Errors Of Measurements

Target Physics 1
1 Gaurav Arora (9996258296)
The difference in the true value and the measured value
of a quantity is called error of measurement.
Types of Errors
The errors in measurement can be
1. Systematic Errors
2. Random Errors
3 Gross Errors
2
3. Gross Errors
Gaurav Arora (9996258296)
Systematic Errors
The systematic errors are those errors that tend to be in one
direction, either positive of negative.
The causes of systematic errors are known. Therefore, such
errors can be minimized.
Some of the sources of systematic errors are : Some of the sources of systematic errors are :
(i) Instrumental errors which arise from the errors due to
imperfect design or manufacture or calibration of the
measuring instrument.
The instrumental errors can be reduced by using more
accurate instruments and applying zero correction when
required.
(ii) Imperfection in experimental technique or procedure For (ii) Imperfection in experimental technique or procedure. For
example, to determine the temperature of a human body, a
thermometer placed under the armpit will always give a
temperature lower than the actual value of the body
temperature.
(iii) Personal errors arise due to inexperience of the observer.
(iv) Errors due to external causes.
3 Gaurav Arora (9996258296)
Important Points
(1) The smallest value that can be measured by a measuring
instrument is called the least count of the instrument. For
example, a meter scale having graduations at 1 mm division
scale spacing has a least count of 1 mm. p g
(2) The least count error is the error associated with the resolution of
the instrument. Using instruments of higher resolution and by
improving experimental techniques, we can reduced the least
count error.
(3) Systematic errors can be minimized by improving experimental
techniques, selecting better instruments and removing personal
errors as far as possible.
4 Gaurav Arora (9996258296)
Errors Of Measurements
Target Physics 2
The random errors are the errors which occur irregularly.
They are random with respect to sign and size.
The random errors may arise due to random and The random errors may arise due to random and
unpredictable variations in experimental conditions e.g.
temperature, pressure, voltage supply.
The random errors are sometimes called the change
errors.
The random errors can be minimized by repeating the
observation a large number of times and taking the
arithmetic mean of all the observations
5
arithmetic mean of all the observations.
Gaurav Arora (9996258296)
Gross Errors
These errors arise on account of shear carelessness of the observer.
For example :
Reading an instrument without setting it properly Reading an instrument without setting it properly.
Taking the observations wrongly without caring for the sources of
errors and the precautions.
Recording the observations wrongly
Using wrong values of the observations in calculations.
These errors can be minimized only when the observer is sincere and
mentall alert mentally alert.
6
Gaurav Arora (9996258296)
The arithmetic mean a
m
is taken as the best possible/true value of the
quantity, if the same is now known otherwise.
1 2 n
m
a a .....a
a
n
+ +
=
By definition, absolute errors in the individual measured values of the
quantity are
i n
m i
i 1
1
a a
n
=
=
=

A a
1
= a
m
a
1
A a
2
= a
m
a
2
A a
n
= a
m
a
n
7 Gaurav Arora (9996258296)
Mean absolute error
It is the arithmetic mean of the magnitudes of absolute errors in all
the measurement of the quantity. It is represented by A a
mean
.
| | | | | | A A A
1 2 n
mean
| a | | a | ...... | a |
a
n
A + A + A
A =
i n
mean i
i 1
1
a | a |
n
=
=
A = A

Hence the final result of measurement may be written as y

a = a
m
A a
mean
This implies that any measurement of the quantity is likely to lie
between (a
m
+ A a
mean
) and (a
m
+ A a
mean
)
8
Gaurav Arora (9996258296)
Errors Of Measurements
Target Physics 3
Relative Error or Fractional Error
The relative error or fractional error of measurement (oa) is defined
as the ratio of mean absolute error to the mean value of the quantity
measured measured.
Relative error or Fractional error
oa =
When the relative/fractional error is expressed in percentage, we call
mean
m
a mean absolute error
mean value a
A
=
it percentage error.
mean
m
a
Percentage error a 100%
a
A
o =
9
Gaurav Arora (9996258296)
Q. The refractive index of water is found to have the values 1.29,
1.33, 1.34, 1.35, 1.32, 1.36, 1.30 and 1.33. Calculate the mean
value, absolute error, the relative error and the percentage error.
Sol. : Hence, mean value of refractive index,
1.29 1.33 1.34 1.35 1.32
1 36 1 30 1 33
+ + + +
+ + +
=
= 1.3275 = 1.33 (rounded off to two places of decimal.)
Absolute errors in measurement are :
A
1
= 1.33 1.29 = 0.04
A
2
= 1.33 1.33 = 0.00
1 33 1 3 0 01
1.36 1.30 1.33
8
+ + +
A
3
= 1.33 1.34 = 0.01
A
4
= 1.33 1.35 = 0.02
A
5
= 1.33 1.32 = +0.01
A
6
= 1.33 1.36 = 0.03
A
7
= 1.33 1.30 = +0.03
A
8
= 1.33 1.33 = 0.00
10 Gaurav Arora (9996258296)
Mean absolute error, A
mean
=
i n
i
i 1
| ( ) |
n
=
=
A

