Chapter 5 Carrier Transport Phenomena

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We now study the effect of external fields (electric field, magnetic field) on semiconducting material

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Objective
Discuss drift and diffusion current densities Explain why carriers reach an average drift velocity Discuss mechanism of lattice and impurity scattering Define mobility, conductivity and resistivity Discuss temperature and impurity dependence on mobility and velocity saturation State the Einstein relation Describe the Hall effect

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Drift current
Electric field force on electrons and holes
Free states in conduction and valence band

net movement of electrons and holes

Net movement of charge due to electric field is called drift.

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Drift current density

for holes Average drift velocity

Jp

J p,drf = e p vd A /cm 2
(Volume) density of holes

vd
Jn E

for electrons

J n,drf = -e n vd A /cm 2

vd
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Velocity of the particles

E
+e

v drift velocity of the hole in the electric field

So does velocity monotonically increase with time?

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Thermal and drift velocities

Without E field With E field

vth + v

Even in the absence of E-field the holes have random thermal velocity
(vth) They collide with ionized impurity atoms and thermally vibrating lattice atoms. Let mean time between collisions. cp with E-field net drift of holes in the direction of the E-field net drift velocity is small perturbation on random thermal velocity. 03/10/08 7 so remains almost unchanged even in the presence of E-field. cp
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Thermal and drift velocities

Without E field With E field

Now,

v peak =

e cp mp *

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Drift velocity vd
v peak = e cp mp * E

v
vd
0

cp

2 cp

3 cp

Average drift velocity = Using more accurate model including the effect of statistical distribution,
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p (mobility)

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Mobility: vd =

For holes:

For electrons:

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Mobility: = vd /E
n (cm2/V-s ) Silicon Gallium Arsenide Germanium 1350 8500 3900 mn*/m0 Silicon Gallium Arsenide Germanium 1.08 0.067 0.55

Unit: cm2/Vs
p (cm2/V-s ) 480 400 1900 mp*/m0 0.56 0.48 0.37

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Scattering:
Two main s cattering mechanis ms Lattice s cattering or phonon s cattering Impurity s cattering

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Phonon Scattering
Phonons are lattice vibrations (Atoms randomly vibrate about their position @ T>0K)

Lattice vibration causes a local volume change and hence lattice constant change.

Bandgap generally widens with a smaller lattice constant.

Disruption of valence and conduction band edges scatters the carriers.

Mobility due to lattice scattering vibration of atoms also increases)

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L T

3 2

(as temp increases

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(a) Electron and (b) Hole mobilities in Si vs. T at different doping concentrations. (Inserts show dependence for almost intrinsic Si)
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Ionized impurity scattering

Scattering due to coulomb interaction between electrons/holes and ionized impurities. T increases thermal velocity vth increases, so less time spent for scattering I T n NI increases the scattering chance 1 increases I N I
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High doping is required to overcome short channel effects even though it reduces mobility.

Doping level in modern processors

Electron and Hole mobility vs. impurity concentration.

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How to combine mobility effects?

: average time between two collisions with dopant atoms I : average time between two collisions with vibrating" lattice points L
dt : Number of collisions in time dt due to impurity scattering I
d t : Number of collisions in time dt due to lattice scattering L

Total number of collisions in dt:

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Electron mobility of Si vs. T for various Na

At present doping level, cooling does not improve speed much.

90nm CMOS process

Low doping concentration or high T The lattice scattering dominates High doping concentration or low T The impurity scattering dominates
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Drift current density

n d rf

= enE

e c = * m

J increases then cut-off frequency increases circuit density increases

How can we increase J?

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How can we increase J?

Increase mobility Strained silicon effective mass , mobility GaAs or Ge as semiconducting material Increase electric field Shorter gate length

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Strained Si

Intel 90nm process Strain decreases the effective mass, increasing the mobility already been used for production
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Conductivity

=enn +epp

Units (-cm)-1

Units -cm
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If we assume complete ionization,

1 = e n N d or e p N a

But curve not linear because -

Impurity scattering

Impurity scattering affects mobility.

Resistivity vs. impurity concentration in Si at T=300K

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Impurity scattering affecting mobility.

