a scarfed inlet, stator vane sweep and lean, and active-passive controls was found to significantly help suppress noise. Employing a scarfed inlet has many advantages. First, extending the lower portion of the inlet directs forward-radiating noise upward, therefore reducing flyover noise. Second, since the engines inlet is pointed upwards, it is less likely to ingest debris from the runway during takeoff and landing. Finally, the ability to draw more air in from the top than below gives the aircraft a higher angle-of-attack capability. Lining the inlet and outlet of the fan duct with acoustic material can also help in noise attenuation. Intensive research in this area include optimizing liner material composition and integrating liners as part of an active noise control system. The effectiveness of using conventional acoustic liners decrease as bypass ratio increases due to the accompanied decrease in nacelle length and thickness that comes with it. In other words, less treatment area means less noise reduction benefits. Conventional liners also fail in attenuating most sound pressure levels and are only effective in certain engine operations. In 2006, research has been done to find an adaptive noise absorption system that can cancel out tone and broadband noise frequencies. Active noise control systems are also undergoing intensive research and development. Figure shows a system that performs mass injection at the fan blade trailing edge to reduce fan wake deficits. A graph demonstrating the systems ability to reduce wake defect and turbulence intensity is also shown. The concept creates a more uniform mean flow profile leading to lower levels of unsteady loading on the vanes, therefore reducing rotor-stator tone noise. Other active noise control concepts involve hybrid systems in which actuators and acoustic liners are combined to attenuate noise. However, application of those concepts remain a development issue and the incentive to use them is diminishing as newer engine cycles are found.

Mass injection noise control concept and graph showing that blowing air at the trailing edge creates a uniform velocity profile, hence reducing turbulence Finally, swept and lean stators reduce noise by increasing the phase changes from hubto-tip of the unsteady aerodynamics producing the sound. In simple terms, noise benefits come from having more wakes intersecting a single vane with sweep and lean

than without. Benefits also come from increasing the effective distance from the fan to the stator vanes, which reduces rotor-stator interaction, resulting in tone noise suppression New Concepts of Noise Reduction Variable area nozzles have been gaining momentum in the research field because they can be used to simultaneously reduce the fan noise and increase thrust. NASAs Quiet Aircraft Technology project have been testing a scaled model of the GE-90 engine equipped with variable area nozzles. The noise benefits come from the nozzles ability to lower jet exit velocity and control the incidence angle of the flow near the rotor and stator. In addition, a soft vane concept is also currently being developed. This concept reduces the unsteady pressure response on the stator surface and absorbs energy that would eventually become sound radiating from the stator. Boeings research with variable geometry technology demonstrates new and unexplored capability to optimize aircraft performance. The company is currently working on a variable geometry chevron concept in which shape memory alloys and actuators are combined to bend the chevrons in and out of the core flow, as needed. When chevrons are bent into the flow, more aggressive mixing of the core and fan flows is produced, hence improving how the two turbulent flows mix. As mentioned earlier, optimizing how the fan, core, and ambient flows mix will help reduce noise

Conclusion Different methods of turbofan engine noise suppression, as well as new concepts such as the variable area nozzles, variable geometry chevrons, and soft vanes were presented in this report. Engine cycles that lower jet exhaust velocity, inlet pressure ratio, and fan tip speed can contribute to significant noise reduction. Redesigning the engine to incorporate a scarf inlet, acoustic liners, swept and leaned stator vanes, active noise control, and chevrons will further attenuate noise with minimal impact to performance. Employment of variable area nozzles and variable geometry chevrons will most likely be seen in future engine designs to achieve better noise attenuation. However, as the demand for air travel continues to increase, more stringent noise regulations will be enacted to better accommodate communities near airports. Thus, more intensive research and development is still needed in developing new concepts for turbofan noise reduction.
SOURCE : PAPER :

Noise Suppression Methods for Turbofan Engines

Jayson Bulaon
University of Illinois Champaign, IL. 61820

A Phenomenon by which we create mach speed !!!! Guess the phenomenon where a fluid leaves the human body at 100mph to 600 mph !

Send your answers to : theperfectnerd@yahoo.com

Guess the old dude in this pic.

mach

Hint : he is the first to taste the speed of

Answer to question 1: why does a shaken soda fizz more than an unshaken one?
Small bubbles caused by shaking help to hasten the escape of the soda's carbon dioxide. Cans of carbonated soft drinks contain carbon dioxide under pressure so that the gas dissolves in the liquid drink. Once the can is opened, all of the gas will eventually escape from the liquid as bubbles, and the soda will go "flat." If the liquid is handled gently, it takes a long time for the dissolved gas to escape. If the can is shaken, however, or if the liquid is poured quickly into a glass, then the bubbles formed by turbulence provide an easier way for the dissolved gas to escape.

Answer to question 2: Ferrari 12 Berlinettafastest carto increase the down force they have added a black magic what is that?
The new aerodynamic approach uses what Ferrari terms, "Aero Bridge" technology which uses the bonnet to generate down force by channeling air away from the upper part of the car to its flanks where it interacts with the wake from the wheel wells to decrease drag. Ferrari claims that all the aerodynamic enhancements increase down force of the F12 by 76% while giving it a drag coefficient of 0.299.