0.04 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.01 + + + +

Relative error =
0.03 0.03 0.00
8
+ + +
=
0.14
0.0175 0.02
8
= = =
mean

0.02
1 33
A
= Relative error
= 0.015 = 0.02
Percentage error
= 0.015 100 = 1.5%
1.33
11
Gaurav Arora (9996258296)
Error in a sum
Suppose x = a + b
Let A a = absolute error in measure of a
A b = absolute error in measurement of b.
A x = absolute error in calculation of x A x absolute error in calculation of x
x A x = (a Aa) + (b Ab)
= (a + b) Aa Ab
= x Aa Ab
or Ax = Aa Ab
The four possible values of Ax are
(+Aa + Ab); (+Aa Ab) ; (Aa + Ab); (Aa Ab)
Therefore, the maximum absolute error in x is
Ax = (Aa + Ab)
Maximum absolute error in sum of two quantities is equal to sum of
the absolute errors in the individual quantities.
12 Gaurav Arora (9996258296)
Errors Of Measurements
Target Physics 4
Error in a difference
Let x = a b .. (1)
From (1), x Ax = (a Aa) (b Ab)
= a Aa b Ab
= (a b) Aa Ab
x Ax = x Aa Ab
Ax = Aa Ab
The four possible values of Ax are (+Aa Ab); (+ Aa + Ab);
(Aa Ab) and (Aa + Ab).
Therefore the maximum absolute error in x is

Therefore, the maximum absolute error in x is

Ax = (Aa + Ab)
Maximum absolute error in difference of two quantities is equal to sum
of the absolute errors in the individual quantities.
13
Gaurav Arora (9996258296)
Q. The lengths of two cylinders are measured to be l
1
= (5.62 0.01)
cm and l
2
=(4.34 0.02) cm. Calculate difference in lengths with
error limits.
Sol. Here, l
2
= (5.62 0.01) cm ,
2
( )
l
2
= (4.34 0.02) cm
l = l
1
l
2
= 5.62 4.34 = 1.28 cm
Al = (Al
1
+ Al
2
)
= (0.01 + 0.02) = 0.03
Percentage error =
0.03
100
1.28

= 2.34%
Hence, difference in lengths
= (1.28 0.03) cm = 1.28 cm 2.34%
14
Gaurav Arora (9996258296)
Error in a product
Let x = a b
(x Ax) = (a Aa) (b Ab)
( ) ( ) ( )
x a b
x 1 a 1 bx 1
A A A
=
= a b
( ) ( ) ( )
x 1 a 1 bx 1
x a b

( )
a b a b
1
a b a b
A A A A

( ) ( )
x a b a b
x 1 x 1
x a b a b
A A A A A
=
x a b a b
or 1 1
x a b a b
A A A A A
=
x a b a b
or
x a b a b
A A A A A
=
15
Gaurav Arora (9996258296)
As both are small, their product is still smaller and can
be neglected
F ibl l f
( ) ( )
a b
and
a b
A A
x a b
x a b
A A A
=
x A
Four possible values of are
Hence maximum possible value of
x
x
A
( ) ( )
a b a b
; ;
a b a b
A A A A
+ + +
( ) ( )
a b a b
and
a b a b
A A A A
+
Hence maximum possible value of
Maximum fractional error or relative error in product of quantities is
equal to sum of the fractional or relative errors in the individual
quantities.
( )
x a b
x a b
A A A
= +
16 Gaurav Arora (9996258296)
Errors Of Measurements
Target Physics 5
Error in a quotient
Let
a
x
b
=
a a
x x
b b
A
A =
A
( )
(1 / ) A
A
( )
a(1 a / a)
x
x 1
x b(1 b/ b)
A
A
=
A
( ) ( )( )
x a a b
x 1 1 1
x b a b
A A A
=
As << 1, therefore expanding Binomially, we get
( )
b
b
A
( )
b b A A A A A (
17
( )
x a b a b
x 1 x 1
x a b a b
A A A A A (
=
(

As both are small, therefore their product

may be taken as negligibly small.
( ) ( )
a b
a b
A A
and
( ) ( )
a b
a b
A A
Gaurav Arora (9996258296)
x a b
x a b
A A A
=
Therefore, the maximum value of
( )
b A A A
( )
x a b
x a b
A A A
= +
the maximum value of fractional or relative error in division of
quantities is equal to sum o the fractional/relative errors in the
individual quantities.
18
Gaurav Arora (9996258296)