Resistivity vs. impurity concentration for Ge, GaAs and GaP

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Electron concentration and conductivity vs. 1/T

Lattice scattering

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Electron concentration and conductivity vs. 1/T

Assuming a n-type material with donor doping Nd >> ni,
= e( n n + p p ) e n n
n electron concentration
= 1 = e n N d If we also assume complete ionization, Mid temp complete ionization n constant at Nd but reduces with temp due to lattice scattering so conductivity drops.

At high temperature, intrinsic carrier concentration increases and dominates both n and At low temp, due to freeze-out both n and reduce

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Ohms Law:

Ohms law

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Velocity saturation vd = E

vth for Si

Random thermal = energy

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Modern processors (90nm,1.2V)

vth 107cm/s
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Intervalley transfer mechanism in GaAs

Higher effective mass, low mobility

At higher E lower mobility lower current negative resistance

Lower effective mass, high mobility

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Negative resistance
Negative resistance region -ve resistance used in design of oscillators. Oscillation frequency depends on transit time in the device.
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Oscillator: GaAs 300GHz, GaN 3THz

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Carrier Diffusion

Low concentration

High concentration

Concentration

Positive slope in x-direction a flux towards negative-x direction

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Diffusion current density

for holes

D: diffusion coefficient
for electrons

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Diffusion coefficient (I)

l=average mean free path l = (vth + vdr) cp If E=0, vdr=0 l=vth cp Electron concentration versus distance.
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Diffusion coefficient (II)

n(l)(-vth) n(l)(vth)

n(-l)(-vth)

n(-l)(vth)

= sum of electron flow in +x direction at x=-l and electron flow in x direction at x=l

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Diffusion coefficient (III)

Taylor expansion of

n(-l) en n(+l) at x = 0:
+ ...

n(+l) =

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Diffusion coefficient (IV)

Recall that

D: diffusion coefficient = vthl (cm2/s)=vth2 cp

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For holes:

Note
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Diffusion of (a) electrons and (b) holes in a density gradient

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Total Current Density

DRIFT

DIFFUSION

Generalized current Density Equation -

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If a semiconductor is non-uniformly doped?

Consider a case where donor concentration increases in x-direction

Diffusion of electrons

Formation of electric field

Prevents further diffusion

Due to electric field potential difference across the device In the region at lower potential EF-EFi higher
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Induced Electric Field Ex

Potential:
Electric field

Assuming Electron concentration

Donor concentration

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Recall

Taking log

Take the derivative with respect to x

Electric field
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The Einstein Relation

Consider the general current density equation:

n,p

Assume n-graded semiconductor material in thermal equilibrium:

Assuming n d N

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Substituting

dN d because 0 dx
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Similarly

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The Hall effect

n- or p-type, carrier concentration and mobility can be experimentally measured. Electric and magnetic fields are applied to a semiconductor.

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The Hall Effect

Hall voltage

(Lorentz force) F = qvx x Bz

Buildup of carriers here

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 Due to magnetic field, both electrons and holes experience a force in y direction. In n-type material, there will be a build up of ve charge at y=0 and in p-type material, there will be a build up of +ve charge. The net charge induces a electric force in y-direction opposing the magnetic field force and in steady state they will exactly cancel each other.

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Hall Voltage:

Ey = vxBz

VH = EyW=vxWBz
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How to determine n-type or p-type & doping concentration? For p-type material: VH will be +ve

Jx vx = ep

Ix = (ep)(Wd )
VH will be -ve

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For n-type material:

For n-type material VH will be -ve n will still be +ve !

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How can you determine n,

p ?

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Summary
Drift net movement of charge due to electric field. Drift current = J drf = e( n n p p+) E Mobility () lattice and impurity scattering Mobility due to lattice scattering L T T Mobility due to impurity scattering I Ohms law V =
L I A
3 2 3 2

NI

L =I A

RI

Drift velocity saturates at high electric field velocity saturation

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Summary
Some semiconductors mobility reduces at high E negative resistance used in design of oscillators. Diffusion current
J diff = eDn dn dx dp eDp dx

Einstein relation relation between diffusion coefficient and Dn D p kT = mobility = e

n p

Hall effect can be used to determine semiconductor type, doping concentration and mobility
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